Semiconductor Pera) Ces aM ella itaCopyright © 1996 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Reprint, 2001 NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110 002 Offices at: Bangalore, Chennai, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Lucknow and Mumbai This book or any part thereof may not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the publisher. ISBN : 81-224-0802-8 345678910 Published by K.K, Gupta for New Age International (P) Ltd., 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-1 10.002 and printed in India at ‘Taj Press, New Delhi - 110 064,CONTENTS Preface iii i 1.1 Atomic Structure of Hydrogen Atom 2 12 Energy Level Di: 3 13 Band of Crystals 4 1.4 Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors 6 15 _ Crystal Structure of Semiconductor: Concept of Hole. 1 1,6 Movement of Holes Through the Crystal Lattice 8 L7__Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors 9 1.8 _ Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors 10 1.8.1 N-type Semiconductor 10 1.8.2 P-type semiconductor Lbs 1.9 Concentration of Charge Carriers in n- and p-type Semiconductors 0 1.10 Temperature Dependence of Charge Carrier Concentration 12 LLL Solved Problems mic ion Dis 16 2.1_The p-n Junction Diode 16 2.2 _Biasing a Semiconductor Diode 13, 2.2.1 Forward Biasing of a Diode 18 2.2.2 Reverse Biasing of a Diode 19 2.2.3 The Cut-in Voliage 20 2.3__ The Breakdown of a p-n Junction 2 ‘2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 0 ‘2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 20 24 Ideal Diode 23 Static and Dynamic Resistances 22 2S. SisticResistance 2.5.2 Dynamic Resistance 23 2.6 Effect of Temperature on a Diode 23 2.7_ Types of Diode 23 221 Zener Diode223 PowerDiode 0 CG 2.7.4 Photodiode 7.6__Light Emitting Diode 3.1__Clippers 33 3.1.1 Si Series Positive Clij 3.1.2 _ Simple Series Negative Cli 3.1.3 Biased Series Positive Clippers pele 3.1.4 Biased Series Negative Clippers 34 3.1.5_ Si Parallel Positive Cig 35 3.1.6_ Simple Parallel Negative Clippers 35 3.1.7__ Biased Parallel Positive Clippers 36 3.18 Biased Parallel Negative Clippers 36 3.1.9 _Double-ended Clippers 37 3.2_Clampers 37 33 38 3.4_ Rectifiers 39 3.4.1 _Half-wave Rectifier 2.4... 8D 3.4.2 Full-wave Rectifier 40 3.4.3 Bridge Rectifier 41 3.5.1 Capacitor Filter 43 35.2_R-C Filter 0 3.5.3__meFilter 3.6 Voltage Multiplying Circuits 46 3.6.1 Half-wave Voltage Doubler 46 3.6.2_ Full-wave Ve Doubler 47 3.6.3 Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler 48 3._Solved Problems 2. 4._ Transistors, Integrated Circuits, and Their Fabrications 55 4.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BIT) 55 4.2 “Transistor Operating Modes 56 4.3_Transistor Action 56 4.4. Transistor Biasing Configurations and Characteristics 58 4.4.1_Common-base Configuration 39 4.4.2 Common-emitter Configuration 60Contents vil 443 Common-collector Configuration 61 4.5__ Transistor Ratings 61 4.6 The Ebers-Moll Model 62 7 Field Effect Transi 6 4.7.1 Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) 64 7.2 Metal Oxide Som Heid Effera Tanai 61 (MOSFET 4.7.3 FET Parameters 900 CD 48 _Intes Circuits 70 48.1 of ICs 70 48.2 Analog and Digital ICs: Classification a 84 Somi Eabricati aI 48.4 Planar Technology: Fabrication of Monolithic ICs B 48.5 Monolithic Passive and Active Circuit Components 76 48.6 Typical IC Low Frequency Amplifier i) 48.7 __New Technology Trends ny 49 Solved Problems 81 5._ Transistor Biasing Techniques 85 5.1__Operating Point of a Transistor 85 ' ae 85 4 Emitter Feedhack Bise Ci BR ee 29 5.5 _Common-collector Bias (Emitter Follower) Circuit o1 5.6 _Q-Point Stabilization 2 $.7__Q-Point Stabilization from Various Bias Circuits. 93 5.8 Stability Factors 4 5.9 _ Diode Compensation Bias Circuit 95 JFET Biasiny 8 5.11.2 Voltage Divider Gate Bias (Fixed Bias) Circuit 12 MOSFET Bizsi 3.12.1 Feedback Biasing for Enhancement Mode MOSFET 5.12.2 Fixed Biasing for Enhancement Mode MOSFET 5.12.3 Self-biasing for Depletion Mode MOSFET. 5.12.4 Fixed Biasing for Depiction Mode MOSFET 5.13__ Solved Problems. I is 6.__Two-Port Network Theory and Circuit Models 6.1__Two-Port Network Analysis 104 6.1.1 Hybrid Parameters 105vill Contents 6.1.2 Impedance Parameters 106 6.1.3 Admittance Parameiers = 6.2 _ Transistor Hybrid Model 107 6.3 Impedance Parameters Circuit Model 108 — F Cine .t Cina 6.6 _ High-frequency n-Hybrid Circuit Model 112 6.7 _ Voltage Amplifier Circuit Model U3 6.8 Current Amplifier Circuit Model 113 6.9 _ Transresistance Amplifier Circuit Model 113 6.10 Hybrid Parameters for CE, CB, and CC Configurations 114 6.11 FET Circuit Mode} 20 6.12 Solved Problems LS 7,_Small Signal Basic Amplifiers 11 7.1 Basic BT Amplifier 121 7.1.1 Current Gain A, 121 71.2 Voltage Gain. 122 7.13 Input Impedance Z, 123, 7.1.4 Output Impedance Z, 123 7.15 Output Admittance ¥, 124 7.1.6 Power Gain A, 124 7.2_Common-emitier BIT Amplifier 124 7.3__Common-base BIT Amplifier 125 7.4 Common-collector BIT Amplifier 126 7.5 Comparison of CE, CB, and CC Amplifier 128 7.6 Applications of CE Amplifier 129 71.7_ Applications of CB Amplifier 129 7.8 _ Applications of CC Amplifier 129 7.9 Basic FET Amplifiers 130 7.9.1_Common Source Amplifier 130 7.9.2 Common Drain Amplifier (Source Follower Circuit) 131 ‘L10__Solved Problems 08 & Multistage Amplifiers 137 8.1 Resistance-Capacitance Coupling 137 8.2 _ Transformer Coupling 138 8.3 Direct Coupling 139 8.4 _ Frequency Response of R-C Coupled Amplifier 140 8.5 Low Frequency Response. 41 8.5.1 Role of Capacitance Cs 143Contents bk 8.5.2 Role of i cy 144 8.53 Role of Capacitance C, 144 8.6 High Frequency Response . 144 &.7__Decibol as UnitofGain 8.8 Bode Plot for R-C Cc lifier 148, 8.9 Bode Plot for Multistage Amplifier 149 8.10 Solved Problems SD 9. Feedback Amplifiers 158 9.1 Types of Feedback 158 9.1.1 Voltage Feedback 158 912 Current Feedback 50 9.2 Voli lfier with Negative Feedback 160 9.2.1 Voltage Gain with Feedback 160, 9.2.2 Input Resistance with Feedback 161 9.2.3 Output Resistance with Feedback 162 9.2.4 BIT Circuit for Voltage Amplifier with Negative Feedback 9.3 Transresistance Amplifier with Negative Feedback 165, 9.3.2 Input Resistance with Feedback 166 93.3 Output Resistance with Feedback 167 9.3.4 BIT Circuit for Transresistance Amplifier with legative Feedback 167 94 Transconductance Amplifier with Negative Feedback 169 9.4.1 Transconductance Gain with Feedback 169 9.4.2 _Input Resistance with Feedback 170 9.4.3 Output Resistance with Feedback 1 9.4.4 BIT Circuit for Transconductance Amplifier with 172 Negative Feedback 9.5 Current Amplifier with Negative Feedback 173, 9.5.1 Current Gain with Feedback NT. 9.5.2 Input Resistance with Feedback 174 9.5.3 Output Resistance with Feedback 174 95.4 BIT Circuit for Current Amplifier with Negative Feedback 175 9.6. rison of Feedback Ampli 176 9.7__Gain Stabili Feedback, 176 98 Reduction in Noise and Nonlinear Distortion by Negative Feedback 200 TT 9.9 _ Effect of ‘Feedback on the 178 Urheborrecttlich geschitztes Materialx Contents 9.10 Solved Problems TD 10.__ Power (Large Signal Low Frequency) Amplifiers 185 10.1 _ Classification of Power Amplifiers 185, 10.2 ciency of a Power li - 187 10.3__ Class-A Power Amplifier with Load Resistor 188 10.4 Class-A Power lifier with a Transformer 189 10.5 __Class-B Push-Pull Power Amplifier with a Transformer, 192 10.6 __Class-B Transformerless Push-Pull Amplifier 194 10.6.1 Phase Splitier to Re ‘Transformer 194 10.6.2 Circuit to Replace 195 Input and ‘Transformers 10.7__ Class C Power Amplifier 196 10.8 _ Distortion in Power Amplifiers 198" 10.9 _ Heat Sit in Power Transis 200 10.10 ‘Thermal Analogy of a Power Transistor 200 10.11_Neutralization Cirenits 0 10.12_Solved Problems ___202 ik. Wie Amy ‘LL1__The Parallel Tuned Circuit ______________209 11.2 _Single-tuned Amplifier: Bandwidth 21 11.3 _Cascaded Single-tuned Amplifiers 213 ‘11.4 Stagger-tuned Amplifiers 215 11.5 Coupling Methods in Tuned Amplifiers 217 115.1 Sit lis - 217 115.2 Tuned Primary and Tuned | i 218 11.5.3 Double Tuned li 218 11.6 Tuned Primary Amplifier 218 11.7_ Tuned Secondary Amplifier 220 % edbac scillations: B sen Criterion _228 22 Basick Cicmnit Oscil 2 12.3 Colpitts Oscillator : 232 4 ‘Oscillator 235 12.5 _Resistance-Capacitance Oscillators 238 12.5.2 _Wien-Bridge Oscillator 240 Urheberrecttich geschitztes MaterialContents x1 12.6 Crystal Oscillator: Frequency Stability 243 12.6.1 Characteristics of a Piezo-Electric tal 243 12.6.2 Oscillator in Series Resonant Mode 244 12.6.3 Crystal Oscillator in Parallel Resonant Mode 245, 12.7_Solved Problems 0S 13._Multivibrators J _______2s80 13.1 Switching Action of a Transistor 250 3.2.1 Time Period of Oscillat 25. M - 256 13.4 Bistable Multivibrator SR 13.5 Role of Commutating Capacitors 259 13.6 Emitter Coupled Binary: Schmitt Trigger Circuit 261 13.6.1__When Loop Gain A, <1 261 13.6.2 _When Loop Gain A,> 1 262 13.7_Solved Problems 14. Basic Logic Gates 267 14.1__ Binary Numbers 267 14.1.1 Conversion of Binary to Decimal Numbers. 268 14.1.2 Conversion of Decimal to Binary Numbers. 268 14.1.3 Addition of Binary Numbers 269 14.1.4 Subtraction of Binary Numbers. 270 14.1.5 Multiplication of Binary Numbers 272 14.1.6 Division of Binary Numbers 272 14.2 Boolean Algebra 213 143 De Morgan's Laws 274 14.4 _ Types of Logic 274 14,5 Truth Tables 20S 14.6 Diode ANDGate TS 14.7__Diode ORGale 148 NOT Gate 278 149 _NAND Gate 279 14.10 NOR Gate 219 14.11 Exclusive OR Gate 280 14.12 ICDTLNAND Gate 28. 14.13 ICTTLNAND Gate 00RD 14.14 Resistor-Transistor Logic NOR Gate 283xil_ Contents 15.__ Modulation and Demodulation. 285 15.1__Modwlation 0S 15.2 _ Amplitude Modulation 286 15.2.1 Radi jencies in AM Wave. 286 15.2.2 Power Distribution in AM Wave 288 15.3 _ Basic Technique of Amplitude Modulation 289 15.4 Collector Modulated Class-C Amplifier 290 15.5__Balanced Modulator _________200 15.6 SSB Su Modulation 293 15.7_ Frequency Modulation 294 15.8 Radiofrequencies in FM Wave 294 15.9 Oscillator Circuit for Frequency Modulation: 296 15.10 _Demodulation of AM Wave by Diode Detector 296 18.11 litude Limiter 298, 15.12 _Demodulation of FM Wave by Discriminator 298 15.13 Demodulation of FM Wave by Ratio Detector 300 18.14 Solved Problems 20028 References 305 Subject Index 306Semiconductor: An Introduction Before the advent of semiconductors, all solids were divided into two groups, viz, conductors and insulators. A conductor ¢.g. aluminium which is most fre- quently used, has a very low resistivity of about 10 (—m at room tempera- ture, On the other hand, an insulating material, e.g. silicon dioxide, which is used in integrated circuits, has a very high resistivity of sbout 10'° O-cm; being 22 orders of magnitude higher than of aluminium, For electrical applica- tions, resistivity is the sole criterion 0 classify materials. The resistivity of conductors lies below 10° Q-cm, whereas the materials having resistivity greater than 10° Q~cm are called insulators. A new class of materials was found, which could not be included in either of these groups. These materials having resistivity in the intermediate region are known as semiconductors or half conductors. These gradually acquired much importance because their resistivity can be varied by design under precise control, It was also found that the effect of temperature on conductivity of con- ductors and semiconductors is quite the opposite. In conductors, the conduc tivity decreases with increase in temperature, whereas the conductivity of a semiconductor increases sharply with temperature. Another important property of a semiconductor is its sharp increase in conductivity by the introduction of a negligibly small amount of certain impurities. Irradiation or bombardment of a semiconductor by a beam of light also causes a rapid increase in its conductiv- ity. Because of these types of peculiar properties, the semiconductor material is used in the construction of all solid state electronic devices. In order to understand the operation of semiconductors and semiconductor devices, it is necessary to have some familiarity with the basic concepts of the atomic structure of matter.2 Semiconductor Electronics 1.1, ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF HYDROGEN ATOM In 1913, the Danish Physicist Niels Bohr introduced an atomic model using the quantum theories of Planck and Einstein and used it to explain successfully the absorption and emission spectra for hydrogen. The picture of an atom accepted by Bohr consists of a nucleus of positive charge containing nearly all the mass Of the atom, with electrons revolving around this nucleus as shown in Fig. 1.1. Bohr formulated two postulates for his atomic model. M( shew) Lishen) Fig. 1.1. Atomic structure. Bohr’s first postulate explains that an electron can only be in an orbit or shell, for which its angular momentum is a multiple of h/2x, h being the Planck's constant. Each of these allowed orbits corresponds to a certain energy and is called stationary or nonradiating state as the clectron does not emit any energy so long as it remains in this orbit, This postulate can be expressed as h myn ane (1) where n = 1,2,3,...., i8 an integer called the principal quantum number and mv is the momentum of the electron in the orbit of radius r. ‘According to Bohr’s second postulate, the absorption or emission of light by an atom occurs only when an electron undergoes a transition from one sta- tionary state to anther. In each such transition, the energy hv is absorbed or ‘emitted by the atom and is equal to hy =£,-E, (1.2)Semiconductor: An Introduction 3 where v is the frequency of the radiant energy, and £, and E, are the energies of the two states involved in the transition. Combining Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2, the energy level in joules of each state is found 10 be me’ 1 8h7e5 n? 1 vhere e is the ch: the electron and —— where ¢ is the charge oa the electron and 7. (13) Bohr labelled these stationary energy states as L. M, N, and Q. The maxi- mum number of electrons that can exist in these states is 2, 8, 18 and 32 respectively. The outermost shell of the ator containing electrons is known as the valence shell and the electrons in this valence shell are called the valence electrons, Bohr's model was modified by Pauli’s exclasion principle, which intro- duced subshells in a shell. According to the Pauli's exclusion principle, no two lectrons in an atom can have exacily the same quantum state, These subshells are labelled as 5, p, d and f. The maximum number of electrons that these subshells can have is 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively. 1.2, ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM ‘The energy level diagram for the hydrogen atom is shown in Fig. 1.2, This diagram is obtained by putting 1 = 1, 2, 3,... ., in Eq. 1.3 and drawing Energy E(eV) noe he tonizat Rg 8 et “he 2 039 <0 Normat state : Fig. 1.2. Energy level diagram for hydrogen atom. horizontal Lines arranged vertically in accordance with the energy values, cal- culated from Eq. 1.3 for n= 1, 2,3,...... . Theoretically, an infinite number of states exist for each atom, but only the first five and the state for n =< are4 Semiconductor Electronics depicted. Expressing the energy of stationary states in electron volt using Eq, 1.2, the wavelength A of the emitted radiation may be given by (1.4) The lowest energy state is called the normal o the ground state and the other stationary states of the atom are called excited, radiating, critical, or res- conance levels. The energy required to move an electron completely out of the field of the nucleus is called ionization potential and is shown as the highest energy state in the energy level diagram shown in Fig. 1.2. The ionization potential for hydrogen is 13.60 eV. 1.3. BAND THEORY OF CRYSTALS The x-ray and other studies show that most metals and semiconductors have a crystalline structure, ie. a regular and repetitive atomic or molecular arrange- ‘ment in three dimensions, In these crystalline materials, the electronic enerey level diagram discussed in Sec. 1.2 is not applicable. This is because the atoms begin to experience the influence of their neighbours, which is, in a way, simi- lar to the influence of an extemal electric field. As the atoms converge, come closer, the interaction between them becomes stronger. Because of this interaction, the energy levels of the inner-shells’ electrons are not affected appreciably, but the levels of the outer-shells* electrons are changed to a marked extent, since these electrons are now shared by more than one atom in the crystal, [tis observed that the coupling between the outer-shell electrons of the atoms in crystal resulls in a band of closely spaced energy states, instead of widely separated energy Ievels of the isolated atom as shown in Fig. 1.3. Fig. 1.3. Bands of closely spaced energy states.Semiconductor: An Introduction 5 In order to understand this band structure, a crystal of WV atoms of one of the elements of group IV A of the periodic table e.g. Si or Ge, may be consid- ered, The electronic configurations of these elements are 1s°25°2p"3s°3p? and 15°2572p73573p8d"4s*4p? respectively. The outer two subshells for each contain two s electrons and two p electrons, Since the 5 atomic subshell has two possible states at the same energy, there will be 2 possible s states in a crystal of N atoms and the number of s electrons will be 2N. So, there will be 2N electrons completely filling the 2N s-subshells. But in case of the p atomic subshell, there are six possible states, therefore, there will be 2N electrons filling 2N p-subshells (out of possible 6N states) at the same energy. Now, if it is possible to decrease the spacing between atoms without changing the crystal structure of this imaginary crystal (moving from right to left in Fig. 1.4, the neighbouring Isolated, pe tton fou! states ANP plectrone 0 electrons (4N states conduction band 1 2Ns states 2N 3 electrons 4 electrons 1 GN states valence band we np abe Inner shell atomic levels unattec tes crystal formation Interatomie spacing 3 “ta) (b) Fig. 1.4. Formation of energy bands in erystalline material ‘toms start interacting and their atomic wavefunctions overlap. As a result, the crystal becomes an electronic system obeying the Pauli’s exclusion principle. If the interatomic distance is decreased sufficiently, the 2V degenerate s states and 6N degenerate p states spread out in energy of the order of several electron volts. These large number of discrete but closely spaced energy statcs are known as energy bands [Fig, 1.4(a)}. These two energy bands arc separated by an energy gap known as a forbidden band. If the interatomic distance is further decreased to the limit of crystal lattice spacing, these bands overlap and 6N upper states (p states) merge with 2N lower states (s states), giving a total of 8N states. As the available electrons are 4N, half of the 8N states are filled. So, each atom contributes 4 electrons 10 the band and now these electrons no6 Semiconductor Electronics longer belong to the s or p subshell of an isolated atom, but rather to the crystal as a whole, The band occupied by these electrons is called the valence band. Hence, at the crystal lattice spacing, there is a valence band filled with 4 clectrons separated by a forbidden band of energy Eq from an empty band having 4N states. This empty upper band is known as the conduction band [Fig. 140)). 1.4, CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS On the basis of the energy band structure, a material may be called a conductor, insulator, or semiconductor. Conduction S “| “y Cx Ga (a) (b) (c) Fig. 1.5. Energy Level Diagram for: (a) A conductor (b) A semicon- ductor and (¢) An insulator. At the crystal lattice spacing, Fig. 1.5(a) illustrates an energy level dia- gram for a conductor, This shows an overlapping of conduction and valence bands, implying that it kes very small or no energy for electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction band and therefore, all the valence electrons are free to take part in the conduction, Hence, the conductivity of a conductor is very high. Figure 1.5(¢) illustrates an energy level diagram for an insulator. In this case, the forbidden energy gap is of several electron volts (Eg =6eV), thus separating the valence and the conduction bands. Since the electron cannot be supplicd energy more than 6 eV (say by an electric field), the valence band ‘lecirons cannot be raised to the conduction band. Hence conduction is impos- sible in an insulator. Figure 1.5(b) illustrates an energy level diagram for a semiconductor. The energy of the forbidden band is approximately 1 eV at room temperature. The ‘most commonly used semiconductors are germanium and silicon, which haveSemiconductor: An Introduction 7 this forbidden band of 0.72 eV and 1.1 eV respectively. The energies of this order of magnitude normally cannot be acquired from an applied field. Hence, these semiconductors are insulators at low temperatures. As the temperature is increased, some of the valence electrons acquire thermal energy more than the band. gap energy and reach the conduction band The insulator has now become slightly conducting i.e. a semiconductor. Actually, the division between insulators and semiconductors is quite arbitrary, because many generally known dielectrics are now used as semicon- ductors. For example, silicon carbide (E, = 3 eV) is used now in semiconductor devices. Even diamond is being investigated for a possible application in the ‘scmiconductor technology. 1.5, CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF SEMICONDUCTOR (Concept of Hole) ‘The most commonly used semiconductors in electronic devices are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si), As discussed in Sec, 1.3, in each case, there are four electrons in the outermost shell. In a pure Ge or Si crystal, these four valence electrons are bonded to four adjoining atoms by covalent bonds (formed by sharing of electrons), as shown in Fig. 1.6. At 0°K all valence electrons are firmly bonded in covalent bonds and there are no free electrons available for lecirical conduction. From the point of view of band theory, al O°K a Fig. 1.5. Crystal structure of Ge, showing covalent bonding of atoms in two dimensions.& Semiconductor Electronics semiconductor has a completely filled valence band and an empty conduction band, thus behaving as an insulator. At room temperature, the crystal littice is thermally excited and the valence electrons get additional energy. When electrons receive sufficient ‘energy, more than the energy of the covalent bonds, they rupture the covalent bonds and wander in the lattice space as free negative charge carriers. The ‘energy required to rupture a covalent bond is about 0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si al room temperature, If the temperature of the crystal is increased, more covalent bonds are broken and more free electrons are available in the crystal, showing an increase in the conductivity or a decrease in the resistance. This shows that a semiconductor has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. When an electron becomes free by rupturing a covalent bond, the absence of electron in its parent position in the bond is represented by a small circle and is known as hole. (Fig. 1.7(a)] Since a hole consists of a missing negative charge e, it is accepted as equivalent to a positive charge e. Hence, there is always an attractive force bewween a hole and an electron and at any given temperature, the rate of recombination of holes and electrons is always equal to the rate of production of new holes and electrons. Therefore, the total number of free electrons and holes in a crystal remains constant. On the energy evel diagram, the creation of electron-hole pair corresponds with the electron uansition from the valence band to the conduction band as shown in Fig. 1.70). Valence bend (b) Fig. 1.7. (a) Ge crystal with electron-hole pair (b) Band structure dia- ‘gram showing electron-hole pair. 1.6. MOVEMENT OF HOLES THROUGH THE CRYSTAL LATTICE When an electron escapes from a covalent bond, it leaves behind a hole. Simi- lar to clectron, the hole also takes part in the conduction and its movement in the crystal is opposite to that of the electron. Figure 1.8 illustrates theSemiconductor: An Introduction 9 rf at at + . > : > Gey. (Ge) o[ Ge) e tp( Se St % + at (o)| . . 2, . Bye e(S) rele o( 5 67 s sels 42) (o) ese ° . *] ce eee . : . . (a) eee Seve a(Se)e (Sle o( Se es oy a 2) ve eee Fig. 1.8. Movement of hole in a crystal. movement of hole through the crystal lattice. In Fig.1.8(a), the hole has moved from atom 4 to atom 1, The detailed mechanism of this movement is shown in Figs. 1.8 (b, ¢, d and ¢). Suppose by the rupturing of a covalent bond, a hole is created in the atom 4, as shown in Fig. 1,8(0). Now, imagine that an electron from atom 3 jumps into the hole of atom 4, so that the configuration of Fig, 1,8(¢) results. Now, the electron from atom 2 jumps into the hole of atom 3 and we get the configuration of Fig. 1.8(4). Similarly, Fig. 1.8(¢) is obtained when an electron from atom 1 jumps into the hole of atom 2. If we compare these four configurations, it looks as if the hole has moved from atom 4 to atom 1 Actually, the movement of a hole means the electron movement in the opposite direction. Hence. the holes can be considered as physical entities and free pos- itive charge carriers, whose movements also contribute the electric current. Itis important to note that the holes travel more slowly than do electrons. This is because the movement of a hole in a particular direction actually consists of a series of discontinuous electron movements in the opposite direction, 1.7. INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS Semiconductors are classified as intrinsic and extrinsic: or doped. The intrinsic semiconductors are those that are very pure. In these, the properties of the crystal are determined only by the properties of atoms of the semiconductor material itself, The details of intrinsic semiconductors are discussed in Sec. 1.5 and 1.6. If an extremely small (approximately 1 in 10* atoms), carefully controlled amount of an impurity clement (generally trivalent or pentavalent atoms) is introduced into the intrinsic semiconductor, say Ge, each of the impurity atoms take the place of one of the Ge atoms in the lattice. Since the impurity atoms10 Semiconductor Electronics are very small in number as compared to the Ge atoms, it can be assumed that the lattice remains undisturbed and that each impurity atom is surrounded by four Ge atoms. This process of introducing impurity atoms into an intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping and the crystal thus obiained is called a doped or an extrinsic semiconductor, 1.8, TYPES OF EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS Depending upon the impurity atoms, the extrinsic semiconductors are further divided into two groups viz. n-type and p-type semiconductors. 1.8.1 n-type Semiconductor If the doping is done by any pentavalent substance belonging to group V of the periodic table of the clements (arsenic, antimony, or phosphorus), four valence clectrons of the impurity atoms form covalent bonds with four electrons of the neighbouring Ge atoms and the fifth electron of the impurity atom becomes free 1o wander in the lattice. This is shown in Fig, 1.9 (a), Since each impurity atom has donated one free electron to the crystal, this pentavalent impurity is known as donor. The crystal is said to be n-type semiconductor as the number of electrons (negative charge carriers) in the crystal is much greater than the number of holes produced by thermal agitation. (a) (b) Fig. 1.9. n-type Semiconductor: (a) Crystal structure (b) Energy band ‘The energy band structure of n-type semiconductor is shown in Fig. 1.9 (b). In an intrinsic semiconductor, the allowed energy levels are only either in the valence band or in the conduction band and their presence in the forbid- den band is ruled out. But, because of impurity atoms, additional allowed energy levels appear in the energy spectrum in the forbidden band and at very small energy below the conduction band as shown in Fig. 1.9(b). In Ge, the ccnergy of these new discrete allowed energy levels is only 0.01 eV (0.05 cV inSemiconductor: An Introduction 11 Si) below the conduction band, This is the reason why at room temperature almost all the fifth electrons of the donor are raised into the conduction band. In n-type semiconductor, the recombination rate of electrons and holes also increases because of the presence of an increased number of electrons donated by the donor and as a result, the number of holes decreases. 1.8.2, P-type Semiconductors If the doping is done by any trivalent substance belonging to group IIT of the Periodic table of the elements (indium, aluminium, or gallium), three valence electrons of the impurity atom form covalent bonds with the three electrons of neighbouring Ge atoms. The fourth covalent bond has a missing electron, thus ahole is introduced for cach impurity atom (Fig. 1.10 (a)}. This hole is mobile as discussed in Sec.1.6. Since each impurity atom has a tendency to accept one electron, this trivalent impurity is called an acceptor. The crystal is said to be p-type semiconductor as the holes (positive Charge Carriers) are in the major- ity. Conduction band fe [sown vow | ec Acceptor energy level -_ ----& rp Ev cote] Valence band (a) (b) Fig. 1.10, p-type semiconductor: (a) Crystal structure, (b) Energy band diagram. The energy band structure of p-ype semiconductor is shown in Fig, 1.10 (b). The p-type impurity introduces an allowable discrete energy level just, above the valence band (0.01 eV) as shown in Fig. 1.10 (b). The presence of this energy level helps the etectrons to leave the vatence band and occupy this acceptor level because the energy required is very small. The holes generated in the valence band by these electrons constitute the largest number of carriers in the p-ype semiconductor. ‘The n-type or the p-type semiconductor is electrically neutral because cach impurity atom is itself neutral. Tn n-type semiconductor, the electrons are the majority charge carriers and the holes are the minority charge carriers. In p-type semiconductor, the electrons are the minority charge carriers and holes are the majority charge carriers.12. Semiconductor Electronics 1.9. CONCENTRATION OF CHARGE CARRIERS IN n-TYPE AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS As discussed in Sec. 1.5, at any temperature the rate of recombination of holes and electrons r() is always equal 10 the rate of production of new holes and electrons pit), ic. rO=PO (15) Farther, the rate of recombination depends on the number of encounters of holes and electrons, therefore, r(1) is proportional to p and 2, the densities of holes and electrons respectively, so r()=p@=kap (0.6) where £ is a constant of proportionality. As in pair production n= p = n, (say), np=np (7) where n, is the intrinsic concentration. ‘Suppose 'V, and N, are the concentrations of donor atoms in the n-type and of acceptor atoms in the p-type semiconductors respectively. Since in the n-type semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are electrons, the hole con- centration p, in comparison (o electron concentration #, may be ignored. Also, since each donor atom contributes one clectron to the crystal, the electron concentration in the n-type semiconductor is approximately equal 10 the concentration of donor atoms, i = Np (1.8) and using Eq, 1.7, the hole concentration in n-type semiconductor is 2 (19) In Similarly, in the p-type semiconductor, the hole and the clectron concentrations are Pp=Ny (1.10) and aay 1.10, TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF CHARGE CARRIER CONCENTRATION ‘The purity and the temperature are the main factors on which the concentrationSemiconductor: An Introduction 13 toon (a) (b) Fig. 1.11, Temperature dependence of charge carrier concentration (a) Intrinsic, and (b) n-type Semiconductor, of charge carriers in a semiconductor depends. A semiconductor becomes con- ducting only when the temperature is increased considerably higher than abso- lute zero. Figure 1.11 shows the variation of the concentration of charge carriers in the intrinsic and the exuinsic (say, n-type) semiconductors. The charge carrier concentration rises with temperature because electrons from deeper and deeper states of the valence band move to the conduction band (Fig. 1.11 (a)]. In Figure 1.11(b), there is not a continuous rise in carrier concentra- tion with temperature, As the temperature is increased above absolute zero, electrons from the donor level being very close to conduction band reach the conduction band much earlier than in the case of intrinsic semiconductor. As the temperature is further increased, more electrons from the donor level reach the conduction band and at a temperature known as depletion temperature, all the donor electrons reach the conduction band, When the temperature is increased beyond T,, the number of electrons in the conduction band remains ‘constant up to the temperature when the thermal energy becomes sufficient 10 raisc the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band (region b c in Fig. 1.11(b)). Further rise in temperature increases the number of electrons in the conduction band (region ¢ d). At a temperature 7; (known as temperature of transition of intrinsic conductivity), electrons from the valence band become ‘equal to the clectrons from the donor level. Beyond this temperature, the extrinsic semiconductor behaves as an intrinsic semiconductor. This is because in the conduction band the number of electrons raised from the donor level can be ignored in comparison to the electrons raised from the valence band, In most semiconductors, 7; exceeds room temperature considerably.14 Semiconductor Electronics 1.11, SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1 Find the hole and electron concentrations in a p-type semiconductor, if the acceptor density is 10” atoms/m? and the intrinsic concentration is 2.5 x 10" per m? at 300° K. Solution In a p-type semiconductor, the hole concentration is equal to the acceptor den- sity. + Pp =Nq = 10” holes/m? and the electron concentration 10” = 6.25% 10" electrons/m’. Problem 2 If the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation is 1,000 nm, find the band- Bap encrgy. Solution Using Eq, 1.4, the band-gap energy in electron volt is given by, Ep, «12400 J (000 x 10 =124eV. ‘Questions ond Problems |. What is the effect of doping on the resistance of a semiconductor? .. What is the effect of large pressure on a semiconductor? |. How is semiconductor defined? What are n-type and p-type semi- conductors? 4, How docs a hole move in a crystal lattice? 5. Explain the effect of temperature on the charge carrier concentrations in a semiconductor. How docs a semiconductor behave at 0°K? .. How do the impurities change the character of an intrinsic semiconductor? . What are the majority charge carriers in an intrinsic semiconductor? ). Why does a semiconductor have a negative temperature coefficient? w pe eensSemiconductor: An Introduction 15 10. Find the hole and electron densities in an n-type semiconductor if Np =10*/m at 300°K. 11. If the band-gap cnergy is 1.1 eV, find the wavelength of the electrmag- netic radiation emiticd by this materialSemiconductor Junction Diode As the name indicates, the semiconductor diode is constructed from a semni- conductor material i.e. Ge or Si. The semiconductor diode is an electronic device which has a high resistance to the flow of current in one direction and a low resistance in the opposite direction. The diode is one of the fundamental building blocks of the wide variety of electronic circuits used today. The diodes are used as rectifiers, doublers, limiters, clippers, clampers, modulators, demodulators, waveshaping circuits, logic gates, frequency convertors, etc. The semiconductor diodes available in many sizes and shapes, consist of p-n junctions formed in either Ge or Si crystals. 2.1. THE p-n JUNCTION DIODE In order 10 obiain a p-n junction diode with controlled and permanent proper- tics, a Si or Ge crystal is doped with donor atoms at one end and acceptor atoms at the other. This semiconductor crystal has both p-type and n-type regions, which make a junction between them as shown in Fig. 2.1. The donor ions are shown as © because the donor impurity atom becomes positive after donating one electron, The acceptor ions are shown as © because the acceptor atom becomes a negative ion after accepting one electron, Free electrons and holes arc represented as ~ and + symbols. The formation of the p-n junction is described below. Initially, holes are present in the majority to the left of the junction, and electrons in the majority to the right of the junction. These holes and electrons are free to move randomly in the Initice. Since there are more electrons to the right of the junction and more holes to the left of the junction, there is a density gradient across the junction. Therefore, more holes diffuse to the right of the junction and more electrons diffuse to the left of the junction. As a result of the ‘electrons leaving the n-material, donor ions are produced on the n-side of theSemiconductor Junction Diode 17 Hale majority p-n Hole min corriers, fiction _rearriers v e/e t ++ + -~t- Oi * Sate * Lolo] 7 wuse * type e+ a ole + + al 7 4 Electron/ Accepter” space-charge OPO" 10” Career ‘on region or depletion ery char genshy (>) Ver Potentiot (c) Fig. 2.1. Formation of a p-n junction. junction. When these electrons fill holes on the p-side of the junction, the accepior ions are produced. These stationary positive and negative charges along the n- and p-sides of the junction respectively are shown in Fig. 2.1(a) and (b). The space occupied between these ions is called the space-charge region. The movement of holes and electrons across the junetion constitutes current known as diffusion current. Thus, the region just to the left of the junc- tion becomes negatively charged and the region just to the right of the junction becomes positively charged, and a potential difference is established across the pn junction (Fig. 2.1(c). Any charge carriers entering this space-charge region, arc rapidly swept out of it, and hence this region is depleted of charge carriers and is known as the depletion region. It is a region of high electrical resistance and is approxi- mately 0.001 mm in width. ‘The region near the junction of p and n materials is thus referred to by many names: the space-charge region, potential barrier, and depletion region; and this device is known as the p-n junction or a semiconductor diode. The various notations generally used for a semiconductor diode are shown in Fig. 22. The pype and n-type portions of the diode are called anode and18 Semiconductor Electronics cathode respectively, just following the vacuum tube terminology. The direc- tion in which the diode resistance is small is shown by the arrowhead. Itis also the direction of conventional current flow when the diode is forward-biased, Another meaning of the arrowhead is that it represents the anode and points towards the cathode, anoce| , | ,, |catnove =D (a) (b) e a DB a eal (c) @) ter Fig.22. Semiconductor Diode Notations. 2.2. BIASING A SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: ‘CURRENT/VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS. When an extemal battery is connected across the p-n junction, itis called bias- ing the p-n junction. There are two methods to bias a diode, viz. the forward biasing and the reverse biasing. 2.2.1. Forward Biasing of a Diode When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and the neg- ative terminal to the n-side of a p-n junction, the diode is said to be forward biased, as shown in Fig. 2.3(a). In this condition, the holes in the p-region and electrons in the n-region of the diode experience a repelling force from the battery and therefore, drift towards the junction, This drift of holes and 4] 3.9} 29} Battery ‘9 Forward current(ma) Ji) x ~_ 11] TOES OTF Forward bios voltage (vets (a) on Fig. 2.3. (a) Forward Biasing of a p-n Junction Diode, (b) Current/Vol- tage characteristic in forward biasing.Semiconductor Junction Diode 19 electrons towards the junction reduces the width of the depletion region and also the junction potential barrier. This helps the holes of relatively lower energy in the p-region to cross the junction and combine with the electrons in the n-tegion. Similarly, more free electrons in the n-region cross the junetion and combine with the holes in the p-region. The reason for the continuous Presence of a large number of holes in the p-region and the electrons in the n-region inspite of diffusion is that the positive and the negative terminals of the battery are considered 10 inject holes and electrons to the p-side and the aside of the diode, respectively. In other words, it may be regarded that the holes and the electrons diffusing across the junction are coming from the bat- tery. This diffusion of majority charge carriers constitute a current across the Junction and the total current is the sum of the hole and the electron currents. ‘The resultant current enters the p-region as a hole current and leaves the neregion as an electron current. Therefore, it is said that in the forward biasing the current flow is by majority charge carriers, Now, if the forward voltage applied across the p-n junction is inereased, more majority charge carriers cross the junction and more forward current flows across the junction. However, when the forward bias becomes more than the junction potential, the barrier disappears and the current increases rapidly, but it is limited by the bulk resistance of the crystal and the resistance of the ‘ohmic contacts of the p- and n-regions. Thus, in the forward biasing, initially the current increases slowly with the biasing potential but when this becomes slightly more than the junction potential, the current is govemed by the ohmic contact resistance and the crystal bulk resistance. Thus, the current/voltage characteristic becomes approximately a straight fine, as shown in Fig. 2.3 (b). The diode offers very small resistance in the forward biasing. 2.2.2. Reverse Biasing of a Diode ‘When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side and the neg- ative terminal to the p-side of a p-n diode, the diode is said to be reverse biased, as shown in Fig. 2.4 (a). In this condition, the holes in the p-region and the electrons in the n-region of the diode experience attractive forces from the battery and therefore, drift away from the junction. This drift of holes and electrons away from the junction increases the width of the depletion region and also the junction potential barrier. Fewer holes in the p-region and elec ons in the n-region now have sufficient energy to overcome the junction potential and therefore, the majority charge carrier current decreases. Since the minority charge carrier current is constant, the resultant current flows across the junction from the n-region to the p-tegion, When the reverse bias is increased, more majority charge carriers become incompetent to overcome the junction potential and the majority charge carrier current reduces further. Hence the net current from the n-region to the p-region increases. This increase20 Semiconductor Electronics Reverse bias voltage (volts) 200 150 00 0 0 Breakdown / Reverse | | voltage saturation a current & Reverse current (1A) I ‘It Battery Fig. 24. (a) Reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode (b) Curreny/Voltage characteristic in reverse biasing. in current with increasing reverse bias voltage continues until a point is reached when no majority charge carrier is able to cross the junction. In this condition, the constant current flowing across the junction is equal to the minority charge carrier current and is known as reverse saturation current, Hence, in the reverse biasing, the diode offers a very high resistance to the flow of current. If the reverse bias is further increased, a critical voltage known as breakdown voltage is reached, at which a rapid increase in current occurs, as shown in Fig. 2.4 (b). The breakdown of a diode is described in Sec. 2.3. The ‘maximum reverse biased voltage that can be maintained across a p-n junction is known as peak inverse voltage (PIV). 2.2.3. The Cut-in Voltage For every semiconductor diode, there exists a cut-in voltage V, , below which 20} 8 Forward current (mA) oof a Forward bias veltage (volts) Fig. 2.5. Cut-in voltages in Ge and Si diodes.Semiconductor Junction Diode 24 the current is very small and beyond which the current rises very rapidly. This voltage is also known as offset, breat-point,.ot threshold voliage. Figure 2.5 shows the current/voltage forward characteristics for Ge and Si diodes at room temperature. The cut-in voltage for Ge and Si'are 0.2 V and 0.6 V respectively. 2.3. THE BREAKDOWN OF A p-n JUNCTION Asexplained in See. 2.2.2, all the p-n junctions have a limit of allowable maxi- ‘mum reverse-bias voltage, beyond which a rapid increase in the current occurs. This limiting voltage is known as breakdown voltage and two mechanisms are responsible for this breakdown. 2.3.1. Zener Breakdown ‘When the applied reverse voltage produces a sufficient large electric field across the junction, some of the covalent bonds are ruptured owing to this electric field, and a large number of holes and electrons is produced in the crystal. These holes and clecirons are responsible for the rapid increase in the saturation current. This phenomenon is known as Zener breakdown. 2.3.2. Avalanche Breakdown When the applied reverse voltage is large enough to accelerate the minority charge carriers to gain sufficient energy, some of the covalent bonds are broken owing to the collision of these accelerated charge carriers with the atoms. The large number of holes and electrons thus produced is responsible for the rapid increase in the saturation current. This type of breakdown is known as avalanche breakdown, 2.4 IDEAL DIODE As discussed in Sec. 2. , a semiconductor diode has a very high resistance in snort gievit Berens bas 7] Seal rene & & (a) (b) (c) Fig. 2.6. (a) Voltage/Current characteristic of an ideal diode, (b) Forward biased diode showing short circuit, (©) Reverse biased diode showing open circuit.22 Semiconductor Electronics the reverse biasing and a very low resistance in the forward biasing. However, in the case of an ideal diode, the forward resistance of the diode is zero, while the reverse resistance is infinite. The voltage/current characteristic for an ideal diode is shown in Fig 2.6 (a). It is clear from the figure that the forward resistance is zero and the diode behaves as a short circuit (Fig. 2.6 (b)). In the reverse biasing, the diode behaves as an open circuit (Fig. 2.6(c)} showing infinite resistance. 2.5. STATIC AND DYNAMIC RESISTANCES Figure 2.7 shows voltage/current characteristics along with the load line for a semiconductor diode. The intersection of the load line and the diode character- istic is known as the quiescent point or the point of operation for the diode. The voltage across and the current through the diode can be very easily found by drawing vertical and horizontal lines respectively. Diode characteristic 1K0 (b) ores 4s 6 7 6 3 0 vivo!) (ay Fig. 2.7. (a) Quiescent point and static resistance of a diode (b) Diode cir- ‘cuit for static resistance, 2.5.1. Static Resistance Figure 2.7 shows that the diode has a fixed voltage and current corresponding to the quiescent point. The static or dc resistance of the diode at the quiescent point is defined by, Rowe = Qn ‘The advantage of finding the dc resistance is that the diode can be replaced by a simple resistance equal to the de resistance, while drawing an equivalent circuit.Semiconductor Junction Diode 23 2.5.2. Dynamic Resistance Figure 2.8 shows that wusoidal signal on a de level is applied to the diode circuit. With this additional ac signal, two additional load lines are obtained. 2 Aas ImAG0 Ts ot ts 0 se 7 (vain) BVqr0O1V ( Fig.2.8, (a) Quiescent point and dynamic resistance of a diode (©) Diode circuit for dynamic resistance, ‘The dynamic or ac resistance is obtained by drawing a tangent on the charac- teristic at the quiescent point and using the relation. AV, Roma Be @2 2.6. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON A DIODE The decrease with barrier potential in a forward biased p-n junction with increase in the temperature is approximately given by AV=-25 mVPC (2.3) Because of this change in the barrier potential, the cut-in voltage decreases with increase in temperature, as shown in Fig. 2.9. In reverse biasing the available leakage current depends upon the temperature. For a Ge diode, the leakage current becomes double for every 10°C rise in temperature. For a Si diode, the leakage current becomes double for every 6°C rise in temperature. 2.7. TYPES OF DIODE ‘The various types of diodes used in all the branches of modem electronic cir- cuitry and radio enginecring are described in this section.24° Semiconductor Electronics. Reverse bias (volt) Ge diode 250200 160 100 s¢_0 2 wore | Jase ° z i 100] 2% ae jo = za ° P 5 = sol so E ze Ge diode a 2 40} : 8 bard 2 2d so oe 8 Forward bias (volt) (a) (b) Fig. 2.9. Effect of temperature ona diode in (a) Forward biasing, and (b) Reverse biasing. 2.7.1, Zener Diode ‘The breakdown of a p-n junction is described in Sec. 2.3. A semiconductor diode which is designed to operate in the breakdown region without damage is known as a Zener, avalanche, or breakdown diode. The current is restricted toa safe value by using an extemal resistance so that the diode is not damaged. Reverse bias eo ° L (a) (b) (ce) Fig. 2.10. (a) Symbol for a Zener Diode, (b) Voltage/current characteristic of a Zener diode, (c) Zener diode circuit for voltage stabilization, Figure 2.10 (a) shows the symbol and the circuit of a Zener diode, and its voltage/current characteristic. ‘The location of the Zener potential V;, also known as reference voltage can be adjusted by varying the doping levels, as Zener potential decreases by increasing the doping. ‘The Zener diodes are used for stabilizing voltage and therefore, are also called stabilizer diodes or stabilitrons. The voltage/current characteristic of a Zener diode shows that in the breakdown region, an extremely minor change in voltage causes very large variations in the current across the diode, The Zener‘Semiconductor Junction Diode 25 diode is generally connected in parallel 1o the load across which the stabilized voltage is achieved. The resistance R of the limiting resistor connected in series with the diode is so adjusted that the current fz flowing through the diode cor- responds to the middle point of the breakdown region [point O in Fig. 2.10 (c)]. ‘Suppose there is some change in the supply voltage (say increase). Asa result, the current in the circuit increases, but since large changes in the diode current are able to produce only very small changes in the Zener diode voltage (sce breakdown region in Fig, 2.10 (b)}, the voltage across the Zener diode or the load remains almost unchanged, In this way, the voltage stabilization is achieved by using a Zener diode as in the circuit of Fig. 2.10(¢). 2.7.2. Tunnel Diode ‘The tunnel diode was first manufactured by Dr Leo Esaki in 1958. The symbol of tunnel diode is shown in Fig. 2.1 (a). It was found that ifthe depletion layer ina p-n junction was very thin, the electrons could penetrate Negative fecstonce A tegen Forward current Ferword biot Ry (a) (b) (c) Fig. 2.11 Tunnel diode: (a) Symbol, (b) Voliage/current characteristic, (©) Equivalent circuit in negative resistance region through the junction barrier and thus could pass from one side of the depletion layer to the other with less energy than was apparently necessary. This quantum-mechanical phenomenon is known as tunneling and the p-n diode based upon this tunneling effect is known as a tunnel diode, Ina tunnel diode, the width of the depletion layer is reduced by increasing the concentration of impurity atoms, say, | part in 10° (in ordinary diode, itis 1 part in 10°), With this impurity concentration, the width of the depletion layer is reduced to less than 100°A which is one-fiftieth the wavelength of light. For potential barriers of this thickness, the probability of an electron to pencirate this barrier (as calculated quantum-mechanically using SchréSdinger equation) becomes very large, and the voltage/current characteristic of this high impurity density diode is completely changed, as shown in Fig. 2.11 (b). The tunnel diode shows a negative resistance for part of its characteristic [A to B in Fig. 2.11 (b)] and therefore, is also called a negative resistance device. For currents26 Semiconductor Electronics between fy (peak current) and Jy (valley current) the characteristic is ued because the same current can be achieved for three different appl ages. The multivalued feature of the tunnel diode makes it a useful device in the high speed switching circuits. The equivalent circuit of a tunnel diode is shown in Fig. 2.11(6). 2.7.3. Power Diode The power diode is a p-n junction diode specially designed to be used in the applications of high power and at high temperature. The power diode is con- structed to have higher forward current, as well as higher peak inverse voltage. The typical value of PIV is somewhere between 50 V and 1000 V, with a maximum curreny of 30A. The forward resistance of a power diode is also very low, in the order of one ohm, In many cases, the heat sinks are also used along with a power diode to draw away the heat due to heavy current, 2.7.4, Photodiode The photodiode is a semiconductor p-n junction operating in the reverse-bias region and is based upon the phenomenon of the photovoltaic affect. A voltage is generated across the p-n junction when light falls upon it. Owing to this voltage, a current starts flowing in an extemal circuit, in a direction reverse to that usually flowing in a general-purpose diode. This current increases linearly with the inerease in the incident light. The symbol, biasing arrangement. and voltage/current characteristics of a photodiode are depicted in Fig. 2.12. The dark current corresponds to the current flowing without incident light and obviously, itis the reverse saturation current of the diode, Reverse current (a) = Light intensity ib) Reverse bias te} Fig. 2.12. Photodiode: (a) Symbol, (b) Voltage/Current characteristic, (©) Biasing arrangement. As discussed in Sec. 2.2.2, the current in a reverse-biased p-n junction is owing to diffusing minority charge carriers, As the incident light produces electron-hole pairs in the reverse-biased diode, the electrons in the p-region and the holes in.the n-region become additional minority charge carriers andSemiconductor Junction Diode 27 the current increases. If the incident light falls at a distance from the p-n junc tion, the minority carriers produced duc 10 light may recombine before diffus- ing across the junction and a small current will flow. This current will increase if the light falls near the junction because the probability of recombination is less. Hence, the photocurrent is a function of the distance from the junction at which the light falls, as shown in Fig, 2.13. As the diffusion lengths of minority charge carriers in the p- and the n-regions are different, the curve is not sym- metrical on both sides. z > gf ae Dark current o Distance from junction (mm) Fig. 2.13. Variation of photocurrent with distance from the junction at which light falls, 2.7.5. Varactor Diode The varactor diode is a semiconductor variable voltage capacitor. It is also called varieap diode or capacitor diode. Ithas been discussed in Sec. 2.2.2 that in the reverse-biased diode, tne depiction region is depleted of charge cartiers. So, the junction area can be used as a capacitor because the depletion region acis as a diclectric medium, and the ions on cach side of the depletion region act as conductors, The capacitance of this capacitor, known as transition region capacitance, decreases as the reverse-bias vollage is increased, as shown in Fig. 2.14, This is because the depletion region becomes wider as the reverse bias is increased. This process is analogous to separating the plates of parallel plate capacitor, resulting in the fall of capacitance, The normal range of reverse bais for VVC diodes is limited to about 20 V. The Figure 2.14 also shows the symbols used for the varactor diode. These diodes are used in the field of parametric amplification, in which a bias voltage and a signal are applied28 Semiconductor Electronics Capacitance (pF) Reverse bias (volt) fa) (b) Fig. 2.14, Varactor Diode: (a) Characteristic, (b) Symbol. simultaneously to a junction. Other applications are: frequency modulators, adjustable band-pass filters, automatic frequency control devices, etc. 2.7.6, Light Emitting Diode (LED) When a p-n diode is forward biased, annihilation of holes and electrons takes place close to the junction and some energy is rcleased in the junction. In Ge and Si, this energy is in the form of heat. But it has been observed that in some Ys) Fig. 2.15. Symbol of light emitting diode (LED). other semiconductors, ¢.g. gallium arsenide, the energy is released in the form of radiation, This phenomenon is known as eleciro-luminiscence and the diode based upon this phenomenon is called a light emitting diode. The LED's are used in pilot lamps, display devices, etc, 2.8. SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1 Calculate the voltage across the load and the power delivered to the load for the circuit of Fig. 27.Semiconductor Junction Diode 29 Solution From Fig. 2.7 (a), Vo=1V and Ig=9mA ‘The voliage division in the circuit of Fig. 2.7 (b) gives the voltage across the Toad as V_=V-Vp=V-Vo =10-1=9V The power delivered to the load is ‘P= power supplied by the source ~ Power dissipated across the diode, =VMp-Vorly = 10x9x 10°-1x9x10" =81mW. Problem 2 Find the static or de resistance of the diode of the circuit of Fig. 2.7. Solution Using Eq, 2.1, the static resistance of the diode is given by, Problem 3 Find the dynamic resistance for the diode of circuit given in Fig. 2.8. Solution Using Eq. 2.2, the dynamic resistance of the diode is given by, Vo Renie = From Fig. 2.8(a), AVo = 0.01V; Alo = 2 mA = 5-59. ‘omni 2x 107 Problem 4 Find the voltage drop and the current across the diode for the input signal shown in Fig. 2,16, Given: the diode resistance = 4 2,30 Semiconductor Electronics R100. = AT (pp) lov | Fig. 2.16, Circuit for Problem 4. Solution Inthe a.c equivalent circuit for the circuit shown in Fig. 2.16, the dc supply is ignored and the ac voltage drop across the diode is given by, | -4x50x107 “=F 100 and the diode current owing to the ac signal is 2mV 4a =05mA (pp). =2mV(p -p) Problem & In the circuit of Fig. 2.10, R = S00 Q, V, = 25 V, Vz = 10 V, and Peoaa= 250 m W . Find the minimum and maximum load currents Solution ‘When the diode is ON, R, will be minimum. Therefore, from the circuit, Renin X25 Ven We or, 10 Rin + 5000 = 25 Rin or Ruan = 334.2. The minimum R, allows maximum current through R,. Vz __10V fm TD =30 mA The maximum power capability limits the maximum current through the diode, ie.Semiconductor Junction Diode 31 1, =20mY zm 10V when diode is ON, the voltage across R is 25 V - 10 V = 15 Vand the current through R is zar;=30 m A, Hence, the current division dictates that the current through the load is, Juin = Current through & - maximum current through diode =25 mA =30mA-25 mA =SmA ‘This current yields the maximum value of load resistance, Vz _10V Rem SMA =2kQ Questions and Problems . Describe the characteristics of an ideal diode. . What is the meaning of forward bias and reverse bias in the case of a diode? }. How does a diode work as a switch? . Which diode works on the principle of breakdown and how? . What are the barrier potentials for germanium and silicon diodes? . What does the space charge at a p-n junction consist of ? . Describe various types of diode. . What do you understand by diffusion current in a p-n diode? . What is a depletion region and how is it formed? |. What is the meaning of breakdown of a p-n junction? 11, Describe static and dynamic resistances of a p-n diode. 12. On what principle does a tunnel diode work? 13. Discuss the effect of biasing on the width of the depletion region at a p-n junetion, 14, Why cannot the p-n junction barrier potential be measured by connecting a volumeter across the diode terminals? 15, Can a p-n diode be used as a capacitor in an ac circuit? Give examples, 16. What is the importance of defining the peak inverse voltage for a p-n diode? 17. Calculate the voltage across the load and the power delivered to the load for the circuit shown in Fig, 2.7, if R, is changed to 1.5 kQ. pe Semrsanaw32 19, 2. 2, ‘Semiconductor Electronics Find the dynamic resistance of the diode using the circuit given in Fig. 28 (b),if V = 15 V. Calculate the power dissipated by a diode of intornal resistance 20 Q and barrier potential 0.7 V, when a current of 400 m A is flowing through it. |. Find the minimum and maximum values of the load resistance for a 10 V Zener diode, if R = 500 Q, V;= 20 V, and Py ma, = 500 m W. Find the voltage drop and the current across the diode for the input signal of 100 m V in Fig, 2.16, if the battery potential is changed to 15 V. IER = 1k Q, V,=20V, Vz= 10 V, and P, no, =250 mW, find the minimum and maximum load currents in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.10.Diode Circuits In this Chapter some practical examples of diode application in various elec’ tronic circuits are discussed. 3.1. CLIPPERS ‘The clipping circuits are used to clip-off a portion of the input signal. In the output of a clipping circuit, only that part of the input waveform appears which lies above or below some reference level. The clippers are also called vollage or current limiters, amplitude selectors, or slicers. A clipping circuit involves a diode. a resistor and in some circuits, a dc supply too. Some basic clipping circuits are discussed in the following sections. The input waveform is taken 10 be sinusoidal in all these circuits. 3.1.1, Simple Series Positive Clippers The relevant circuit diagram along with input and output waveforms is shown in Fig. 3.1. For the positive half-cycle of the input, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through R. Therefore, no output voliage appears across R. But for the negative half-cycle of the input, the diode is forward-biased and the % Fig. 3.1. Simple series positive clipper. voltage across R follows the input waveform as shown in Fig. 3.1. So, the positive portion of the input waveform is clipped-off.34 Semiconductor Electronics 3.1.2. Simple Series Negative Clippers The relevant circuit diagram along with input and output waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.2, In this case, the diode is forward-biased for the positive cycle and reverse-biased for the negative cycle of the input waveform. Therefore, the negative portion of the input waveform is clipped-off. % . : vy ° uy Ym ol Fig. 3.2. Simple series negative clipper. 3.1.3. Biased Series Positive Clippers Figure 3.3 shows the relevant circuit along with ue input and the ouput waveforms. When the input in the positive cycle is less than the bias voltage, ic. v, V (region be). Again when v, < V, the diode becomes forward-biased and remains as such for the whole of the negative half-cycle of the input, So, in the clipped-off output, the maximum negative voltage is v,+V as shown in Fig. 3.3. 3.1.4. Biased Series Negative Clippers In Fig. 3.4, the diode remains reverse-biased for v, $V and there is no output (region a b). When at b, with v, >V, the diode is forward-biased and the clipped output is obisined with «maximum value of v,—V. Again at C, when v, ¢ V, the diode becomes reverse-biased and remains off during the whole negative cycle Cf the input and no output is obtained.vy my Diode Circuits 35 Fig. 3.4. Biased series negative clipper. Vol q t vee 3.1.5. Simple Parallel Positive Clippers In Fig. 3.5, the diode is forward-biased for the positive half-cycle of the input and offers no resistance. Therefore, the whole of the input voltage is dropped RoE To Fig. 3.5, Simple parallel positive clipper. across R and no output is generated. For the negative half-cycle of the input, the diode is reverse-biased and offers infinite resistance. Since there is no cur- rent through , the output voltage is equal to the input voltage. Thus, the posi- tive half-portion of the input signal is clipped-off in the output. 3.1.6. Simple Parallel Negotive Clippers In Fig. 3.6, for the positive half-cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and offers * z $M | wy a) Fig. 3.5, Simple paralls negative clipper.36 Semiconductor Electronics infinite resistance. Therefore, the whole of the input is oblained across the diode terminals as output. But for the negative half-cycle, the diode is forward-biased and offers zero resistance. Therefore, the input voltage is dropped across & and no output is obtained across the diode. In this case, the negative half of the input signal is clipped-off in the output. 3.1.7. Biased Parallel Positive Clippers In Fig. 3.7, the diode is reverse-biased owing to the battery V. When the posi- tive half-cycle of the input signal is applied, the diode remains reverse-biased upto v, SV (region ab), and the output is obtained. When at v,>V, the diode becomes forward-biased and no output is obtained. Again, when at C, v, Vs In the positive half-cycle, the diode D, remains vi A Ve + + 0 D “ 1 d vj % ° y, “ Fig. 3.9. Double ended clipper. reverse-biased until V,s V, and D5 remains reverse-biased for the whole of the Positive cycle of the input. The output is obtained but at v, = V,, the diode D, becomes forward-biased and the output drops to zero and remains so until v,SV, again. At this point, the output is obtained, since D, becomes reverse- biased again. In the negative half-cycle, the diode D, remains reverse-biased until v, 2 ¥; (D, remains reverse-biased in the whole of the negative cycle), At D, becomes forward-biased and the output becomes zero. Hence, the output is clipped at V; in the positive cycle and at V; in the negative cycle, as shown in Fig. 3.9. In order to get symmetrical square waveform, V, must be equal 10 V5, 3.2. CLAMPERS The circuits which are used o convert a waveform into another whose positive or negative or both-extremities are maintained at some constant reference level, are known as clamping circuits, Since the output cannot rise above a certain reference level, it is said 10 be clamped to that level. Whenever a signal (waveform) is passed through a coupling capacitor or a transformer, its de component is lost because neither the capacitor nor the transformer allows dc to pass through it, The clamping circuits are used to restore the lost de or introduce a new one to such signals. Therefore, the clampers are also called dc restorers or dc reinseriers. A diode, a capacitor, and a resistor are the three essential elements required for a clamping circuit. The values of the resistor and the capacitor are selected so that the time constant RC is very large in comparison o the time period of the input signal. Under this condition, the38 Semiconductor Electronics voltage across the capacitor may be assumed to remain fairly constant during the input signal, when the capacitor is not charging. The description of a simple clamping circuit, shown along with input and output waveforms in Fig, 3.10 is given below, vit yu vl - J * Cc Le % i Yu og 6 Fig. 3.10. Clamping Circuit slong with Input and output waveforms, Whea the input is +V, the diode is forward-biased and the ourput taken across the diode is zero, The capacitor charges to +V immediately as the time constant RC = 0 (forward-biased diode has zero resistance). Now, when the input switches to -V, the diode becomes reverse-biased, showing infinite resistance. The voltage across the capacitor does not change appreciably dur- ing this interval of time and the capacitor acts like a fixed voltage source. The output is obtained as the sum of the input signal voltage (-V) and the capacitor voltage (-V), ie. (-V)+(-V) =-2V. Thus, the output is clamped to the negative region at 2 V and will repeat itself xt the frequency of the input signal. An important point here is that the swing of the input (2V) and of the output (2V/) is the same, and it is true for all the clamping circuits. 3.3, COMPARATORS As its name indicates, the comparator circuit is used to compare two wave- forms. If one waveform is taken as the reference level, the comparator is used tomark the instant when another waveform attains this reference level. Thus, a comparator output may be a sharp pulse which appears when the increasing signal becomes equal to the reference. A comparator circuit along with the input and the output waveforms is shown in Fig. 3.11, The input signal is taken as 4 ramp. The diode remains cut off until v;SV_ and the output remains quiescent at v= V>. When v, 2 Vp, the diode is forward-biased and the output rises with the input signal. In this way, the comparator output marks the instant Lal which the input becomes V,, the reference voltage.Diode Circuits 39 bobs Time T Time Fig. 3.11, Comparator circuit along with input and output waveforms. 3.4. RECTIFIERS Anelectronic circuit which is used to convert an alternating waveform (vokage OF current) into a pulsating d.c or unidirectional waveform is known as a recti- fring circuit, or simply a rectifier. The p-n junction diode is well suited for this Purpose because it conducts heavily in the forward biasing and only stightly in the reverse biasing. There are three most common rectifying circuits: half- wave, full-wave, and bridge rectifiers. 3.4.1. Half-wave Rectifier Figure 3.12 shows a circuit for 2 half-wave rectifier with its input and output waveforms, A half-wave rectifier use only altemate half-cycles (positive or w % Vn} o| vy; o| Fig. 3.12. Half wave rectifier circuit along with input and output wave forms. negative) of the a c input waveform to produce a pulsating d ¢ output. For the other half-cycles of the input, there is no output. For the positive half-cycles of the input signal, the diode becomes forward-biased (diode resistance becomes zero) and this input waveform appears as the output across the resistor R. For the negative half-cycles of the pul, the diode becomes reverse-biased (diode resistance is infinite), and no output appears across R. Thus, the output is available only for the positive40 Semiconductor Electronics half-cycles of the input, as shown in Fig. 3.12, Although this output is not a steady dc (it is a pulsating dc), it has an average positive value, The output voltage of the half-wave rectifier can be expressed as v=V,, sind if 05050 =0 if nsos2n en For @ from 0 to 2n radians, the average value of the pulsating dc output is given by, ea V.= V,sin@ d@ 2X. 0 v.(* -=f sind do (using Eq3.1) V =z ul-eosn+cos0] ov Re =0318 V, 2) where V,, is the peak value of the input and V,, is the average dc output. Dur- ing the negative half-cycles, the reverse voltage developed across the diode is V,, which is the peak inverse voltage for the diode used in the half-wave rectifier. 3.4.2. Full-wave Rectifier In order to increase the average d c output and obtain output during both the cycles of the input, a full-wave rectifier circuit is used, It requires a centre- tapped transformer and two diodes. The peak voltage developed across each half of the transformer during the positive cycles is V,, and during the negative cycles is -V,,. During the alternate positive half-cycles of the input, the upper half of the transformer makes the diode D, forward-biased and the lower half of the transformer makes the diode D, reverse-biased. Hence, with the diode D, conducting, a positive half-cycle of the input waveform, with peak value V,. is developed across R. Similarly, during the alternate negative half-cycles of the input, the diode D; is conducting and the diode D, is nonconducting, In this condition, the output voltage with peak value V,, developed across R is of the same polarity as for the positive half-cycles because the current through RDiode Circuits 41 Fig. 3.13. Pull wave rectifier circuit along with input and output wave- forms. flows in the same direction in both the cycles, as shown in Fig. 3.13. Hence, the output of a full-wave rectifier is two positive-going half cycles. Therefore, the average value for the de output of a full-wave rectifier is twice the average value obtained in the case of a half-wave rectifier, ic. Vee = 240.318 V,) = 0.636 V,, 3) For the positive half-cycles (or negative half-cycles), the reverse voltage developed across D; (OF D,) is 2 V,,, ic. the sum of the voltage V,, across the Jower half (or the upper half) of the transformer and the voltage V,, across the load resistor R. This is the peak inverse voltage for the diodes used in the full- ‘wave rectifier, which is twice the peak value of the input signal. 3.4.3. Bridge Rectifier The circuit for a bridge rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.14. It is another form of a full-wave rectifier, in which a centre-tapped wansformer is not required. Also, the diodes used have peak inverse voltage rating of V,,, rather than 2V,... During the positive half-cycles of the input signal, the didoes D, and D, become forward-biased (D, and D, being reverse-biased) and a current flows along the path @ 6 dc. A voltage from the transformer V,, appears across R.42. Semiconductor Electronics vy Nok Vo Vm | qd Fig. 3.14. Bridge rectifier circuit alongwith input and output waveforms. Similarly, during the negative half-cycles of the input signal, the diodes D, and D, become forward-biased (D, and D, being reverse-biased) and a current flows along the path ¢ b d a. Since this current direction through R is the same ‘as in the case of the positive half-cycles, the voltage from the transformer V,, appears across R in the same polarity as in the positive half-cycles. Thus, the output of a bridge rectifier is also positive-going half cycles. During the negative half-cycles, the reverse-biasing across D; and D, is the sum of the transformer voltage V,, and the voltage across the load, V,, owing to the conduction of D, and Dy, i.e. 2V,,. Since there are two diodes in the path, the reverse voltage across each diode is V,,. Similarly, the reverse voltage across either of D, and D, during the positive half-cycles is also V,,. Hence, the peak inverse voltage rating for diodes used in the bridge rectifier is Vye Father than 2V,,. 3.5. FILTER CIRCUITS: The output from a rectifier is obtained as pulsating d c signals, whose fre- quency is the same as the input frequency for the half-wave rectifier, or twice the input frequency for the full-wave rectifier. Hence, a rectifier is unable to give a steady dc; it has ripple. The ripple is defined as the departure of the ‘output wavefon of a rectifier from pure d c, The ripple in the output of a rec- tifier circuit is measured in the form of the ripple factor. This factor is defined. as the ratio of the r.m.s. value of the a.c. component to the average dc value, InDiode Circuits 43 ure d c, the ripple factor becomes zero. In order to reduce the ripple factor to a minimum value (ideally zero), oF to obtain pure d ¢, fillering or smoothing cir- cuits are used. 3.5.1. Capacitor Filter Ifa simple capacitor is connected across the rectifier output, the ripple factor is considerably reduced and the d c output voltage is available across the capaci- tor. Figure 3.15 shows a full-wave rectifier circuit with capacitor filter. Also, the waveforms without filter and with filter are shown in Fig. 3.15. Ac. Mains fa) 0 Cb) mut Fig, 3.15. (a) Full wave rectifier with capacitor filter, (b) Unfiltered recti- fied waveform, (c) Filtered d.¢ waveform, When the positive-going voltage pulse of a rectifier output appears across the capacitor, it starts charging towards the peak voltage V,, through the secondary of the transformer and the conducting diode. After reaching the peak value V,, the pulse starts its negative-going excursion and the capacitor starts discharging through R,, thereby holding the voliage across R, at some higher value than its unfiltered value, Before the capacitor can fully discharge, the positive-going excursion of the next half-cycle of the unfiltered voltage is nearing its peak value, recharging the capacitor again. Now the pulse, after reaching the peak value V, again starts its negative-going excursion and the capacitor starts discharging once again. Before a complete discharging of the capacitor, the positive-going excursion of the next half-cycle comes in and the capacitor recharges again. This action of charging and recharging of the capacitor continues as long as the circuit is in operation, as shown in Fig. 3.15. In this way, the time during which the current passes through the load R, is44° Semiconductor Electronics prolonged and the ripple factor is reduced. If the average value of d c output is 10 be very close 10 V.. the capacitor must discharge only slightly. In order to fulfil this condition, the time cons- tant of R, and C is chosen to be very large in comparison to the time period of the unfiltered waveform. Because of the long time constant, the discharge of the capacitor is taken to be approximately linear and the ripple, as shown in Fig. 3.15, is similar to a sawtooth waveform. The average value of the ou\put voltage is given by, Vac. G4) If, is the time during which the capacitor discharges and T/2 is the time of the half-cycle of the unfiltered waveform, the long time constant of R, and C dictates that 7; = 7/2. This is because the conduction time is negligible in this, case, During 7, the capacitor loses a charge J,. . T which gives a change in capacitor voltage or the ripple voltage as Jag-Ta (es T,=7R) "0 G5) where f= 1/T is the frequency of the a ¢ input. Hence, from Eq. 3.4, G6) Equation 3.5 shows that the ripple varies inversely with the capacitance and therefore, large values of capacitance must be used to keep the ripple low. 3.6.2 RC Filter In order to further reduce the ripple present in the d c obtained after capacitor filter (Sec. 3.5.1), an additional RC filtering circuit is used, as shown in Fig. 3.16 (a). Though the XC filter is good to attenuate the ripple voltage, it has the drawback of lowering the d c vollage also, owing to a voltage drop across R. ‘The final values of the dc and the ripple voltages are described below. Figures 3.16(b) and (c) show the equivalent circuits to calculate the dc ‘and the ripple voltages after RC filtering. V,, and V, are the dc and the ripple vollages before the RC filter circuit, i.e. across the capacitor C,. As theDiode Circuits 45 D1 2 ~T aR c. Sf 2 (se2¥—) fa) = R R | Ve a cm W BR, (b) {c) Fig. 3.16. (a) Full wavercctifier with RC filter (b) Equivalent circuit for d operation (c) Equivalent circuit for ac or ripple. reactance of a capacitor for dc is infinite, the capacitors C, and C; in the parallel combination are removed in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.16 (b). Hence, the final dc voltage across the load R, is v [ Re hy. 3.7) Lae | G7 In the circuit of Fig. 3.16 (c), the resultant impedance of the parallel combination of C, and R,, is of the order of C, alone and is much less than the load resistance R, (if C, = 10 wF and R, = 2K ohms, typically). Therefore, the load resistance can be ignored in comparison to C, and the ripple voltage after the RC filter is Vea C, Vie? +(10c,? using simple voltage division rule, Equation 3.7 and 3.8 show that the RC filter is able to reduce the ripple voltage by a greater amount than it decreases the d¢ voltage, providing better filter operation. 3.8)46 Semiconductor Electronics 3.5.3. n-Filter In Sec. 3.5.2, the role of the series resistance R in reducing the ripple voltage was discussed. Equations 3,7 and 3.8 show that in order to reduce the ripple voltage, the value of R should be large and in order to have little loss in dc voltage, the value of R should be as small as possble, So, there is the problem of selecting the optimal value of R, The replacement of this series resistance R by an inductor fulfils the above two requirements simulianeously. This is because an inductor has very low resistance for the dc and at the same time, offers a very large inpedance to the ac signals. Figure 3.17 shows the filter circuit having two capacitors C, and C, and an inductor L connected in the shape of 7, and therefore known as n-filter, The output d c voltage is reduced owing to a drop in voltage across the d c resistance of the inductor R,, and therefore, Wee= Vee—Hae-R G9) Fig. 3.17. x-Filter circuit. If R is replaced by ac impedance of the inductor cL, the expression for the ripple voltage from Eq. 3.8 is Va C; Val =(ia Gy”? 6.10) 3.6. VOLTAGE MULTIPLYING CIRCUITS A number of circuits of diodes and capacitors can be used to get dc output voltage that is double, triple, or many times the peak value of the ac input voltage. These circuits are known as voltage multiplying circuits: doublers, triplers, quadruplers, etc. All these circuits use the charge stored in the capac- itors to increase the output voltage. The input is a ¢ and the output is dc multiple. 3.6.1. Half-wave Voltage Doubler Figure 3.18 shows the circuit for a half-wave voltage doubler, which gives a dc voltage twice that obiained from the half-wave rectifier circuit. For theDiode Circuits 47 positive half-cycles of the input, the top of the transformer secondary is posi- live and the capacitor C,, charges through the conducting diode D, to approxi- mately the peak value of the secondary voltage. At this time, the diode D, is nonconducting and there is no output. During the negative cycle of the input, the top of the transformer secondary becomes negative and the diode D, becomes cut off, As the voliage across C; is in series with this applied ac input, the two voltages are added to give a forward-biasing of Vy + Vq= 2V, 10 the diode D2, and the capacitor C; is charged to this voltage, i.c. 2V,. The out- pul waveform across the capacitor Cis double that to a half-wave rectifier fil- tered by a capacitor filter, and the peak inverse voltage across each diode is 2V,. In this way, ad ¢ output approximately double the peak value of the ac input is obtained. cy Dz 1 + FE Kt 2 Yon Ac j ~My, Mains Yn 1V CAR 2Vq, 2Ym + - + Fig. 3.18, Half-wave voltage doubler circuit. 3 Figure 3.19 shows the circuit of a full-wave voltage doubler, For the positive half-cycle of the a ¢ input, the top of the transformer secondary is positive = Full-wave Voltage Doubler Fig. 3.19. Full-wave voltage doubler circuit.48 Semiconductor Electronics and the diode D, conducts, The capacitor C, charges through D, and the trans- former secondary to the peak value of the secondary voltage V,. At this time, the diode D, is nonconducting. During the negative half-cycle of the ac input, the diode Dy conducts. The capacitor C charges tuough D, and the trans- former secondary 10 the peak value of the secondary voliage V., At this time, the diode D, is nonconducting. Thus, the voltage across C, and C; is 2V.. because both are in a series combination. The peak inverse voltage for each diode is 2 V,.. In this case, the filtering action is poor as the resultant capacitor is less than the capacitance of either C, or C3, 28 both are in series. 3.6.3. Voltage Tripler and Quodrupler Figure 3.20 shows a voltage tripler circuit which provides a dc output that is Fig, 3.20, Voltage vipler circuit, three times the peak value of the secondary a c voltage. This circuit is an extension of the voltage doubler circuit, with an additional diode and capacitor, During the positive half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, the diode D, conducts and the capacitor C, charges to the peak voltage V_. During the negative half-cycle of the wansformer secondary voltage, the diode D; con- ducts and the capacitor C; charges to the sum of the voltage across C, and the transformer, ic. V.+V,=2 V,. During the next positive half-cycle, the diode Dy conducts and the capacitor C, charges to the sum of the voltages across C3 and the transformer secondary, i.e. 2 V,, + V,,= 3 V,.In this way, the dc ouiput voltage is three times the peak value of the ac input voltage. Figure 3.21 shows a voltage quadrupler circuit, which gives a d c output voltage four times the peak value of the secondary a ¢ voltage. The circuit behaviour is on the same lines as explained for the tripler circuit above. This circuit may be further extended to obtain very large voltages.Fig. 3.21. Voltage quadrupler circuit. 3.7. SOLVED PROBLEMS Problem 1 Calculate the ripple voltage under no-load and full-load conditions in the case of capacitor filter with C = 2000 jt F, 44, = 250m A, and V,.=9 V. Solution The ripple voltage using a simple capacitor is given by Nae dae ‘ToC S=50 Hz Under no-load condition, V,=0V Under full-load condition, /,,= 250 mA 250x107 y,=— 20x10" 100 2000 x 10° =25V. Problem 2 Find the d voltage obtained from a half-wave and a full-wave rectifier cir- cuits, with peak rectified voltage of 24 V. Also, calculate the peak inverse ‘vollage developed in the two cases.50 Semiconductor Electronics Solution For the half-wave rectifier, Ve = 0.318 V,, = 0.318 x24 =16V and the peak inverse voltage PIV=V,.=24 V For the full-wave rectifier circuit, Vue =0.636 V,, = 0.63624 =153V and the peak inverse voltage PIV=2V,,=48V Problem 3 Find the peak inverse voltage for the diodes used in a bridge rectifier if Vie = 63.6 V. Solution For a bridge rectifier, V,. = 0.636 V,, v= = 100 V = 0.636 and the peak inverse voltage PIV=V,,= 100 V Problem 4 ‘What will be the output dc voltage for a x-filter if the input voltage is 30 V, the filter inductor is 5 henry with 200 Q resistance and the output current is 50 mA? ‘Solution Across the n-filter, Vac =Vae~ lac Re = 30-50% 10° 200 =20V Problem 5 Draw the output waveforms for the input applied to the circuit of Fig. 3.22. SolutionDiode Circuits $1 wv oO [ + || * * L 2 aH yi 5x3 Vo i 4 a wv _ - ° rl. Fig. 3.22. Clipping circuit for problem 5. For values v,>2 V, the diode is forward-biased and V, =5-2=3 V. For values v, <2. V, the diode is reverse-biased and v=0. The resultant output waveforms are shown in Fig. 3.22 (). Problem 6 Draw the output waveforms for the input applied to the circuit of Fig. 3.23. Fig. 9.23. Claming cireuit for problem 6.52. Semiconductor Electronics Solution During the positive cycle of the input, v,=+5 V and the diode is forward-biased (ic. short circuit). The capacitor will charge rapidly to + 5 V. The output will remain zero for this period. During the negative cycle of the input V;=-5 V, the diode is reverse-biased (i. open circuit) and the capacitor voltage remains at +5 V as the discharge time (which is generally taken as five times the time constant of the circuit, i.e. $ RC =5%200x 10°x0.1 x 10%= 100 msec) is much ie. Tatache. she robeske2 ne) = supply voltage + capacitor voltage =(5V)+-5¥) =-10V The output wavefomus are shown in Fig. 3.23 by which itis clear that the volt= age swing is the same for the input as well as the output waveforms, Problem 7 In the circuit of Fig. 3.11, if Ve=0, R= 1K, is a ramp rising at the rate of 15 Vin sec, and the diode used has a reverse saturation current of 2 A, find the time 1 at which a device operative at 150 mV will respond. Ifthe resistance R is increased to 75 K, how many times will the time ¢ increase? Solution When R = 1 K, the diode will remain eut off up to a voltage greater than the duration of they, = The output will be V, = Crevers stration caren %R) =2x10%x1x10°=2 mV The device will respond when the output voltage of the circuit vy= 1504 2.=152mV ‘Therefore, the time at which the device will respond, 3 1,5 (152x 10 yt = 10.1 n see. Similarly, when R = 75 kQ, the diode will be cut off up to V,= 2 10°75 x 10° = 150 mV