DESIGN OF SPRINGS

Introduction

A spring is a mechanical device which is used for the efficient storage and release of energy.
Depending upon the requirements, a spring can take different shapes, such the helical coil of a
wire, a piece of stamping, or a flat, wound – up strip. The main applications of springs are as
follows:

 To act as reservoir of energy, e.g. springs in clocks

 To absorb shocks and vibrations, e.g. vehicle suspension spring
 To return the mechanical part to its original position, when it has been temporary
displaced, e.g. springs in valves, clutches and linkages
 To measure force, e.g. spring balance

Strength and flexibility are the two essential requirements of spring design.

A. Types of springs
1. Helical springs: The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a helix
and are primarily intended for compressive or tensile loads. The cross-section of the wire
from which the spring is made may be circular, square or rectangular.

The major stresses produced in helical springs are shear stresses due to twisting. The load
applied is parallel to or along the axis of the spring.

The helical springs have the following advantages:

(a)These are easy to manufacture.
(b)These are available in wide range.
(c)These are reliable.
(d)These have constant spring rate.
(e)Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
(f)Their characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

2. Conical and volute springs.

The conical and volute springs are used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a
spring with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired

The major stresses produced in conical and volute springs are also shear stresses due to twisting

3. Torsional springs

These springs may be of helical or spiral type.

The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile and compressive due to bending.

4. Laminated or leaf springs

The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or carriage spring) consists of a number
of flat plates (known as leaves) of varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts.
These are mostly used in automobiles. The major stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and
compressive stresses.
5. Disc or Belleville springs

Spring specifications

a. Material : oil hardened and tempered steel wire

b. Wire diameter
c. Mean coil diameter
d. Total number of coils
e. Solid and free length
 f. Style of ends

Material for Helical Springs

The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and it
should be creep resistant. It largely depends upon the service for which they are used.( severe
service, average service or light service.
Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of minimum to maximum load (or
stress) is one-half or less.
Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but with only intermittent
operation.
Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very frequently varied.
The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70 per
cent carbon and 0.60 to 1.0 per cent manganese. Non-ferrous materials like phosphor bronze,
beryllium copper, brass etc., may be used in special cases to increase fatigue resistance,
temperature resistance and corrosion resistance.

Terms used in Compression Springs

1. Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until the coils come in contact
with each other, then the spring is said to be solid.
The solid length of a spring is the product of total number of coils and the diameter of the wire.
Mathematically,
Solid length of the spring

Various lengths associated with a spring

 Free length
 Installed length
 Operating length
 Solid length

Mathematically,
Solid length of the spring,
LS = n'. d
Where n' = Total number of coils, and d = Diameter of the wire.

2. Free length. The free length of a compression spring is the length of the spring in the free
or unloaded condition. It is equal to the solid length plus the maximum deflection or
compression of the spring and the clearance between the adjacent coils (when fully
compressed).
Mathematically,

Free length of the spring,

LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + Clearance between adjacent coils (or clash
allowance) = n'. d + δmax + 0.15 δmax

3. Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean diameter of the coil to
the diameter of the wire. Mathematically,
Spring index, C = D / d
Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and d = Diameter of the wire.
4. Spring rate. The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined as the load
required per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,
Spring rate, k = P / δ
Where P = Load, and δ = Deflection of the spring.
5. Pitch. The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state. Mathematically,
Pitch of the coil, p = Free length / n’–1

Stresses in Helical Springs of Circular Wire

Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected to an axial load P
Let
D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
P = Axial load on the spring,
τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D/d,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ() = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an axial load P.

The part of the spring is in equilibrium under the action of two forces P (F) and the twisting
moment T.

D  8 PD
T  P   1  d 3 or 1  (due to T)
2 16 d 3

Torsional shear stress diagram

In addition to the torsional shear stress (τ1) induced in the wire, the following stresses also act on
the wire:
1. Direct shear stress due to the load P
2. Stress due to curvature of wire

P 4P
The direct shear stress due to the load  2  
 d 2
d2
4
Direct shear stress diagram

The resultant diagram of torsional shear stress induced in the wire

8 PD 4 P
1  2  
d 3 d 2
The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and negative sign for the outer edge of the
wire. Since the stress is max at the inner edge, then
Max shear stress induced in the wire   Tortional + Direct shear stress

8PD 4P 8PD  d  8PD  1  8PD

   2  3 
1  3 
1   Ks 
d 3
d d  2D  d  2C  d 3
1
Where Ks = shear stress factor = 1 
2C
Resultant of tortional and direct shear stress diagram
In order to consider the effects of curvature of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor K is used.
8 PD 8 PC 4C  1 0.615
 K 3 K 2 where K  
d d 4C  4 C
Resultant of tortional and direct shear stress and curvature shear stress diagram

Deflection of helical springs of circular wire

Total active length of the wire,

l = Length of one coil × No. of active coils = π D × n

Let
θ = Angular deflection of the wire when acted upon by the torque T.
Then the axial deflection of the spring,
D
   (1)
2

T  G Tl
We know that   then 
I0 D l I 0G
2
d 4
Where I0 = Polar moment of inertia = and G = Modulus of rigidity of the material of the
32
wire.
Substituting the values of the l and I0 in the above equation,

 D
P 
 
Tl 2 16PD 2 n
 Dn 
I 0G  4 Gd 4
d G
32
Substituting this value of θ in equation (1)
 16PD 2 n D 8PD 3 n 8PC 3 n
   , C=D/d and the stiffness of the spring or
Gd 4 2 Gd 4 Gd
spring rate

P Gd 4 Gd
   cons tan t
 3
8D n 8C 3 n

Energy stored in helical spring of circular wire

The spring is used for storing energy which is equal to the work done on it by some external
load.
Let P = load applied on the spring
δ = deflection produced
1
U  P (1)
2
The shear stress induced in the spring due to the load P
8 PD d 3
  K  3 or P and we know that the deflection
d 8 KD

8PD 3 n 8d 3 D 3 n D 2 n

    . Substituting the values of P and δ in (1)
Gd 4 8KD Gd 4 KdG
1 d 3 D 2 n 
U    Dn   d 2    2  V
 4  4K G
2
2 8KD KdG 4K G
Where V = volume of the spring wire
= Length of spring wire x cross – sectional area of spring wire
 
= Dn  d 2 
4 
Springs in series

Consider two springs connected in series

Let W – load carried by the springs
δ1 – deflection of spring 1
δ2 – deflection of spring 2
k1 – stiffness of spring 1= W/δ1
k2 – stiffness of spring 2= W/δ2
A little consideration shows that when the springs are connected in series, then the total
deflection produced by the springs is equal to the sum of the deflections of the individual
springs.
W W W 1 1 1
Total deflection δ = δ1 +δ2 =   since  
k k1 k 2 k k1 k 2
Where k = combined stiffness of the springs
Springs in parallel

Consider two springs connected in parallel

Let W – load carried by the springs
W1 – load carried by spring 1
W2 – load carried by spring 2
k1 – stiffness of spring 1
k2 – stiffness of spring 2
A little consideration shows that when the springs are connected in parallel, then the total
deflection produced by the springs is the same as the deflections of the individual spring.
We know that W = W1 + W2 or
δ . k = δ . k1 + δ . k2

k = k1 + k2 where k = combined stiffness of springs

δ = deflection produced

LEAF SPRINGS (Leaf springs)

Consider a single plate fixed at one end and loaded at the other end. This plate may be used
as a flat spring.
Let t – thickness of plate

b – width of plate

L – length

Bending moment (max) at the cantilever end AM = P . L and section modulus,

bt 3
I 1
Z   12  bt 2
y t 6
2

M PL 6 PL
Bending stress in such a spring     2 (1)
Z 1 2 bt
bt
6

We know that max deflection for a cantilever with concentrated load at the end is given by

PL3 PL3 4 PL3 2L2

    (2)
3EI bt 3 Ebt 3 3Et
3E
12
Let consider the bending stress only. If the spring is not of cantilever type but is like a simply
supported beam, with a length 2L and load 2P in the centre,

Max bending moment in the centre M = PL

bt 2
Section modulus Z 
6

M PL 6 PL
Bending stress   2  2
Z bt bt
6

We know that max deflection of a simply supported beam loaded in the centre is given by

P1 ( L1 ) 3 2P2L 3 PL3
  
48EI 48EI 3EI
Conclusion: From above, we see that a spring such as automobile spring ( semi-elliptical)
with length 2L and loaded in the centre by 2P, may be treated as a double cantilever.

If the plate of cantilever is cut into a series of n strips of width b, the equations (1) and (2)
may be written as

6 PL 4 PL3 2L2
  and  
nbt 2 nEbt 3 3Et

The above relations give the stress and deflection of leaf spring of uniform cross – section.
The stress at such a spring is max at the support.

If the plate is triangular (Fig.a), the stress will be uniform throughout

If the triangular plate is cut into strip of uniform width and placed one below other(Fig.b),
they form a graduated or laminated leaf spring. Then
 and

Where n = umber of graduated leaves.

A little consideration will show that by the above arrangement, the spring becomes compact so
that the space occupied by the spring is considerably reduced.

2L2
If we consider   for a full length of the leaves of uniform cross – section, and
3EI
L2 2 F L2  G L2
 the deflection of graduated leaves, for the same deflection,   
Et 3Et Et
3 3
then  F   G or the bending stress for the same deflection  F   G
2 2

6 PF L 3  6 PG L 
  
n F bt 2 2  nG bt 2 

PF 3 PG
 
n F 2 nG

PF 3 n
  F Adding 1 to both sides, we have
PG 2 nG

PF 3 nF PF  PG 3n F  2nG
1  1 
PG 2 nG PG 2 nG

 2 nG   2 nG 
PG   PF  PG     P where
 3n F  2nG   3n F  2nG 

P – Total load on the spring = PG + PF

PG – Load taken up by graduated leaves

PF – Load taken up by full length leaves

 PF 3 nF P 2n
From equation  , we may write G  G and adding 1 to both sides
PG 2 nG PF 3n F
PG 2n P  PF 2nG  3n F
 1  G  1; G 
PF 3n F PF 3n F

 3n F   3n F 
PG  PF   
3
PF    since  F   G therefore
 2nG  3n F   2nG  3n F  2

2 2 18PL 12PL
G  F   2
3 3 bt 2nG  3nF  bt 2nG  3nF 
2

The deflection in full length and graduated leaves is given by equation

2 F L2 2 L2  18PL  12PL3
    
3Et 3Et  bt 2 2nG  3n F  Ebt 3 2nG  3n F 

Concentric or composite springs

A concentric or composite spring is used for one of the following purposes:

a. To obtain greater spring force within given space

b. To ensure the operation of a mechanism in the event of failure of one springs.

If the same material is used, the concentric springs are designed for the same stress. In order
to get the same stress factor (K), it is desirable to have the same spring index.
 Consider a concentric spring of:

P = Axial load

P1 = Load sheared by outer spring, P2 = Load sheared by inner spring; d1 and d2 diameters of
the respective springs; D1, D2, mean diameters; δ1, δ2 their deflections; n1, n2 number of
active turns of outer and inner springs.

Assuming that both the springs are made of the same material, then the maximum shear
stress induced in both the springs is the same.

τ1 = τ2

8P1  D1  K1 8P2  D2  K 2

d1 3
d 2 3

When stress factors, K1 = K2

P1  D1 P2  D2
3
 3
(1)
d1 d2

If both the springs are effective throughout their working range, then their free length and
deflection are equal,

δ1 = δ2

8P1 ( D1 ) 3 n1 8P2 ( D2 ) 3 n2 P1 ( D1 ) 3 n1 P2 ( D2 ) 3 n2
4
 4
or 4
 4
(2)
Gd1 Gd 2 d1 d2

When both the springs are compressed until the adjacent coils meet, then the solid length of both
the springs is equal,

n1 d1 = n2 d2

The equation (2) may be written as

P1 ( D1 ) 3 P2 ( D2 ) 3
5
 5
(3)
d1 d2

Now dividing equation (3) by equation (1) we have

( D1 ) 2 ( D2 ) 2 D1 D2
2
 2
or   C , the spring index (4) i.e.
d1 d2 d1 d2
the springs should be designed in such a way that the spring index for both the springs is the
same.

From equations (1) and (4), we have

P1 d 1 
2
P1 P2
 or  (5)
d1
2
d2
2
P2 d 2 2

D D  d d 
But the radial clearance between the two springs is given by c   1  2    1  2 
 2 2  2 2 

d1  d 2
Usually, the clearance between the two springs is taken as
2

 D1 D2   d1 d 2  d1  d 2
Then      =
 2 2  2 2  2

D1  D2
Or  d1 (6)
2

From equation (4) we find that D1 = Cd1 and D2 = Cd2

Substituting the values of D1 and D2 in equation (6), we have

Cd1  Cd 2
 d1 or Cd1  2d1  Cd 2 or d1 C  2  Cd 2
2

d1 C
Or 
d2 C  2