Design of Mechanical Springs

MEng149.007

Week 15

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 DISCLAIMER
This presentation may contain errors that will be corrected in class. It is
your responsibility to take note of the corrections. This may be considered
as a supplementary material only and should not be used as a substitute to
the class discussions and reading materials. Not everything you need to
know is included in these notes.

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Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you will be able to:
■ Identify and describe several types of springs, including the helical
compression spring, helical extension spring, torsion spring, Belleville spring,
flat spring, drawbar spring, garter spring, constant-force spring, and power
spring.
■ Design and analyze helical compression springs to conform to design
requirements such as force/deflection characteristics, life, physical size, and
environmental conditions.
■ Compute the dimensions of various geometric features of helical compression
springs.
■ Specify suitable materials for springs based on strength, life, and deflection
parameters.
■ Design and analyze helical extension springs.

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Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Introduction

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Introduction

What is a Spring?

A spring is flexible element used to exert a force or a torque and, at the

same time, to store energy.
The force can be a linear push or pull, or it can be radial, acting
similarly to a rubber band around a roll of drawings.
The torque can be used to cause a rotation.

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 Introduction

You are the Designer

What type of spring do you specify?

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 Introduction

You are the Designer

What type of spring do you specify?

What should its dimensions be, including the length, outside
diameter, inside diameter, and diameter of the wire for the coils?

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 Introduction

You are the Designer

What type of spring do you specify?

What should its dimensions be, including the length, outside
diameter, inside diameter, and diameter of the wire for the coils?
How many coils should be used?
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 Types of Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

Springs can be classified according to the direction and the nature of the
force exerted by the spring when it is deflected.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

Springs can be classified according to the direction and the nature of the
force exerted by the spring when it is deflected.
Several springs are classified as push, pull, radial, and torsion.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

Springs can be classified according to the direction and the nature of the
force exerted by the spring when it is deflected.
Several springs are classified as push, pull, radial, and torsion.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

1. Helical compression springs are typically made from round wire,

wrapped into a straight, cylindrical form with a constant pitch between
adjacent coils. Square or rectangular wire may also be used.

Variations of helical compression springs

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 Types of Springs

Helical Compression Spring - Nomenclature

Free length is the spring’s length without an applied load.

Solid length is the minimum possible length when a compression force is
applied.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

2. Helical extension springs are helical springs which coils either touch
or are closely spaced under the no-load condition. As the tensile load is
applied, the coils separate.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

2. Helical extension springs are helical springs which coils either touch
or are closely spaced under the no-load condition. As the tensile load is
applied, the coils separate.

3. Drawbar spring incorporates helical compression spring with two

looped wire devices inserted through the inside of the spring.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

4. Torsion spring as the name implies, is used to exert a torque as the

spring is deflected by rotation about its axis. The common spring-action
clothespin uses a torsion spring to provide the gripping action.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

4. Torsion spring as the name implies, is used to exert a torque as the

spring is deflected by rotation about its axis. The common spring-action
clothespin uses a torsion spring to provide the gripping action.

5. Leaf springs are made from one or more flat strips of brass, bronze,
steel, or other materials loaded as cantilevers or simple beams.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

6. Belleville spring/washer has the shape of a shallow, conical disk with

a central hole. A very high spring rate or spring force can be developed in
a small axial space with such springs.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

6. Belleville spring/washer has the shape of a shallow, conical disk with

a central hole. A very high spring rate or spring force can be developed in
a small axial space with such springs.

7. Garter springs are coiled wires formed into a continuous ring shape so
that they exert a radial force around the periphery of the object to which
they are applied.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

8. Constant-force spring take the form of a coiled spring. The force

required to pull the strip off the coil is virtually constant over a long length
of pull.

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 Types of Springs

Types of Springs

9. Power springs, sometimes called motor or clock springs, are made

from flat spring steel stock, wound into a spiral shape. A torque is exerted
by the spring as it tends to unwrap the spiral.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Helical Compression Springs

Helical Compression Springs

Spring Diameters

OD = Dm + Dw (1)
ID = Dm − Dw (2)

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 Helical Compression Springs

Standard Wire Diameters

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 Helical Compression Springs

Standard Wire Diameters

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 Helical Compression Springs

Forces on Springs

F will be used to indicate forces exerted by a spring, with various

subscripts to specify which level of force is being considered.
Fs - force at solid length Ls , the maximum force that the spring ever sees
Fo - force at operating length Lo , the maximum force the spring sees in
normal operation
Fi - force at installed length Li , the force varies between Fo and Fi for a
reciprocating spring
Ff - force at free length Lf , this force is zero.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Spring Rate, Index

Spring rate - the relationship between the force exerted by a spring and
its deflection.
∆F
k= (3)
∆L

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 Helical Compression Springs

Spring Rate, Index

Spring rate - the relationship between the force exerted by a spring and
its deflection.
∆F
k= (3)
∆L
Spring Index - the ratio of the mean diameter of the spring to the wire
diameter, C:

Dm
C= (4)
Dw
C = 5.0 (recommended)
C = 5.0 to 12.0 (machinery springs)

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 Helical Compression Springs

Coils, Pitch

Number of Coils - The total number of coils is denoted as N .

Na = N − 2 (spring with squared and ground ends)
Na = N (spring with plain ends)
Na = N − 1 (for plain coils with ground ends)

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 Helical Compression Springs

Coils, Pitch

Number of Coils - The total number of coils is denoted as N .

Na = N − 2 (spring with squared and ground ends)
Na = N (spring with plain ends)
Na = N − 1 (for plain coils with ground ends)
Pitch - the axial distance from a point on one coil to the corresponding
point on the the next adjacent coil.
Lf = pNa + 2Dw (Squared and ground ends)
Lf = pNa + 3Dw (Squared ends only)
Lf = p (Na + 1) (Plain and ground ends)
Lf = pNa + Dw (Plain ends)

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 Helical Compression Springs

Pitch Angle

 
p
λ = arctan (5)
πDm

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 Helical Compression Springs

Installation Considerations

Adequate clearances must be provided if a spring is installed in a

cylindrical hole or around a rod.
OD at the solid length condition:
r
2 +
p2 − Dw
2
ODs = Dm + Dw (6)
π2
Clearance at the ID:

ci = 0.1Dw (7)

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 Helical Compression Springs

Installation Considerations

Coil clearance - refers to the space between the adjacent coils when the
spring is compressed to its operating length Lo . Coil clearance can be
estimated using

Lo − Ls
cc = (8)
Na
Recommended values of cc:
1. cc > Dw /10
2. (Lo − Ls ) > 0.15 (Lf − Ls )

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 Helical Compression Springs

Spring Materials

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 Helical Compression Springs

Spring Materials

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 Helical Compression Springs

Types of Loading and Allowable Stresses

The allowable stress to be used for a spring depends on the type of

loading, the material, and the wire size. There can be 3 types of loading:
Light service - static loads or up to 10,000 cycles of loading with a
low rate of loading (non-impact)
Average service - typical machine design situations; moderate rate
of loading and up to 1 million cycles.
Severe service - rapid cycling for above 1 million cycles; possibility of
shock or impact loading.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-8. Design shear stresses for ASTM A227 steel wire, hard-drawn.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-9. Design shear stresses for ASTM A228 steel wire, music wire.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-10. Design shear stresses for ASTM A229 steel wire, oil-tempered.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-11. Design shear stresses for ASTM A231 steel wire,
chromium-vanadium alloy, valve-spring quality.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-12. Design shear stresses for ASTM A401 steel wire, chromium-silicon
alloy, oil-tempered.

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 Helical Compression Springs

Design Shear Stresses for Different Spring Materials

Figure 18-13. Design shear stresses for ASTM A313 corrosion-resistant stainless
steel wire.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Stresses in Helical Springs

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Stresses in Helical Springs

Maximum shear on inside fiber of cross-section

Tr F
τmax = + (9)
J A

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Stresses in Helical Springs

Maximum shear on inside fiber of cross-section

Tr F
τmax = + (9)
J A
Substitute terms

τmax = τ, T = F Dm /2, r = d/2, J = πd4 /32, A = πd2 /4

Then,

8F Dm 4F
τ= 2
+ 2 (10)
πd πd

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Stresses in Helical Springs

8F Dm 4F
τ= 2
+ 2
πd πd
Factoring out torsional stress
  
d 8F Dm
τ = 1+
2Dm πd2
Spring index:

Dm
C= (11)
d
Shear Stress Correction Factor:

1 2C + 1
K =1+ = (12)
2C 2C
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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Stresses in Helical Springs

Maximum shear stress for helical spring:

8KF Dm
τ= (13)
πd3

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature

Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized
cold-working

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature

Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized
cold-working
Can account for effect by replacing Ks with Wahl factor or
Bergstrasser factor (accounts for both direct shear and curvature
effect)

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature

Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized
cold-working
Can account for effect by replacing Ks with Wahl factor or
Bergstrasser factor (accounts for both direct shear and curvature
effect)
Wahl Factor:

4C − 1 0.615
Kw = + (14)
4C − 4 C

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Stress concentration type of effect on inner fiber due to curvature

Can be ignored for static, ductile conditions due to localized
cold-working
Can account for effect by replacing Ks with Wahl factor or
Bergstrasser factor (accounts for both direct shear and curvature
effect)
Wahl Factor:

4C − 1 0.615
Kw = + (14)
4C − 4 C
Bergstrasser factor:

4C + 2
KB = (15)
4C − 3

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Curvature Effect

Hence,

8KB F Dm
τ= (16)
πd3
The curvature effect KC is then,

KB 2C (4C + 2)
KC = = (17)
K (4C − 3) (2C + 1)

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Deflection

From

TL
θ= (18)
JG
and Castigliano’s method

T 2l F 2l
U= + (19)
2GJ 2AG
The deflection f is then
3 N
8F Dm 8F C 3 Na
a
f= = (20)
Gd4 Gd
where:
Na = is the number of active coils

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

The spring tends to buckle as it becomes tall and slender.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Buckling type of instability can occur in compression springs when the

deflection exceeds the critical deflection. That is
 !1/2 
C ′
fo = Lf C1′ 1 − 1 − 2 2  (21)
λef f

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Buckling type of instability can occur in compression springs when the

deflection exceeds the critical deflection. That is
 !1/2 
C ′
fo = Lf C1′ 1 − 1 − 2 2  (21)
λef f

λeff is the effective slenderness ratio

αLf
λeff = (22)
Dm
α is the end-condition constant

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Buckling type of instability can occur in compression springs when the

deflection exceeds the critical deflection. That is
 !1/2 
C ′
fo = Lf C1′ 1 − 1 − 2 2  (21)
λef f

λeff is the effective slenderness ratio

αLf
λeff = (22)
Dm
α is the end-condition constant

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

C1′ and C2′ are elastic constants

E
C1′ = (23)
2 (E − G)

2π 2 (E − G)
C2′ = (24)
2G + E

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

End-Condition Constant

The α term is the end-condition constant, which accounts for the

way in which the ends of the spring are supported

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

End-Condition Constant

The α term is the end-condition constant, which accounts for the

way in which the ends of the spring are supported

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Absolute Stability

Absolute stability occurs when

C2′
>1 (25)
λ2eff

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Absolute Stability

Absolute stability occurs when

C2′
>1 (25)
λ2eff

This results in the condition for absolute stability

πDm 2 (E − G) 1/2
 
Lf < (26)
α 2G + E

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Compute at what deflection would cause the spring to buckle

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Compute at what deflection would cause the spring to buckle

Lf
(27)
Dm

Using Fig. 18-15, find the critical deflection ratio

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Compute at what deflection would cause the spring to buckle

Lf
(27)
Dm

Using Fig. 18-15, find the critical deflection ratio

Compute the critical deflection ratio fo
fo = critical deflection ratio × Lf (28)

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

Figure 18-15. Spring buckling criteria

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling - Example

1. Consider a spring having squared and ground ends, a free length of 6.0
in, and a mean diameter of 0.75 in.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Buckling - Example

1. Consider a spring having squared and ground ends, a free length of 6.0
in, and a mean diameter of 0.75 in.
Ans: 1.20 in.
If the spring is deflected by more than 1.20 in, the spring will buckle.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Formulas for Compression with Different Ends

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.
The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.
The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.
This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.
The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.
This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.
Yielding induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those
induced in service.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.
The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.
This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.
Yielding induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those
induced in service.
10 to 30 percent of the initial free length should be removed.

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 Stresses in Helical Springs

Set Removal

Set removal or presetting is a process used in manufacturing a

spring to induce a useful residual stresses.
The spring is made longer than needed, then compressed to solid
height, intentionally exceeding the yield strength.
This operation sets the spring to the required final free length.
Yielding induces residual stresses opposite in direction to those
induced in service.
10 to 30 percent of the initial free length should be removed.
Set removal is not recommended when springs are subject to fatigue.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Design of Helical Compression Springs

The objective of the design of helical compression springs is to specify

the geometry for the spring to operate under specified limits of load
and deflection, possibly with space limitations, as well.
The material and the type of service by considering the environment
and the application will be specified.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Example Design Problem

A helical compression spring is to exert a force of 8.0 lb when compressed

to a length of 1.75 in. At a length of 1.25 in, the force must be 12.0 lb.
The spring will be installed in a machine that cycles slowly, and
approximately 200 000 cycles total are expected. The temperature will not
exceed 200◦ F. The spring will be installed in a hole having a diameter of
0.75 in.
For this application, specify a suitable material, wire diameter, mean
diameter, OD, ID, free length, solid length, number of coils, and type of
end condition. Check the stress at the maximum operating load and at the
solid length condition.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

When one end of a spring is displaced rapdly, a wave called spring

surge travels down the spring.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

When one end of a spring is displaced rapdly, a wave called spring

surge travels down the spring.
If the wave frequency is near the natural frequency of the spring,
resonance may occur resulting in extremely high stresses.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

When one end of a spring is displaced rapdly, a wave called spring

surge travels down the spring.
If the wave frequency is near the natural frequency of the spring,
resonance may occur resulting in extremely high stresses.
Catastrophic failure may occur.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

Governed by the wave equation

∂2u W ∂2u
= (29)
∂x2 kgl2 ∂t2
where:
k - spring rate
g - acceleration due to gravity
l - length of spring between plates
W - weight of spring
x - coordinate along length of spring
u - motion of any particle at distance x

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

The weight of a helical spring is

πd2 π 2 d2 Dm Na γ
W = ALγ = (πDm Na ) (γ) = (30)
4 4

The fundamental critical frequency should be greater than 15 to 20

times the frequency of the force or motion of the spring.

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 Design of Helical Compression Springs

Critical Frequency of Springs

The weight of a helical spring is

πd2 π 2 d2 Dm Na γ
W = ALγ = (πDm Na ) (γ) = (30)
4 4

The fundamental critical frequency should be greater than 15 to 20

times the frequency of the force or motion of the spring.
If necessary, redesign the spring to increase k or decrease W .

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 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Fatigue of Compression Springs

Testing found the endurance strength components for infinite life to

be
Unpeened:

ssa = 241MPa ssm = 379MPa (31)

Peened:

ssa = 398MPa ssm = 534MPa (32)

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 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Fatigue of Compression Springs

Testing found the endurance strength components for infinite life to

be
Unpeened:

ssa = 241MPa ssm = 379MPa (31)

Peened:

ssa = 398MPa ssm = 534MPa (32)

The constant values are used with Gerber or Goodman failure

criteria to find the endurance limit.

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 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Stresses for Fatigue Loading

The alternating and average forces are:

Fmax − Fmin
Fa = (33)
2
Fmax + Fmin
Fm = (34)
2

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 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

Stresses for Fatigue Loading

The alternating and average forces are:

Fmax − Fmin
Fa = (33)
2
Fmax + Fmin
Fm = (34)
2

The alternating and average stresses are

8Fa Dm
τa = KB (35)
πd3
8Fm Dm
τm = KB (36)
πd3

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 Design of Helical Extension Springs

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

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 Credits

Table of Contents

1 Introduction

2 Types of Springs

3 Helical Compression Springs

4 Stresses in Helical Springs

5 Design of Helical Compression Springs

6 Fatigue Loading of Helical Compression Springs

7 Design of Helical Extension Springs

8 Credits

MEng149.007 Mechanical Springs Week 15 68 / 69

 Credits

Credits

Faires, V.M. Design of Machine Elements, 4th Ed.

Mott R.L., Vavrek E.M., Wang, J., Machine in Mechanical Design

MEng149.007 Mechanical Springs Week 15 69 / 69