UNIT NO.

Mechanical spring
 STRUCTURE

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 SYLLABUS
• Types (06 hrs)
• Types
• Applications
• Materials for springs
• Stress and deflection equations for helical compression Springs
• Style of ends
• Design of helical compression and tension springs
• Springs in series and parallel
• Concentric helical springs
• Helical torsion Spring
• Surge in springs
• Multi-leaf springs (Theoretical treatment only).

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 LECTUREWISE PLAN

• Lecture No.1 - Types, Applications , Materials for springs

• Lecture No.2 – Stress equations for helical compression
Springs
• Lecture No. 3 - Deflection equations for helical compression
Springs
• Lecture No.4 -Design of helical compression and tension
springs
• Lecture No.5- Springs in series and parallel, Concentric
helical springs
• Lecture No.6 Helical torsion Spring, Surge in springs
• Lecture No.7 Multi-leaf springs (Theoretical treatment only).

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 Lecture No.1 - Types, Applications ,
Materials for springs

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 ABOUT SPRING

• A spring is defined as an elastic body, whose

function is to distort when loaded and to
recover its original shape, when the load is
removed.

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS

HELICAL SPRINGS
•The helical springs are made up of a wire coiled in the form of a
helix and is primarily intended for compressive or tensile loads.
•The cross-section of the wire from which the spring is made
may be circular, square or rectangular. The two forms of helical
springs are compression helical spring as shown in Fig. (a) and
tension helical spring as shown in Fig.(b).

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…

The helical springs have the following advantages

•Easy to manufacture.
•Available in wide range.
•Reliable.
•Constant spring rate.
•Performance can be predicted more accurately.
•Characteristics can be varied by changing dimensions.

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…

CONICAL AND VOLUTE SPRINGS

•The conical spring, is wound with a uniform pitch whereas
•The volute springs, are wound in the form of paraboloid with
constant pitch and lead angles.
•Used in special applications where a telescoping spring or a
spring with a spring rate that increases with the load is desired.
•The major stresses produced in conical and volute springs are
also shear stresses due to twisting

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS

TORSION SPRINGS
•The helical type may be used only in applications where the
load tends to wind up the spring and are used in various electrical
mechanisms.
•The spiral type is also used where the load tends to increase the
number of coils and when made of flat strip are used in watches
and clocks.
•The major stresses produced in torsion springs are tensile and
compressive due to bending.

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…
LAMINATED OR LEAF SPRINGS
•The laminated or leaf spring (also known as flat spring or carriage
spring) consists of a number of flat plates (known as leaves) of
varying lengths held together by means of clamps and bolts.
•These are mostly used in automobiles.
•The major stresses produced in leaf springs are tensile and
compressive stresses
•.
DISC OR BELLEVILE SPRINGS
•These springs consist of a number of conical discs held together
against slipping by a central bolt or tube.
•These springs are used in applications where high spring rates
and compact spring units are required.
•The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs are
tensile and compressive stresses.
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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…

Laminated or leaf springs. Disc or bellevile springs .

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 TYPES OF SPRINGS…
SPECIAL PURPOSE SPRINGS
•These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring
springs etc.
•The fluids (air or liquid) can behave as a compression spring.
These springs are used for special types of application only.

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 MATERIAL FOR HELICAL SPRINGS
• The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires
containing 0.60 to 0.70 per cent carbon and 0.60 to 1.0 per cent
manganese.
• Music wire is used for small springs. Non-ferrous materials like
phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, monel metal, brass etc., may
be used in special cases to increase fatigue resistance, temperature
resistance and corrosion resistance.
• The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed
depending upon the size of the wire.
• Wires of small sizes (less than 10 mm diameter) are usually
wound cold whereas larger size wires are wound hot.
• The strength of the wires varies with size, smaller size wires have
greater strength and less ductility, due to the greater degree of cold
working.
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 MATERIAL FOR HELICAL SPRINGS…

• The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility,
high resilience and it should be creep resistant. It largely depends upon the
service for which they are used i.e. severe
• service, average service or light service.
• Severe service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of
minimum to maximum load (or stress) is one-half or less, as in automotive
valve springs.
• Average service includes the same stress range as in severe service but
with only intermittent operation, as in engine governor springs and
automobile suspension springs.
• Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very
infrequently varied, as in safety valve springs.

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 MATERIAL FOR HELICAL SPRINGS…
• The values of allowable shear stress, modulus of rigidity and
modulus of elasticity for various materials used for springs.

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 Lecture No.2 - Stress equations for helical
compression Springs

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 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF
CIRCULAR WIRE
• Consider a helical compression spring made of circular wire and subjected
to an axial load W
Let D = Mean diameter of the spring coil,
d = Diameter of the spring wire,
n = Number of active coils,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the spring material,
W = Axial load on the spring,
τ = Maximum shear stress induced in the wire,
C = Spring index = D/d,
p = Pitch of the coils, and
δ = Deflection of the spring, as a result of an
axial load W.

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 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF
CIRCULAR WIRE…

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 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF CIRCULAR
WIRE…
• Now consider a part of the compression spring as shown in Fig. 23.10 (b). The load W tends to
• rotate the wire due to the twisting moment ( T ) set up in the wire. Thus torsional shear stress is
• induced in the wire.
• A little consideration will show that part of the spring, as shown in Fig. 23.10 (b), is in
equilibrium
• under the action of two forces W and the twisting moment T. We know that the twisting
moment

• The torsional shear stress diagram is shown in Fig.(a).

• In addition to the torsional shear stress (τ1) induced in the wire, the following stresses also act
on the wire :
• 1. Direct shear stress due to the load W, and
• 2. Stress due to curvature of wire.

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 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF
CIRCULAR WIRE…

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 STRESSES IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF
CIRCULAR WIRE…

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Superposition of stresses
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in a helical spring. 25
• We know that the resultant shear stress induced in the wire,

• The positive sign is used for the inner edge of the wire and negative sign is
used for the outer edge of the wire. Since the stress is maximum at the
inner edge of the wire, therefore

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 From the above equation, it can be observed that the effect of direct
shear 3 appreciable for springs of small spring index C. Also we have
neglected the effect of wire curvature in equation (iii).
It may be noted that when the springs are subjected to static loads, the
effect of wire curvature may be neglected, because yielding of the
material will relieve the stresses.
In order to consider the effects of both direct shear as well as curvature
of the wire, a Wahl’s stress factor (K) introduced by A.M. Wahl may be
used.
The resultant diagram of torsional shear, direct shear and curvature
shear stress is shown in Fig. 23.11 (d).
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 • Lecture No.3 - Deflection equations for
helical compression Springs

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 DEFLECTION OF HELICAL SPRINGS
OF CIRCULAR WIRE

• In the previous article, we have discussed the maximum shear

stress developed in the wire. We know that
• Total active length of the wire,
l = Length of one coil × No. of active coils = π D × n
Let θ = Angular deflection of the wire when acted upon
by the torque T.
∴ Axial deflection of the spring,
δ = θ × D/2

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 Lecture No.4 -Design of helical compression
and tension springs

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 TERMS USED IN COMPRESSION
SPRINGS
Solid length. When the compression spring is compressed until
the coils come in contact with each other, then the spring is said
to be solid. The solid length of a spring is the product of total
number of coils and the diameter of the wire.
Mathematically,
Solid length of the spring,
LS = n'.d
where n' = Total number of coils, and
d = Diameter of the wire.

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 TERMS USED IN COMPRESSION
SPRINGS…
Free length. The length of the spring in the free or unloaded condition. It is
equal to the solid length plus the maximum deflection or compression of the
spring and the clearance between the adjacent coils (when fully compressed).
•Mathematically,
Free length of the spring,
LF = Solid length + Maximum compression + *Clearance between
adjacent coils (or clash allowance)
= n'.d + δmax + 0.15 δmax
•The following relation may also be used to find the free length of the spring,
i.e.
LF = n'.d + δmax + (n' – 1) × 1 mm
•In this expression, the clearance between the two adjacent coils is taken as 1
mm.

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 TERMS USED IN COMPRESSION
SPRINGS…

Compression spring nomenclature.

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 TERMS USED IN COMPRESSION
SPRINGS…
Spring index. The spring index is defined as the ratio of the mean
diameter of the coil to the diameter of the wire.
Mathematically,
Spring index, C = D / d
Where D = Mean diameter of the coil, and
d = Diameter of the wire.
Spring rate The spring rate (or stiffness or spring constant) is defined
as the load required per unit deflection of the spring. Mathematically,
Spring rate, k = W / δ
where W = Load
δ = Deflection of the spring.

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Pitch The pitch of the coil is defined as the axial distance
between adjacent coils in uncompressed state. Mathematically,
•Pitch of the coil, p = Free length / n′ – 1
•The pitch of the coil may also be obtained by using the
following relation, i.e.

where LF = Free length of the spring,

LS = Solid length of the spring,
n' = Total number of coils, and
d = Diameter of the wire.

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 Lecture No.5 - Springs in series and parallel,
Concentric helical springs

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 SPRINGS IN SERIES
• Consider two springs connected in series as shown in Fig.
W = Load carried by the springs,
δ1 = Deflection of spring 1,
δ2 = Deflection of spring 2,
k1 = Stiffness of spring 1 = W / δ1, and
k2 = Stiffness of spring 2 = W / δ2
• A little consideration will show that when the springs are connected in
series, then the total deflection produced by the springs is equal to the sum
of the deflections of the individual springs.

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 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL
• Consider two springs connected in parallel as shown in Fig
Let W = Load carried by the springs,
W1 = Load shared by spring 1,
W2 = Load shared by spring 2,
k1 = Stiffness of spring 1, and
k2 = Stiffness of spring 2.
• A little consideration will show that when the springs are connected in parallel,
then the total deflection produced by the springs is same as the deflection of the
individual springs.
We know that W = W1 + W2
or δ.k = δ.k1 + δ.k2
∴ k = k1 + k2
where k = Combined stiffness of the springs, and
δ = Deflection produced.

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 CONCENTRIC OR COMPOSITE
SPRINGS
• To obtain greater spring force within a given space.
• To insure the operation of a mechanism in the event of failure of one of
the springs.
• The concentric springs for the above two purposes may have two or more
springs and have the same free lengths as shown in Fig. 23.22 (a) and are
compressed equally.
• Such springs are used in automobile clutches, valve springs in aircraft,
heavy duty diesel engines and rail-road car suspension systems.
• Sometimes concentric springs are used to obtain a spring force which does
not increase in a direct relation to the deflection but increases faster. Such
springs are made of different lengths as shown in Fig. 23.22 (b). The
shorter spring begins to act only after the longer spring is compressed to a
certain amount. These springs are used in governors of variable speed
engines to take care of the variable centrifugal force

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 CONCENTRIC OR COMPOSITE
SPRINGS…
• Consider a concentric spring as shown in Fig. 23.22 (a).
Let W = Axial load,
W1 = Load shared by outer spring,
W2 = Load shared by inner spring,
d1 = Diameter of spring wire of outer spring,
d2 = Diameter of spring wire of inner spring,
D1 = Mean diameter of outer spring,
D2 = Mean diameter of inner spring,
δ1 = Deflection of outer spring,
δ2 = Deflection of inner spring,
n1 = Number of active turns of outer spring, and
n2 = Number of active turns of inner spring.
• Assuming that both the springs are made of same material, then the maximum shear
stress induced in both the springs is approximately same, i.e. τ1 = τ2

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 CONCENTRIC OR COMPOSITE
SPRINGS…

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 CONCENTRIC OR COMPOSITE SPRINGS…

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 Lecture No.6 Helical torsion Spring, Surge in
springs

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 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS
• The helical torsion springs as shown in Fig., may be made from round,
rectangular or square wire.
• These are wound in a similar manner as helical compression or tension
springs but the ends are shaped to transmit torque.
• The primary stress in helical torsion springs is bending stress whereas in
compression or tension springs, the stresses are torsional shear stresses.
• The helical torsion springs are widely used for transmitting small torques
as in door hinges, brush holders in electric motors, automobile starters etc.

Helical torsion spring.

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 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS…
K = Wahl’s stress factor =
C = Spring index,
M = Bending moment = W × y,
W = Load acting on the spring,
y = Distance of load from the spring axis, and
d = Diameter of spring wire.
and total angle of twist or angular deflection,

•l = Length of the wire =

•E = Young’s modulus,
•I = Moment of inertia =
•D = Diameter of the spring, and
•n = Number of turns.

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 HELICAL TORSION SPRINGS…

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 ECCENTRIC LOADING OF SPRINGS

• Sometimes, the load on the springs does not coincide with the
axis of the spring, i.e. the spring is subjected to an eccentric
load. In such cases, not only the safe load for the spring
reduces, the stiffness of the spring is also affected.
• The eccentric load on the spring increases the stress on one
side of the spring and decreases on the other side.
• When the load is offset by a distance e from the spring axis,
then the safe load on the spring may be obtained by
multiplying the axial load by the factor

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 SURGE IN SPRINGS
• When one end of a helical spring is resting on a rigid support and the other end is
loaded suddenly, then all the coils of the spring will not suddenly deflect equally,
because some time is required for the propagation of stress along the spring wire.
• A little consideration will show that in the beginning, the end coils of the spring in
contact with the applied load takes up whole of the deflection and then it transmits a
large part of its deflection to the adjacent coils. In this way, a wave of compression
propagates through the coils to the supported end from where it is reflected back to
the deflected end.
• This wave of compression travels along the spring indefinitely. If the applied load is
of fluctuating type as in the case of valve spring in internal combustion engines and
if the time interval between the load applications is equal to the time required for
the wave to travel from one end to the other end, then resonance will occur.
• This results in very large deflections of the coils and correspondingly very
high stresses. Under these conditions, it is just possible that the spring may
fail. This phenomenon is called surge.

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 Lecture No.7 Multi-leaf springs (Theoretical
treatment only).

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 LEAF SPRINGS

• Leaf springs (also known as flat springs) are made out of flat
plates. The advantage of leaf spring over helical spring is that
the ends of the spring may be guided along a definite path as it
deflects to act as a structural member in addition to energy
absorbing device. Thus the leaf springs may carry lateral loads,
brake torque, driving torque etc., in addition to shocks.

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 LEAF SPRINGS…

Semi-elliptical leaf spring.

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 PROBLEMS

• Design a compression helical spring to carry a load of 500 N with a

deflection of 25 mm. The spring index may be taken as 8. Assume the
following values for the spring material:
Permissible shear stress = 350 MPa
Modulus of rigidity = 84 kN/mm2

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 PROBLEMS No.2…

In a spring loaded governor as shown in Fig. 23.16, the balls are attached to the vertical
arms of the bell crank lever, the horizontal arms of which lift the sleeve against the
pressure exerted by a spring. The mass of each ball is 2.97 kg and the lengths of the
vertical and horizontal arms of the bell crank lever are 150 mm and 112.5 mm
respectively. The extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 100 mm and 150 mm and the
governor sleeve begins to lift at 240 r.p.m. and reaches the highest position with a 7.5
percent increase of speed when effects of friction are neglected. Design a suitable close
coiled round section spring for the governor. Assume permissible stress in spring steel
as 420 MPa, modulus of rigidity 84 kN/mm2 and spring index 8. Allowance must be
made for stress concentration, factor of which is given by

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 PROBLEMS No.3…
A mechanism used in printing machinery consists of a tension spring
assembled with a preload of 30 N. The wire diameter of spring is 2 with a
spring index of 6. The spring has 18 active coils. The spring wire is hard
drawn and oil tempered having following material properties: Design
shear stress = 680 Mpa Modulus of rigidity = 80 kN/mm2 Determine : 1.
the initial torsional shear stress in the wire; 2. spring rate; and 3. the force
to cause the body of the spring to its yield strength.

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 PROBLEMS No.4…
• Design a helical compression spring for a maximum load of 1000 N for a
deflection of 25 mm using the value of spring index as 5. The maximum
permissible shear stress for spring wire is 420 MPa and modulus of
rigidity is 84 kN/m m2.

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 PROBLEMS No.5…
• Design a close coiled helical compression spring for a service load
ranging
from 2250 N to 2750 N. The axial deflection of the spring for the load range
is 6 mm. Assume a spring index of 5. The permissible shear stress intensity
is 420 MPa and modulus of rigidity, G = 84 kN/mm2. Neglect the effect of
stress concentration. Draw a fully dimensioned sketch of the spring,
showing details of the finish of the end coils.

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 PROBLEMS No.5…
• Design and draw a valve spring of a petrol engine for the following
operating conditions :Spring load when the valve is open = 400 N, Spring
load when the valve is closed = 250 N, Maximum inside diameter of spring
= 25 mm, Length of the spring when the valve is open = 40 mm, Length of
the spring when the valve is closed = 50 mm, Maximum permissible shear
stress = 400 MPa

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 MAIN FINDINGS

• Neglecting the effect of curvature

• Considering the effect of curvature
• Diameter of the spring wire
• Mean diameter of the spring coil
• Number of turns of the coil
• Free length of the coil
• Pitch of the coil
• Neglecting the effect of curvature
• Considering the effect of curvature

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 THANK YOU !

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