Machine Design

& CAD – II
MEEN - 3138

Engr. Syed M. Hammad Lecture no. 8

Lecturer
Mechanical Department
KFUEIT
Springs
A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose function is to distort when
loaded and to recover its original shape when the load is removed. The
various important applications of springs are as follows :
1. To cushion, absorb or control energy due to either shock or vibration as
in car springs, railway buffers, air-craft landing gears, shock absorbers and
vibration dampers.
2. To apply forces, as in brakes, clutches and spring-loaded valves.
3. To control motion by maintaining contact between two elements as in
cams and followers.
4. To measure forces, as in spring balances and engine indicators.
5. To store energy, as in watches, toys, etc.

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Types of Springs
Though there are many types of the springs, yet the following, according to
their shape, are important from the subject point of view.
1. Helical springs. The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the
form of a helix and is primarily intended for compressive or tensile loads.
The cross-section of the wire from which the spring is made may be
circular, square or rectangular.
The two forms of helical springs are compression helical spring as shown in
Fig. (a) and tension helical spring as shown in Fig. (b).

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Cont.
› The helical springs are said to be closely coiled when the spring wire is
coiled so close that the plane containing each turn is nearly at right
angles to the axis of the helix and the wire is subjected to torsion.
› In other words, in a closely coiled helical spring, the helix angle is very
small, it is usually less than 10°.
› The major stresses produced in helical springs are shear stresses due to
twisting.
› The load applied is parallel to or along the axis of the spring.
› In open coiled helical springs, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that
there is a gap between the two consecutive turns, as a result of which the
helix angle is large.

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Cont.
Since the application of open coiled helical springs are limited, therefore
our discussion shall confine to closely coiled helical springs only.
The helical springs have the following advantages:
(a) These are easy to manufacture.
(b) These are available in wide range.
(c) These are reliable.
(d) These have constant spring rate.
(e) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
(f) Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

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Types of springs
› 2. Conical and volute springs. The conical and volute springs, as
shown in Fig. above, are used in special applications where a
telescoping spring or a spring with a spring rate that increases with
the load is desired.
› The conical spring, as shown in Fig. (a), is wound with a uniform
pitch whereas the volute springs, as shown in Fig. (b), are wound in
the form of paraboloid with constant pitch and lead angles.
› The springs may be made either partially or completely
telescoping. In either case, the number of active coils gradually
decreases. The decreasing number of coils results in an increasing
spring rate.
› This characteristic is sometimes utilized in vibration problems
where springs are used to support a body that has a varying mass.
› The major stresses produced in conical and volute springs are also
shear stresses due to twisting.
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Cont.
› 3. Torsion springs. These springs may be of helical or spiral type as
shown in Fig. below.
› The helical type may be used only in applications where the load tends to
wind up the spring and are used in various electrical mechanisms.
› The spiral type is also used where the load tends to increase the number
of coils and when made of flat strip are used in watches and clocks.
› The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile and
compressive due to bending

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Cont.
› 4. Laminated or leaf springs. The laminated or leaf spring (also known as
flat spring or carriage spring) consists of a number of flat plates (known
as leaves) of varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts,
as shown in fig. above.
› These are mostly used in automobiles.
› The major stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and compressive
stresses.
› 5. Disc or bellevile springs. These springs consist of a number of conical
discs held together against slipping by a central bolt or tube as shown.
› These springs are used in applications where high spring rates and
compact spring units are required.
› The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs are tensile and
compressive stresses.
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Cont.
6. Special purpose springs. These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber
springs, ring springs etc.
The fluids (air or liquid) can behave as a compression spring.
These springs are used for special types of application only.

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Material for Helical Springs
› The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high
ductility, high resilience and it should be creep resistant.
› It largely depends upon the service for which they are used i.e. severe
service, average service or light service.
› Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of
minimum to maximum load (or stress) is one-half or less, as in
automotive valve springs.
› Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but
with only intermittent operation, as in engine governor springs and
automobile suspension springs.
› Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very
infrequently varied, as in safety valve springs.

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Cont.
› The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires
containing 0.60 to 0.70 per cent carbon and 0.60 to 1.0 per cent
manganese.
› Music wire is used for small springs.
› Non-ferrous materials like phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, monel
metal, brass etc., may be used in special cases to increase fatigue
resistance, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.
› Table in next slide shows the values of allowable shear stress, modulus of
rigidity and modulus of elasticity for various materials used for springs.
› The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed depending upon
the size of the wire.
› Wires of small sizes (less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold
whereas larger size wires are wound hot.
› The strength of the wires varies with size, smaller size wires have greater
strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold working.
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Table. Values of allowable shear stress, Modulus of
elasticity and Modulus of rigidity for various spring
materials.

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Table. Standard wire gauge (SWG) number and
corresponding diameter of spring wire

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Terms used in Compression Springs
The following terms used in connection with compression springs are
important from the subject point of view.
1. Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until the coils
come in contact with each other, then the spring is said to be solid.
The solid length of a spring is the product of total number of coils and
the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,
Solid length of the spring,
LS = n'.d
where n' = Total number of coils, and d = Diameter of the wire.

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Cont.
2. Free length. The free length of a compression spring, as shown in fig, is
the length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition.
It is equal to the solid length plus the maximum deflection or compression
of the spring and the clearance between the adjacent coils (when fully
compressed).
Mathematically, Free length of the spring,
LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + Clearance between adjacent
coils (or clash allowance)
= n'.d + δmax + 0.15 δmax
The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the
spring, i.e.
LF = n'.d + δmax + (n' – 1) × 1 mm
In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as
1 mm.
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Cont.
3. Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean
diameter of the coil to the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,
Spring index, C = D / d
where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and
d = Diameter of the wire.
4. Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as
the load required per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,
Spring rate, k = W / δ
where W = Load, and
δ = Deflection of the spring.

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Cont.
5. Pitch. The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between
adjacent coils in uncompressed state. Mathematically,
Pitch of the coil,
Free length The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the
following relation, i.e.
Pitch of the coil,
where LF = Free length of the spring,
LS = Solid length of the spring,
n' = Total number of coils, and
d = Diameter of the wire.

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Cont.
› In choosing the pitch of the coils, the following points should be noted :
(a) Equal pitch: having equal pitch.
(b) Progressive unequal pitch: The spring should not have the same pitch
when the service load is applied.

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Cont.
6. Shear Stress factor:

7. Wahl’s stress factor (K) or Wahl’s correction factor (K):

› In order to consider the effects of both direct shear as well as curvature
of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor (K) introduced by A.M. Wahl may be
used.

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End Connections for Compression Helical
Springs
› The end connections for compression helical springs are suitably formed
in order to apply the load. Various forms of end connections.
› It may be noted that part of the coil which is in contact with the seat
does not contribute to spring action and hence are termed as inactive
coils.
› The turns which impart spring action are known as active turns.

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Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire
Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected
to an axial load W, as shown in Fig. 23.10 (a).
Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
W = Axial load on the spring,
τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D/d,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load W.
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Cont.
› Now consider a part of the compression spring as shown.
› The load W tends to rotate the wire due to the twisting moment ( T ) set
up in the wire. Thus torsional shear stress is induced in the wire.
› A little consideration will show that part of the spring, is in equilibrium
under the action of two forces W and the twisting moment T. Maximum
shear stress induced in the wire,

› In order to consider the effects of both direct shear as well as curvature

of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor (K) introduced by A.M. Wahl may be
used.

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Deflection of Helical Springs of Circular Wire
› In the previous article, we have discussed the maximum shear stress
developed in the wire. We know that
›
. ….. (i)
∴ Axial deflection of the spring,
δ = θ × D/2

Putting l = π d n , T = W x D/2 and J= π/32 x d4

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Cont.
› Substituting this value of θ in equation (i), we have

› and the stiffness of the spring or spring rate,

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Interesting Fact

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