MODULE-III
A Basic DC Voltmeter
The moving coil can be used as a voltmeter by adding a series resistance RS as
illustrated in Figure 4.14. The input voltage is divided between the coil
resistance RMC and RS. Current passing through both resistors is IMC which
is limited by the full-scale deflection current IFSD of the coil. The full-scale
input voltage
VM = IFSD(RS+RMC)
The input impedance seen is: RM = RS + RMC
However, with RS>>RMC, RM is approximately equal to RS and VM
IFSDRS.
Basic DC voltmeter
AC VOLTMETERS
The voltmeter based on the permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC or
D‘Arsonval) and digital
voltmeter that will be discussed later cannot be directly used to measure the
alternating voltages.
When measuring the value of an alternating current signal it is often necessary
to convert the signal into a direct current signal of equivalent value (known as
the root mean square, RMS value). This process can be quite complex. Most
low cost instrumentation and signal converters carry out this conversion by
rectifying and filtering the signal into an average value and applying a
correction factor. Hence, we can classify the AC voltmeters in two broad
categories as the averaging and true RMS types.
Average and RMS Values
The moving coil instrument reads the average of an AC waveform. The
average of the current waveform i(t)
where T = 2 /T = radial frequency (rad/sec). However, if
this current is applied to a resistor R, the instantaneous power on the resistor
p(t) = i2(t)R
The average power over the period T becomes
Hence, the average power is equivalent to the power that would be generated
by a DC current callethe effective current that
i
Due to squaring, averaging (mean) and square-rooting operations, this is
called the ―RMS.‖ value of the current and IRMS is the true value of the
current that we want to measure. The averaging time must be sufficiently long
to allow filtering at the lowest frequencies of operation desired. Hence, in
electrical terms, the AC RMS value is equivalent to the DC heating value of a
particular waveform—voltage or current.
The Full-Wave Rectifier
The half-wave rectifier is used in some voltmeters, but the mostly adapted one
uses the full waverectifier shown in Figure 4.23. Here, a bridge-type full-wave
rectifier is shown. For the + half cycle the current follows the root ABDC. For
the – half cycle root CBDA is used. The current through the meter resistor Rm
is the absolute value of the input current as shown in the inset. The voltage
waveform on the meter resistance Rm has the same shape as the current. The
average value of the voltage becomes:
VAV is the DC component of the voltage and it is the value read by the
moving coil instruments.
Hence, the inherently measured value (IM) is the average value, while the
true value is the RMS value.
Form Factor
The ratio of the true value to the measured value is called the form factor or
safe factor (SF). For
sinusoidal signals the form factor is SF = (VRMS/VAV).
In AC voltmeters, the reading is corrected by a scale factor = safe factor (SF)
= 1.11.
True RMS Meters
The rectification, averaging and form factor correction approach produces
adequate results in most cases. However, a correct conversion or the
measurement of non sine wave values, requires a more complex and costly
converter, known as a True RMS converter. The characteristics of these
meters are defined in terms of the input range, bandwidth (frequency range in
which the device operates successfully), accuracy and crest factor. The crest
factor is a measurement of a waveform, calculated from the peak amplitude
of the waveform divided by the RMS value of the waveform
The power dissipated by a resistor R that is exposed to the signal is
The AC signal would be applied to a small heating element which was
twinned with a thermocouple which could be used in a DC measuring circuit.
