___________________________________________

Introduction to Petroleum Reservoir Rock Properties:

Petrophysics/Conventional & Special
Petrophysics/Conventional
Core Analysis
Chapter 2: Fluids Saturation
Prepared by Moncef CHEKIR
To
OGIM Petroleum Engineers
(Session 2013
2013--2014
2014))

January 2013
 MCH-- Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_______________________________________________________________

Introduction to Petroleum Reservoir Rock Properties:

Petrophysics/Conventional & Special
Petrophysics/Conventional
Core Analysis
Chapter 2: Fluids Saturation
Prepared by Moncef CHEKIR
To
OGIM Petroleum Engineers
(Session 2013
2013--2014
2014))

January 2014
 MCH-- Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
______________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ __________________________

Warning
All right to the editor courses’ materials are reserved
reserved.. None
of the material may be reproduced in any form without
written consent from the editor
editor..

Moncef CHEKIR
 MCH--Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_____________________________________________

Petrophysics
2. Reservoir Rock Properties
2.2 – Fluids Saturation
 MCH--Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_____________________________________________

Petrophysics
2. Reservoir Rock Properties
2.2 – Fluids Saturation
2.2a - Wettability
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a - Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________

WETTABILITY = The tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a

solid surface in the presence of another immiscible fluid.

WETTABILITY describes the relative affinity between rock and the

saturating fluids (water and oil). Rocks may water wet, oil wet or neutral
as indicated by the contact angle between water (for example) and the
rock.
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a - Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a - Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________

The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a solid is an indication

of the wetting characteristics of the liquid for the solid. This spreading
tendency can be expressed more conveniently by measuring the angle of the
contact at the liquid-solid surface. This angle, which is always measured
through the liquid to the solid, is called the contact angle ϴ.
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a – Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________
Types of Wettability
Wettability:
Water wet
wet: The whole rock surface is coated with water, while oil or gas
occupy the central position of the large pores.

Oil wet: The oil coating the rock surface and the water residing in the centre
of the largest pores.

Intermediate Wettability: Where there is some tendency for both oil and
water to adhere to the pore surfaces
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a – Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________
RESERVOIR WETTABILITY
WETTABILITY::

What we believed in the 60

60’s
’s
Historically, all petroleum reservoirs were believed to be strongly water
water--wet
wet..
1. Almost all clean sedimentary rocks are strongly water-wet
2. Reservoirs were deposited in aqueous environments into which oil later
migrated
3. It was assumed the connate water would prevent oil from contacting the
rock surfaces.
Until the late seventies, all reservoirs were considered to be water
water--wet
In the 80
80’s
’s;; wettability determination measurements demonstrate that oil
oil--wer
reservoirs do exist and are not just exceptions
Currently about 2/3 of reservoirs are considered to be mixed
mixed--wet or even
strongly oil
oil--wet
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a – Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________
WETTABILITY OF A POROUS MEDIUM
 The wettability determines which fluid will be in contact with
the rock surface
1. Water-wet rock: water covers the rock surface, oil occupies the bulk of
large pores.
2. Oil-wet: oil covers the rock surface, water occupies the bulk of large
pores.
3. Intermediate-wet or neutral-wet: no preference for either fluid.

 Gas is always non wetting

 The wettability plays a major role on the fluid distribution

within the pore structure and as a consequence the behavior of
rock fluids systems during (flows, oil, gas)
gas)..
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2a – Wettability Definition
______________________________________________________________________
 MCH--Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_____________________________________________

Petrophysics
2. Reservoir Rock Properties
2.2 – Fluids Saturation
2.2b - Saturations
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2b – Saturations Definition
______________________________________________________________________
The porosity of the reservoir rock is very important because it is a measure of the
ability of that rock to store fluids (oil, gas, and water).

Equally important is the relive extent to which the pores of the rock are filled with
specific fluids.

This property is called fluid saturation and is expressed as the fraction , or percent, of
the total pore volume occupied by the oil, gas, or water.

Thus, for instance the gas, oil and water saturations can be written as follows:

Vpore = Voil + Vwater

Vpore = Vgas + Vwater
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2b – Saturations Definition
______________________________________________________________________

Vpore Voil Vwater

   SoSw1
Vpore Vpore Vpore
Vpore Vgas Vwater
   Sg Sw1
Vpore Vpore Vpore

Where:
Sw = Water Saturation
So = Oil Saturation
Sg = Gas Saturation
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2b – Saturations Definition
______________________________________________________________________

Irreducible Saturation: Swi

Ratio of non moveable fluids.
Typical values
Swi between 10 and 35%

Saturations Evaluations
 Cores
 By Electric Wire-line logs (Open
hole logging)

Oil
Rock
Water
 2.2b - Saturations Definition
Archie Equation - A Review
Measured in Lab
Resistivity of formation water:
Measured from logs Measured in the Lab or evaluated with
logs
Measured from logs & Lab
Computed
1
Saturation Exponent:
Rw Mn Measured in the Lab
Sw = Depends o n wettability
Water Saturation: m Rt
Ø
Calculated using Archie
equation, which is used
for clean formations.
Resistivity:
Measured by electric or
Porosity: Electromagnetic tools
Measured by
nuclear tools
(CNL, FDC), or
acoustic (BHC) Cementation Exponent:
Measured in the Lab
Depends on pore system
tortuosity
 MCH--Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_____________________________________________

Petrophysics
2. Reservoir Rock Properties
2.2 – Fluids Saturation
2.2c – Original Hydrocarbon In Place
(OOIP, OGIP)
place

N
STOIIP  GRV     1  Sw 1
G B0

Geophysicist Geologist Petrophysicist Reservoir Engineer

(PVT)
Oil initially in place (OIP) STOIIP
Gross rock volume GRV
Net to Gross N/G logs, welltests, core (permeability)
Porosity  logs, core (stressed porosity)
Water saturation Sw logs, core (Archie m & n, Dean-Stark Sw)
saturation-height (core capillary pressure)
Why core analysis matters – recovery factor

RESERVES  STOIIP* RF
Recovery factor depends on technical and
economic factors
For secondary and tertiary recovery, recovery
factor is partly defined by formation’s relative
permeability characteristics
1
fw 
1  k ro . w
k rw o
Welge fractional flow equation
Different Categories of Original Hydrocarbon In Place
_______________________________________________________________

The different categories of quantities in place

are represented by concept of “proven”,
“probable” and “possible”
P1
1. Proven Oil in Place: considered as certain
(zones penetrated by wells particularly).
Probable oil

2. Probable oil in place: the structure data and

the interpretation of the logs and pressure Proven oil
indicate the zones may be integrated, but
Possible oil
without absolute certainty.
Theoretical closer
3. Possible oil in place: the lack of data on the
fluid interfaces and the extension of the
facies in certain zones allows considerable
uncertainty to subsist, but the presence of
hydrocarbon-saturated rocks is not discarded.
Different categories of oil in place
Volumetric
 MCH--Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
_____________________________________________

Petrophysics
2. Reservoir Rock Properties
2.2 – Fluids Saturation
2.2d – Capillary Pressure
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Interfacial Tension
Definition
 The surface energy that exists between two immiscible liquid phases such
as oil and water.

 The energy barrier created by interfacial tension prevents one liquid from
becoming mixed into another.
Interfacial tension: Summary
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure Definition
The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the
combined effect of the surface and interfacial tensions of the rock and
fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting characteristics of
the system.

Any curved surface between two immiscible fluids has the tendency to
contract into the smallest possible area per unit volume. This is true
whether the fluids are oil and water, water and gas, or oil and gas.
When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a discontinuity in pressure
exists between the two fluids, which depends upon the curvature of
the interface separating the fluids. We call this pressure difference the
capillary pressure and it is referred to be Pc.
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure Definition (cont.,)
The displacement of one fluid by another in the pores of a porous medium is
either aided or opposed by the surface forces of capillary pressure. A
consequence, in order to maintain a porous medium partially saturated with
non-wetting fluid and while the medium is also exposed to wetting fluid, it is
necessary to maintain the pressure of the non-wetting fluid at a value a
greater than that in the wetting fluid.

Denoting the pressure in the wetting fluid by Pw and that in the non-wetting
fluid by Pnw, the capillary pressure can be expressed as:
Capillary Pressure = (pressure of the non-wetting phase) – (pressure of the
wetting phase)

Pc = Pnw -Pw
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure Definition (cont.,)
That is, the pressure excess in the non-wetting fluid is the capillary pressure,
and this quantity is a function of saturation. This is defining equation for
capillary pressure in a porous medium.

There are three types of capillary pressure:

 Water-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcwo)
 Gas-oil capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgo)
 Gas-water capillary pressure (denoted as Pcgw)
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure Definition (cont.,)
Applying the mathematical definition of the capillary pressure Pc =
Pnw – Pw, the three types of the capillary pressure can be written as:
Pcwo = Po – Pw
Pcgo = Pg – Po
Pcgw = Pg - Pw
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Definition
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equations (Pc)
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equations (Pc)

Interfacial tension

Pore throat radius

 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
______________________________________________________________________
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
______________________________________________________________________
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
______________________________________________________________________
Oil – water system
Pc = 2σow(cosϴ) /r
and
h = 2 σow(cosϴ)/rg(ρw – ρo)
where
ρw = water density, gm/cm3
σow = oil-water surface tension, dynes/cm
r = capillary radius, cm
ϴ = contact angle
h = capillary rise, cm
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
Pc = capillary pressure, dynes/cm2
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
______________________________________________________________________
Gas – liquid system
Pc = 2σgw(cosϴ) /r
and
h = 2 σgw(cosϴ)/rg(ρw – ρgas)
where:
ρw = water density, gm/cm3
σgw = gas-water surface tension, dynes/cm
r = capillary radius, cm
ϴ = contact angle
h = capillary rise, cm
g = acceleration due to gravity, cm/sec2
Pc = capillary pressure, dynes/cm
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure Equation
______________________________________________________________________
Example
Calculate the pressure difference, i.e., capillary pressure, and capillary rise
in oil-water system from the following data:
ϴ = 30° ρw = 1.0 gm/cm3 ρo = 0.75 gm/cm3
r = 10-4 cm σow = 25 dynes/cm

Answer
Pc = 4.33x1015 dynes/cm2 = 6.28 psi
h = 1766 cm = 75.9ft
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure Definition (cont.,)

 Capillary Pressure (Pc) is defined as the difference in pressure across

the meniscus in capillary tube or

 Capillary Pressure (Pc) is the amount of extra pressure required to

force the non wetting phase to displace the wetting phase in the
capillary.
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Capillary Pressure
______________________________________________________________________
Capillary Pressure of reservoir Rocks
The interfacial phenomena described above for a single capillary tube also
exist when bundles of interconnected capillaries of varying sizes exist in
the porous medium. The capillary pressure that exists within a porous
medium between two immiscible phases is a function of the interfacial
tensions and the average size of the capillaries which, in turn, controls the
curvature of the interface. In addition, the curvature is also a function of
the saturation distribution of the fluids involved.

Pc = f(Sw)
Laboratory experiments have been developed to simulate the displacing
forces in a reservoir in order to determine the magnitude of the capillary
forces in a reservoir and, thereby, determine the fluid saturation
distributions and connate water saturation.
 2.2 – Fluid Saturation
2.2d - Pc vs. Sw
50

40
Capillary Pressure (psi)

30

20

10
Connate Saturation Entry Capillary Pressure

0
20 40 60 80 100
Water Saturation (%)
 2.2d – Capillary Pressure
Effect of Capillary Pressure on Sw
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Use of Pc
______________________________________________________________________

Note that capillary pressure at 100% water saturation is the necessary

pressure to force the non-wetting phase into a capillary filled with the
wetting phase. This minimum capillary pressure is known as the
displacement pressure or entry pressure, Pce.

The above formula helps to distribute Sw vertically over the entire

reservoir. Pc=f(Sw) found experimentally on reservoir cores. With the
above formula Sw will be distributed on heights h.
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Pc vs. Sw Function Reflects Reservoir Quality
______________________________________________________________________

The below formula indicates that Pc is also a function of the pore size
distribution.

r = (2σ cos θ)/Pc

Levrett Dimensionless Function Defined as below characterizes the Facieses

J(S) = 3.16∗ (Pc/σ cosθ) ∗ (K/PHI)

Note that Levrett assumes that K/PHI is proportional to r² Dimensionless

Function Defined as below characterizes the Facieses

For the same formation, this dimensionless capillary-pressure function

serve to remove discrepancies in the pc versus Sw and depicts formations with
the same pore sizes.
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Conversion from Laboratory to Reservoir
______________________________________________________________________

Most of the time, Pc is obtained at ambient conditions with model

fluids. A correction is needed to be representative of the bottom
condition.

-r distribution is identical
- if no problem for the wettability the cosθ is the same
- σ to be corrected
2.2d – Capillary Pressure
Initial Distribution of Fluids
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Transition Zone Definition
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Capillary Pressure in a Porous Medium
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Pc Curve Derived Experimentally
______________________________________________________________________
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Pc, Transition Zone, OWC, FWL
________________________________________________________________________
Cap. pressure Transformation in
curve, measured Sw-Indication in
fluid saturation a resistivity log
at core vs. depth z Rt

Dry oil
Pc h‘ Swi

Transition
Zone OWC
FWL
Sw
Water
 Capillary Pressure Methods
______________________________________________________________________
• Defined as the pressure required to drive a fluid through a pore-throat and
displace the pore-wetting fluid. From laboratory measurement (core).
• Greater pressure being required as the pore-throat becomes smaller.
• The size and distribution of pore-throats within reservoir control its capillary
characteristics.
Fluid Drill
Density Stem Log Core Analysis
Test Test Analysis Capillary Pressure Test

Displacement Pressure (psi)

Depth (feet)

Oil

Transition Zone
Free Water Surface
Water
0 Sw 100 0 Sw 100
 2.2 – Capillary Pressure
Summary: Capillary Pressure Use
______________________________________________________________________

Capillary pressure concepts can be used to evaluate:

(1) reservoir rock quality,
(2) pay versus non-pay,
(3) fluid saturations and contacts,
(4) thickness of transition zones,
(5) seal capacity (thickness of hc column a seal can hold before
it leaks),
(6) approximate recovery efficiency.
 Capillarity & Transition Zone
______________________________________________________________________
 Capillarity & Transition Zone
______________________________________________________________________
 Capillarity, K & Transition Zone
______________________________________________________________________
 Capillarity Pressure and K
______________________________________________________________________

- Capillary pressure is controlled by pore

structure (i.e. surface area).

-Capillary pressure controls initial

reservoir
Sw’s

-Initial reservoir Sw controls K

- Swir causes and effective change in r

decreasing K.

- Lower K reservoirs tend to have longer

transition zones
 Pc, Texture, and K
______________________________________________________________________
 Pc vs. Sw Function
Reflects Reservoir Quality
______________________________________________________________________
 MCH-- Petroleum Training & Consulting
MCH
____________________________________________________________

Thank you for your attention

Moncef CHEKIR

January 2014