Cognition

Topics
Academic achievement

Academic achievement refers to the level of success a student attains in their educational
endeavors, often measured by grades, test scores, and overall academic performance.

Factors influencing academic achievement include motivation, study habits, intelligence, and
socioeconomic status.
High academic achievement can open doors to future opportunities such as scholarships,
prestigious programs, and career success.
Effective time management and setting realistic goals are crucial for maintaining and
improving academic achievement.
Creating a supportive environment, seeking help when needed, and staying organized can
enhance academic achievement.

Encoding processes

Encoding processes involve converting sensory inputs into a form that the brain can store and
retrieve, such as visual, acoustic, or semantic coding.

Elaborative encoding enhances memory retention by connecting new information with

existing knowledge.
Semantic encoding involves processing the meaning of information to better remember it.
Visual encoding involves creating mental images to store and retrieve information.
Acoustic encoding involves processing information based on its sound, such as repeating it
aloud for memorization.

Historical and Modern Theories of Intelligence

Historical theories of intelligence like Gardner's multiple intelligences and Spearman's g-factor
contrast with modern theories emphasizing emotional intelligence and cognitive flexibility.

Gardner proposed that intelligence is not a singular entity but consists of multiple forms like
musical and spatial intelligence.
Spearman's g-factor theory suggests a general intelligence factor underlies specific mental
abilities.
Modern theories prioritize emotional intelligence, emphasizing skills like empathy and self-
awareness.
Cognitive flexibility theory highlights the ability to adapt thinking and behavior in response to
different situations.
Intelligence

Intelligence refers to the overall mental ability of an individual to reason, problem solve, learn,
and adapt to new situations.

Intelligence can be measured using IQ tests, which assess cognitive abilities such as verbal,
mathematical, and spatial reasoning.
Theories of intelligence include the general intelligence factor (g), multiple intelligences, and
triarchic theory.
Intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Intelligence is not fixed and can be improved through education, experiences, and practice.

Memory Failure or Errors

Memory failure refers to the inability to retain or recall information accurately, leading to errors in
memory processing and retrieval.

Factors influencing memory failure include distractions, emotional state, and aging.
Errors in memory can be categorized as absent-mindedness, misattribution, or suggestibility.
Strategies to reduce memory errors include improving focus, using mnemonic devices, and
regular review of information.
Understanding memory fallibility can help individuals develop effective memory enhancement
techniques.

Memory Retrieval Processes

Memory retrieval processes involve accessing stored information from the memory system into
conscious awareness through recognition, recall, and relearning.

Retrieval cues are hints or clues that help trigger memories during the retrieval process.
Serial position effect suggests that we remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and
end (recency effect) of a list better.
Context-dependent memory retrieval occurs when the external environment during retrieval
matches the original encoding environment.
Mood-congruent memory retrieval refers to the phenomenon where individuals are more likely
to recall memories that match their current mood.

Memory Storage Processes

Memory storage processes involve encoding, storing, and retrieving information in the brain for
later use, utilizing sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory information before transferring it to short-
term memory.
 Short-term memory holds a limited amount of information for a short duration unless
rehearsed and encoded for long-term memory.
Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity and stores information indefinitely through
elaborative rehearsal and meaningful connections.
Memory storage processes are influenced by factors such as attention, rehearsal, encoding
strategies, and emotional significance.

Memory Types and Structures

Memory types refer to different stages in which information is processed and stored, including
sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Working memory involves actively manipulating and rehearsing information to aid in decision-
making and problem-solving.
Long-term memory can be further classified into explicit (declarative) memory and implicit
(procedural) memory.
Memory structures include schemas—mental frameworks used to organize and interpret
information—and networks connecting related concepts and ideas.
Memory consolidation is the process by which memories become stable and more resistant
to interference over time.

Perception

Perception refers to the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information
from the environment.

Perception is influenced by our sensory organs, prior knowledge, and expectations.

It involves the selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory information.
Perception can be influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, and cultural
background.
Gestalt principles, such as figure-ground relationship and proximity, play a role in how we
perceive objects and patterns.

Psychological Theories of Decision-Making

Psychological theories of decision-making explore cognitive, emotional, and social factors

influencing how individuals make choices and assess risks.

Emphasizes understanding how the mind processes information to arrive at choices.

Includes research on heuristics, biases, and the interplay of conscious and unconscious
processes in decision-making.
Examines the impact of emotions on decision-making, such as how fear or pleasure can
influence choices.
Explores social influences on decision-making, like conformity and group dynamics affecting
individual choices.
Psychological Theories of Judgment

Psychological theories of judgment explore how individuals make decisions and form opinions
based on cognitive processes and social influences.

Key theories include the heuristics and biases theory, social comparison theory, and
confirmation bias theory.
These theories help explain why individuals may rely on mental shortcuts, compare
themselves with others, and seek information that confirms their beliefs.
Understanding these theories can provide insight into how judgments are made and how they
may be influenced by internal and external factors.
Studying psychological theories of judgment can enhance critical thinking skills and promote
a deeper understanding of human behavior.

Psychological Theories of Problem-Solving

Problem-solving theories focus on how individuals approach, analyze, and solve complex
problems using mental processes such as algorithms or heuristics.

These theories explore how people use trial and error, insight, or systematic strategies to
reach solutions.
Gestalt psychology emphasizes restructuring problems into simpler forms to facilitate
problem-solving.
Information processing theory suggests problem-solving involves stages like encoding,
organizing, and retrieval of information.
Connectionist models propose problem-solving through interconnected neural networks and
parallel processing of information.

Psychological Theories of Thinking

Explains how individuals process information, make decisions, and solve problems. Includes
cognitive, social, and developmental perspectives.

Cognitive theories focus on mental processes like memory and problem-solving.

Social theories emphasize how thinking is influenced by interactions with others.
Developmental theories examine how thinking abilities evolve from childhood to adulthood.
Often used to understand decision-making processes, learning strategies, and problem-
solving approaches.

Systemic Issues in Intelligence Assessments

Systemic Issues in Intelligence Assessments refer to biases or errors present in evaluating

cognitive abilities, influencing outcomes and interpretations.
 Common issues include cultural biases, socioeconomic factors, test design flaws, and
reliance on standardized norms.
These issues can lead to inaccuracies and unfair evaluations, affecting individuals'
opportunities and self-perception.
Understanding these systemic issues is crucial for improving assessment reliability and
ensuring fair evaluation of intelligence.
Awareness of these complexities can enhance the validity and applicability of intelligence
assessments in diverse populations.

Visual Perceptual Processes

Visual perceptual processes refer to how the brain interprets and makes sense of visual
information received through the eyes.

Visual perceptual processes involve tasks such as visual scanning, visual recognition, and
visual memory.
These processes play a crucial role in activities like reading, driving, and recognizing faces.
Illusions and depth perception are examples that demonstrate the intricate nature of visual
perceptual processes.
Visual perceptual deficits can lead to difficulties in tasks like handwriting, navigating through
spaces, and recognizing shapes.

Key Terms
Accuracy of Memories

The accuracy of memories refers to how precisely memories reflect past events, capable of
being influenced by external factors or personal biases.

Memories are reconstructive and subject to distortion over time.

External cues and misinformation can alter the accuracy of memories.
Memories can be influenced by emotions experienced during the event.
The accuracy of memories can be impacted by the frequency of retrieval and rehearsal.

Achievement tests

Achievement tests are assessments designed to measure an individual's knowledge and skills in
a specific area.

Achievement tests are often used in education settings to measure a student's academic
progress.
These tests can cover a wide range of subjects, such as math, science, history, and language
arts.
Scores on achievement tests can be used to compare individuals or groups and determine
areas that need improvement.
 Preparing for an achievement test often involves reviewing and studying relevant material and
practicing sample questions or problems.

apparent movement

Apparent movement refers to the perception of motion when there is actually none, such as
when individual still images are presented rapidly in succession.

Occurs due to the brain's interpretation of visual stimuli.

Commonly experienced in animation and film.
Helps illustrate how the brain fills in gaps and makes sense of stimuli.
Can be influenced by factors like spacing, timing, and context.

Aptitude tests

Aptitude tests are assessments designed to measure an individual's natural abilities and
potential in specific areas.

They are used to evaluate a person's suitability for certain tasks or careers.
Aptitude tests can assess skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and spatial
awareness.
Results can help identify strengths and weaknesses and guide career and educational
decisions.
These tests are often used in educational settings and for employment selection purposes.

Attention

Attention refers to the cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific stimuli or information
in the environment.

Attention can be divided into focused attention, sustained attention, selective attention, and
divided attention.
Factors that influence attention include novelty, relevance, emotional significance, and
individual differences.
Inattentional blindness refers to the phenomenon of failing to perceive an unexpected
stimulus in plain sight.
The Stroop effect demonstrates the interference caused by automatic processing on
attention and response time.

Autobiographical Memory

Autobiographical Memory refers to the ability to remember personal experiences and events
from one's own life.
 Autobiographical memories are often vivid and may include sensory details.
These memories are typically organized in a chronological or thematic manner.
Autobiographical memory can be influenced by various factors, such as emotion and
motivation.
It plays a crucial role in shaping our sense of personal identity and self-narrative.

Chunking

Chunking is a cognitive process where information is grouped into smaller units to improve
working memory capacity and recall.

Chunking is commonly used to remember phone numbers.

It can also be applied to learning new vocabulary or memorizing formulas.
Chunking can be facilitated by using mnemonic devices.
It helps to organize information and makes it easier to access and retrieve.

Cognitive Biases in Decision-Making

Cognitive biases in decision-making refer to systematic errors in judgment due to mental

shortcuts or emotional factors, impacting choices and outcomes.

Common types include confirmation bias and anchoring effect.

Biases can lead to irrational decisions despite evidence.
Awareness of biases can help improve decision-making processes.
Strategies like slowing down thinking and seeking diverse perspectives can mitigate biases.

Cognitive Frameworks

Cognitive frameworks are mental structures that help individuals organize and interpret
information, influencing thoughts, perceptions, and decision-making.

Examples of cognitive frameworks include schemas, prototypes, and scripts.

They play a crucial role in understanding how people process information and make sense of
the world.
Cognitive frameworks can be influenced by past experiences, cultural factors, and individual
differences.
These frameworks can both aid in efficient processing of information and lead to biases in
perception and judgment.

Depth perception

Depth perception is the ability to perceive our surroundings in three dimensions and gauge
distances. It's vital for survival, allowing for accurate interaction with the environment.
 Binocular cues, like retinal disparity and convergence, aid with depth perception.
Stereopsis, the perception of depth produced by the reception in the eyes of two slightly
different images, is a result of depth perception.
Monocular cues like size, linear perspective, and light and shadow also assist in perceiving
depth.
Depth perception can be affected by certain conditions, like amblyopia, and can potentially be
improved with training or surgery.

Explicit Memory

Explicit memory, also called declarative memory, formally refers to conscious, intentional
recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts.

Explicit memory involves both semantic memory (general knowledge and facts) and episodic
memory (personal experiences).
It's controlled by the medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus within the brain.
Diseases like Alzheimer's can hinder explicit memory, causing difficulties in remembering
past events or facts.
Intact explicit memory is vital for learning, reasoning, and adaptation to new contexts.

External factors influencing perception

External factors can impact how we perceive information. Factors include culture, environment,
social norms, media exposure, and personal experiences.

Culture shapes our beliefs and values, influencing our perspectives.

Environment can alter our perceptions based on familiarity and sensory stimuli.
Social norms affect what is considered acceptable or normal in different contexts.
Media exposure can shape our views and expectations through repeated messages.

Fixed mindset

Fixed mindset refers to the belief that intelligence and abilities are predetermined and cannot be
developed or improved through effort.

Individuals with a fixed mindset are often afraid of failure and avoid challenges.
They tend to believe that talents alone are enough to succeed, leading to a lack of motivation
to learn and grow.
Having a fixed mindset can limit personal and academic growth and inhibit the development
of resilience and perseverance.
To overcome a fixed mindset, it is important to embrace challenges, learn from failures, and
believe in the power of effort and growth.

Flynn Effect
The Flynn Effect refers to the phenomenon of increasing IQ scores over time.

The Flynn Effect was first observed by James R. Flynn in the 1980s.
The effect suggests that there has been a consistent rise in intelligence test scores across
generations.
Possible reasons for the Flynn Effect include improved nutrition, education, and cultural
changes.
The Flynn Effect challenges the notion that intelligence is inherent and fixed.

Forgetting Curve

The 'Forgetting Curve' characterizes how information retention declines over time if there's no
attempt to retain it.

Initially proposed by Hermann Ebbinghaus, a memory researcher.

It shows that memory loss is rapid at first, then decreases over time.
Retrieval practice or reminding can greatly slow down the forgetting curve.
Relevant in education for revising strategies and spaced repetition learning.

Gambler's Fallacy

The Gambler's Fallacy is the false belief that if something happens more frequently than normal
during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future.

The Gambler's Fallacy is also known as the Monte Carlo Fallacy or the Fallacy of the Maturity
of Chances.
It can lead individuals to make faulty predictions or assumptions based on previous
outcomes.
Understanding the Gambler's Fallacy is important in decision-making and risk assessment.
It is commonly observed in gambling situations, but can also influence everyday decision-
making.

Gestalt Psychology Principles

Gestalt principles focus on how humans perceive and organize visual stimuli into meaningful
patterns, emphasizing the whole over its parts.

The principles include proximity, similarity, continuity, closure, and figure-ground.

They highlight how individuals group elements to form a complete picture or concept.
Gestalt psychology emphasizes perception as more than the sum of its parts, with a focus on
holistic experiences.
The principles also address how individuals interpret ambiguous or incomplete stimuli based
on underlying patterns.

Growth mindset
Growth mindset is the belief that intelligence and abilities can be developed through dedication
and effort.

Growth mindset focuses on the belief that individuals can improve and grow their abilities.
In contrast to a fixed mindset, a growth mindset emphasizes learning and improvement rather
than innate talent.
A growth mindset promotes resilience and perseverance in the face of challenges and
setbacks.
Research has shown that individuals with a growth mindset tend to achieve higher levels of
success and have a greater sense of satisfaction in their accomplishments.

Heuristics

Heuristics are cognitive shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making and problem-
solving processes, often by prioritizing speed over accuracy.

Two prominent forms are Availability and Representativeness Heuristics.

Heuristics can lead to cognitive biases such as the anchoring bias.
While they can be error-prone, heuristics generally increase cognitive efficiency.
They're studied in various disciplines such as cognitive science and behavioral economics.

Implicit memory

Implicit memory refers to the unconscious memory of skills, habits, and behaviors that are
acquired without conscious awareness.

Implicit memory is formed through repeated exposure and practice.

It can influence our behavior and actions without our conscious awareness.
It is often resilient to forgetting and can persist over long periods of time.
Implicit memory is associated with structures in the brain such as the basal ganglia and
cerebellum.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a measure of a person's cognitive abilities, including problem-solving,

reasoning, and memory.

IQ tests assess a variety of cognitive abilities, such as verbal and nonverbal skills.
IQ scores are calculated by comparing an individual's performance to the average
performance of a standardized sample.
IQ scores are often used to predict academic achievement and job performance.
IQ scores are not fixed and can be influenced by various factors, including education and life
experiences.
Internal factors influencing perception

Internal factors such as emotions, past experiences, beliefs, and expectations play a pivotal role
in shaping how individuals perceive and interpret the world.

Emotions can color perceptions, influencing how events are interpreted.

Past experiences create a lens through which new information is filtered.
Beliefs can lead to confirmation bias, shaping what individuals pay attention to.
Expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies, affecting how situations are perceived.

Levels of Processing Model

Levels of Processing Model suggests that information is better remembered when deeply
processed, like attaching meaning or personal relevance, rather than shallowly processed
through surface characteristics.

Deep processing leads to more effective encoding and better retention in long-term memory.
Levels of processing vary from shallow (e.g., physical appearance) to deep (e.g., meaning/
semantic).
Elaborative rehearsal, connecting new information to existing knowledge, enhances deep
processing.
The model highlights the role of attention and elaboration in memory formation and retrieval.

Long-term potentiation

Long-term potentiation refers to the persistent strengthening of synaptic connections in the

brain, which is believed to be the basis for learning and memory.

LTP involves the strengthening of synapses through repeated stimulation.

It results in enhanced communication between neurons.
LTP is associated with the persistence of memory.
LTP is thought to occur primarily in the hippocampus.

Memory Impairments

Memory impairments refer to difficulties in encoding, storing, or retrieving information, leading to

forgetfulness and cognitive challenges.

Different types include anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and transient global
amnesia.
Causes can stem from brain injuries, neurological conditions, substance abuse, or
psychological factors.
Treatment may involve cognitive rehabilitation, medication, therapy, and lifestyle
modifications.
 Strategies like mnemonic devices, repetition, organization, and retrieval practice can help
enhance memory functioning.

Mnemonic devices

Mnemonic devices are memory techniques that help learners remember information through the
use of associations, acronyms, rhymes, or visual images.

Mnemonics can be especially useful in remembering long lists, vocabulary words, historical
dates, or complex formulas.
Using visual imagery or creating vivid mental pictures can enhance the effectiveness of
mnemonic devices.
The method of loci involves mentally placing information in specific locations within a
familiar setting, such as visualizing facts in different rooms of a house.
Mnemonic devices can help improve long-term memory retention and recall by providing a
structured and memorable way to encode information.

Multi-Store Model

The Multi-Store Model is a theoretical framework that explains how information is processed and
stored in our memory.

The model consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory.
Information is first received and processed in sensory memory, which holds a large amount
of fleeting sensory information.
If information is attended to, it moves to short-term memory, where it is actively held and can
be manipulated for a short period of time.
Through rehearsal and encoding, information can be transferred from short-term memory to
long-term memory for long-term storage.

Prospective memory

Prospective memory involves remembering to perform tasks or actions in the future, such as
keeping appointments or sending emails.

Types include event-based and time-based prospective memory.

Depends on cue detection and successful retrieval at the appropriate time.
Enhanced by strategies like setting reminders and rehearsal.
Linked to frontal lobe function and can be impacted by aging or neurological conditions.

Psychodynamic theories

Psychodynamic theories explore the unconscious mind and how it influences behavior,
emotions, and personality development.
 Developed by Sigmund Freud and his followers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Emphasizes the role of early childhood experiences and the unconscious in shaping
individual behavior.
Views human behavior as driven by unconscious motives and conflicts.
Focuses on techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and interpretation to
uncover unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Rehearsal Techniques

Rehearsal techniques involve mentally repeating information to aid in memory retention and
recall during tests or exams.

Types include maintenance rehearsal for short-term memorization and elaborative rehearsal
for creating more meaningful associations.
Distributed practice, spacing out study sessions over time, enhances retention compared to
cramming.
Using mnemonic devices like acronyms or visualization can help encode information more
effectively.
Utilizing self-testing or practice quizzes helps reinforce learning and improve retrieval of
information.

Relationship between general ability (g) and multiple

abilities

General ability (g) represents overall cognitive capacity, influencing various specific abilities like
verbal, spatial, and quantitative skills.

Research has shown g's impact on performance across different tasks.

G can predict academic and work success to some extent.
Specific abilities can also be developed through targeted training.
Understanding g aids in personalized education and professional development.

Schemas

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that organize knowledge and help us make sense of the
world.

Schemas can be influenced by culture and personal experiences.

Schema theory suggests that our mental representations influence how we perceive and
interpret information.
Schemas can lead to stereotypes and biases if they are not updated or challenged.
Our schemas can also be resistant to change, making it difficult to adjust our perspectives.

Serial position effect

Serial position effect refers to the tendency for people to recall the first and last items in a list
more easily than the middle items.

Serial position effect can affect both long-term and short-term memory.
The primacy effect refers to better recall of items at the beginning of a list.
The recency effect refers to better recall of items at the end of a list.
The middle items in a list are often forgotten or recalled less accurately due to interference
from other items.

Spacing Effect

Spacing Effect refers to the phenomenon where information is more effectively retained when it
is studied over a longer period of time with gaps in between.

Spacing out study sessions enhances long-term memory retention.

Helps with better recall and application of learned material.
Contrasts with cramming, which is less effective for long-term retention.
Can be applied in various study strategies for improved learning outcomes.

Sunk-cost Fallacy

Sunk-cost fallacy is the cognitive bias where individuals continue investing in a failing endeavor
due to previously invested resources, despite knowing it is not rational.

Individuals focus on past investments rather than assessing current and future prospects.
It leads to irrational decision-making and can result in further loss or negative outcomes.
Awareness of this fallacy can help individuals break free from the emotional attachment to
past investments.
Emphasizing future consequences rather than past investments can help overcome the sunk-
cost fallacy.

Visual perceptual constancies

Visual perceptual constancies refer to the brain's ability to perceive objects as maintaining their
characteristics despite changes in viewing conditions.

Size constancy allows us to perceive an object as maintaining its size even when viewed from
different distances.
Shape constancy enables us to recognize an object's shape regardless of the angle from
which it is viewed.
Color constancy helps us perceive an object's color as constant despite variations in lighting
conditions.
Brightness constancy allows us to perceive an object as having a consistent level of
brightness even in different lighting environments.
Working Memory Model

The Working Memory Model consists of the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and
central executive, responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating information for cognitive
tasks.

Each component has a specific role: phonological loop for auditory information, visuospatial
sketchpad for visual tasks, and central executive for coordinating processes.
Working memory is crucial for activities like problem-solving and decision-making, involving
the active maintenance of information for short periods.
Baddeley and Hitch proposed the model, suggesting that the central executive acts as a
control system that coordinates the other components.
Research has shown that working memory capacity varies among individuals and can be
influenced by factors like age and cognitive load.