UNIT I

INTRODUCTION

Introduction: Energy – Power – Past & Present Scenario Of World; National Energy Consumption
Data – Environmental Aspects Associated With Energy Utilization –Energy Auditing: Need, Types,
Methodology And Barriers. Role Of Energy Managers. Instruments For Energy Auditing

1.1 Introduction

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the
case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the
ever increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to
another. In practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by
exciting our muscles, by using electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as
automobiles.Energy comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical,
electrical, chemical,and nuclear energy.

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy
• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.Common
primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary
energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy
stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and
secondary energy sources are shown in Figure1.1
 Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary
energysources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy
can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses,for example coal or natural
gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.

1.1.2 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal
and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial,
agricultural,transport and commercial development in the modern world.In the industrialized
countries,commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but
also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples:Electricity,lignite,coal,oil,natural gas etc.
 Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are
classified as non-commercial energy.Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as
firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a
price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non- commercial
energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example:Firewood,agro waste in rural areas;solar energy for water heating,electricity generation,
for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for
irrigation,crushing sugarcane;wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.

1.1.3 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially in
exhaustible.Examples of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal
energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of
renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without there lease of harmful pollutants.
Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are
likely to deplete with time.
1.2 Energy and Power

1.2.1 Energy
Energy is the ability to do a work.Its unit is Joule(J)
Energy=force*Distance
1.2.2 Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work.Its unit is watt(W)

1.2.3 Relation Between Energy and Power

Energy= Power*Time

Example1.1

A portable machine requires a force of 200N to move it.How much work is done if the
machine is moved 20m and what average power is utilized if the movement takes 25s?
Solution
Workdone=force*distance
=200N*20m
=4000Nm or 4kJ
Power= workdone /time taken= 4000J/25s =160J/s= 160W

1.3 Present and Past Scenario of Primary Energy Resources In The World
1.3.1 Coal

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world. Coal reserves are available in almost every
country in the world. The largest coal reserves are available in the USA followed by Russia,China,
Australia and India. The global coal reserve was estimated to be 8741 million tones by the end of
2023.But by the end of 2030, it was estimated to be 9369 million tones.

1.3.2 Crude Oil

The global proven crude oil reserve was estimated to be 1570 billion barrels by the end of
2023. But by the end of 2030, it was estimated to be 114 billion barrels per day. Almost 48% of
proven oil reserves are in the Middle East countries. Saudi Arabia has the largest share of the reserve
with 15.8% followed by Russia and USA.

1.3.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but also includes small
quantities of ethane,propane,butane and pentane.Before natural gas can be used as a fuel,it undergoes
extensive processing for removing almost all constituents except methane. Natural gas resources are
large but they are highly concentrated in few countries. Iran has largest share (18.2%)followed by
Russia (16.8%) and Qatar (13.3%). India has only about 0.7% of global natural reserves.The global
proven natural gas reserve was estimated to be 4.08 trillion cubic meters by the end of 2023.But by
the end of 2030, it was estimated to be 4.33 trillion cubic meters.

1.4 National Energy Consumption Data

The primary energy consumption of some of the countries are given in table. It is seen that India’s
primary energy consumption is only 4.7% of the world (USA-18%,China-22%).

4.18% 1.52% 8.47% 1.33% 3.48% 4.18% 4.7%

1.5 Environmental Aspects Associated with energy utilization
The usage of energy resources in industry leads to environmental damages by polluting the
atmosphere. Few of examples of air pollution are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide (NOX) and
carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from boilers and furnaces, chloro-fluro carbons (CFC) emissions
from refrigerants use,etc. In chemical and fertilizers industries,toxic gases are released.Cement plants
and power plants spew out particulate matter.

1.5.1 Air Pollution

In both developed and rapidly industrializing countries, the major historic air pollution problem
has typically been high levels of smoke and SO2 arising from the combustion of sulphur-containing
fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial purposes.

In both developed and developing countries, the major threat to clean air is now posed by
traffic emissions.Petrol and diesel engine motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants,principally
carbonmonoxide(CO), oxides of nitrogen(NOx), volatile organic compounds(VOCs) and

particulates, which have an increasing impact on urban air quality.

In addition, photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on NO2 and VOCs
from vehicles leads to the formation of ozone,a secondary long-range pollutant,which impacts in rural
areas often far from the original emission site.Acid rain is another long-range pollutant influenced by
vehicle NOx emissions.

The principle pollutants produced by industrial,domestic and traffic sources are sulphurdioxide,
nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbonmonoxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, benzene, 1,3-
butadiene,toxic organic micropollutants,lead and heavy metals.

1.5.2 Climate Change

Humanactivities,particularlythecombustionoffossilfuels,havemadetheblanketofgreenhouse
gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone etc.) around the earth thicker. The resulting
increase in global temperature is altering the complex web of systems that allow life to thrive on earth
such as rainfall ,wind patterns,ocean currents and distribution of plant and animal species.

1.5.3 Greenhouse Effect and Carbon Cycle

Life on earth is made possible by energy from the sun, which arrives mainly in the form of
visible light. About 30 percent of the sunlight is scattered back into space by outer atmosphere and the
balance 70 percent reaches the earth's surface, which reflects it in form of infrared radiation. The
escape of slow moving infrared radiation is delayed by the green house gases. A thicker blanket of
greenhouse gases traps more infrared radiation and increase the earth's temperature

Carbon dioxide is responsible for 60 percent of the "enhanced greenhouse effect". Humans are
burning coal, oil and natural gas at a rate that is much faster than the rate at which these fossil fuels
were created. This is releasing the carbon stored in the fuels into the atmosphere and upsetting the
carbon cycle (a precise balanced system by which carbon is exchanged between the air, the oceans and
land vegetation taking place over millions of years).Currently,carbondioxide levels in the atmospheric
are rising by over 10 percent every 20years.

The effects of increase in the earth's temperature are as follows:

 Severe Storms and Flooding

 Food Shortages
 Reduced Fresh water supply
 Loss of Biodiversity
 Increased Diseases

1.5.4 Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by release of SOX and NOX from combustion of fossil fuels,which then
mix with water vapour in atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acids respectively.
The effects of acid rain are as follows:
• Acidification of lakes,streams,and soils
• Direct and indirect effects(release of metals, For example:Aluminum which washes away
plant nutrients)
• Killing of wild life (trees,crops,aquatic plants,and animals)
• Decay of building materials and paints,statues,and sculptures
• Health problems(respiratory, burning-skin and eyes)

1.6 Energy Auditing

As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification,
monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing
recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action
plant on reduce energy consumption".

The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement and
utilization,throughout the organization and:

To minimize energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality

To minimize environmental effects.

1.7 Energy Audit:Needs

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both
electrical and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the
cost or potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy would in variably
emerge as a top ranker, and thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for
cost reduction. Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are
used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scope
for improvement exists.
The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost
reduction,preventive maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for
production and utility activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on
variations which occur in the energy costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy,
 decide on appropriate energy mix,identify energy conservation technologies,retrofit for energy
conservation equipment etc.
In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending
technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a
specified time frame.

The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption
per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a " bench-
mark"(Referencepoint) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for
planning a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.

1.8 Energy Audit:Types

Type of Energy Audit

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
.Function and type of industry
.Depth to which final audit is needed,and
.Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired

Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types.
i) Preliminary Audit
ii) Detailed Audit

Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:

• Establish energy consumption in the organization
• Estimate the scope for saving
• Identify the most likely(and the easiest areas for attention
• Identify immediate(especially no-/low-cost)improvements/savings
• Set a 'referencepoint'
• Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
• Preliminary energy audit uses existing,or easily obtained data
 Detailed Energy Audit Methodology
A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan for a
facility,since it evaluates all major energy using systems.
This type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It
considers the interactive effects of all projects,accounts for the energy use of all major
equipment,and includes detailed energy cost saving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elementsis the energy balance. This is based on
an inventory of energy using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and
calculations of energy use.This estimated use is then compared to utility bill charges.

Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases:PhaseI, PhaseII and Phase III.

Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

PhaseII - Audit Phase
PhaseIII-Post Audit Phase

PhaseI-Pre Audit Phase Activities

A structured methodology to carry out an energy audit is necessary for efficient

working.An initial study of the site should always be carried out, as the planning of the
procedures necessary for an audit is most important.

Initial SiteVisit and Preparation Required for Detailed Auditing

An initial site visit may take oneday and gives the Energy Auditor/Engineer an
opportunity to meet the personnel concerned, to familiarize him with the site and to assess the
procedures necessary to carry out the energy audit.
During the initial site visit the Energy Auditor/Engineer should carry out the following
actions:-
• Discuss with the site's senior management the aims of the energy audit.
• Discuss economic guide lines associated with the recommendations of the audit.
• Analyze the major energy consumption data with there levant personnel.
• Obtain site drawings where available -building layout,steam distribution,compressed air
distribution,electricity distribution etc.
• Tour the site accompanied by engineering/production

The main aims of this visit are:-

• To finalize Energy Audit team

• To identify the main energy consuming areas/plant items to be surveyed during the audit.
• To identify any existing instrumentation/additional metering required.
• To decide whether any meters will have to be installed prior to the audit eg.kWh ,steam
,oil or gas meters.

• To identify the instrumentation required for carrying out the audit.

• To plan with time frame
• To collect macro data on plant energy resources,major energy consuming centers
• To create awareness through meetings/programme

Phase II-Detailed Energy Audit Activities

Depending on the nature and complexity of the site, a comprehensive audit can take
fromseveral weeks to several months to complete. Detailed studies to establish, and
investigate,energy and material balances for specific plant departments or items of process
equipment are carried out.Whenever possible, checks of plant operations are carried out over
extended periods of time, at nights and at weekends as well as during normal daytime working
hours, to ensure that nothing is overlooked.
The audit report will include a description of energy inputs and product outputs by major
department or by major processing function, and will evaluate the efficiency of each step of the
manufacturing process. Means of improving these efficiencies will be listed, and at least a
preliminary assessment of the cost of the improvements will be made to indicate the expected
pay- back on any capital investment needed. The audit report should conclude with specific
recommendations for detailed engineering studies and feasibility analyses, which must then
beper-formed to justify the implementation of those conservation measures that require
investments.
 The information to be collected during the detailed audit includes:-
1. Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by major items of
process equipment,byend-use
2. Material balance data(raw materials,intermediate and final products,recycled materials,
use of scrap or waste products, production of by-products for re-use in other
industries,etc.)
3. Energy cost and tariff data
4. Process and material flow diagrams

5. Generation and distribution of site services(eg. Compressed air,steam).

6. Sources of energy supply(e.g.electricity from the grid or self-generation)
7. Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and the use of co-generation
systems(combined heat and powergeneration).
8. Energy Management procedures and energy awareness training programs within the
establishment

1.9 Energy Audit -Methodology

A comprehensive ten-step methodology for conduct of Energy Audit at field level is presented
below.Energy Manager and Energy Auditor may follow these steps to start with and add/change as per
their needs and industry types.
 1.10 BarrierstoEnergyConservation
Traditional energy prices are understated because they do not include the health, social, and
environmental costs of using fuels. For example, gasoline prices do not take into account the costs
associated with military requirements to protect access to oil sources, global warming, acid rain, and
adverse health effects. This is an institutional barrier to increasing energy efficiency. Some of the key
barriers to achieving increased efficiency are listed below.

1.10.1 Lack of Objective Consumer Information

Efficiency claims in the market place are often made by competing manufacturers, without an
objective third party to evaluate the actual efficiency claims.

1.10.2 Failure of Consumers to Make Optimal Energy-Efficiency Decisions

Consumers often choose the least expensive appliance, rather than the appliance that will save
them money over the long term; consumers are also often confused about efficiency ratings and
efficiency improvements.

1.10.3 Replacement Market Decisions Based on Availability Rather Than Efficiency

Decisions concerning replacement of worn out or broken equipment are made without energy
efficiency as a high priority. Usually, the primary concern for the consumer is restoring service as
quickly as possible. This requires buying whatever equipment the plumbing or heating contractor may
have on hand.

1.10.4 Energy Prices do not take into Account the Full Environmental or Societal Costs

External costs associated with public health, energy production, global warming, acid rain, air
pollution,energy security,or reliability of supply are usually ignored.
 1.10.5 Competition for Capital to Make Energy-Efficiency Investments

Energy-efficiency investments in the commercial and industrial sectors often must compete
with other business investments; therefore, efficiency investments with a payback of more than 3 years
are avoided.

1.10.6 The Separation of Building Ownership from Utility Bill Responsibility

Renters will rarely make energy-efficiency investments in buildings that they do not
own,especially when the utilities are included in the rent.

1.10.7 Commercial Buildings and Retail Space are Usually Built on Speculation with Low First-
Cost a Priority

The building’s long-term operation cost, which is usually paid by the tenant(s) rather than the
owner,is not important to the speculator/builder.

1.11 Role of Energy Managers

“The tasks of energy manger are setting goals, tracking progress,and promoting the energy
management program. An Energy Manager helps an organization achieve its goals by
establishing energy performance as a core value.”

The Energy Manager is not always an expert in energy and technical systems. Successful
Energy Manager understands how energy management helps the organization achieve its financial and
environmental goals and objectives. Depending on the size of the organization, the Energy Manager
role can be a full-time position or an addition to other responsibilities.
Energy Manager:

Responsibilities and Duties to be Assigned Under The Energy Conservation Act,2001.

Responsibilities

• Prepare an annual activity plan and present to management concerning financially attractive
investments to reduce energy costs

• Establish an energy conservation cell with in the firm with management's consent about the
mandate and task of the cell.

• Initiate activities to improve monitoring and process control to reduce energy costs.

• Analyze equipment performance with respect to energy efficiency

• Ensure proper functioning and calibration of instrumentation required to assess level of energy
consumption directly or indirectly.

• Prepare information material and conduct internal workshops about the topic for other staff.

• Improve disaggregating of energy consumption data down to shop level or profit center of a firm.

• Establish a methodology how to accurately calculate the specific energy consumption of

various products/services or activity of the firm.

• Develop and manage training programme for energy efficiency at operatinglevels.

• Co-ordinate nomination of management personnel to external programs.

• Create knowledge bank on sectoral, national and inter-national development on energy efficiency
technology and management system and information denomination.

• Develop integrated system of energy efficiency and environmental upgradation.

• Co-ordinate implementation of energy audit/efficiency improvement projects through external

agencies.

• Establish and/or participate in information exchange with other energy managers of the same sector
through association

Duties

• Report to BEE and State level Designated Agency once a year the information with regard to the
energy consumed and action taken on there commendation of the accredited energy auditor,as per BEE
Format.

• Establish an improved data recording,collection and analysis system to keep track of energy
consumption.

• Provide support to Accredited Energy Audit Firm retained by the company for the conduct of energy
audit

• Provide information to BEE as demandedin the Act, and with respect to the tasks given by
amandate,and the job description.

• Prepare a scheme for efficient use of energy and its conservation and implement such scheme
keeping in view of the economic stability of the investment in such form and manner as may be
provided in the regulations of the Energy Conservation Act.
1.12 EnergyAuditInstruments
Electrical Measuring Instruments:
These are instruments for measuring
majorelectrical parameters such as kVA,
kW, PF,Hertz, kVAr, Amps and Volts. In
addition some of these instruments also
measure harmonics.

These instruments are applied on-line i.eon

running motors without any need to stop
the motor. Instant measurements can be
taken with hand-held meters,while more
advance dones facilitates cumulative
readings with printouts at specified intervals.

Combustion analyzer:
This instrument has in-built chemical cells
which measure various gases such as
O2,CO,NOX and SOX.

Fuel Efficiency Monitor:

This measures oxygen and temperature of
the flue gas. Calorific values of common
fuelsare fed into the microprocessor which
calculates the combustion efficiency.

Fyrite:
A hand bellow pump draws the fluegas
sample into the solution inside the fyrite.
Achemical reaction changes the liquid
volume revealing the amount of gas.A
separate fyrite can be used for O2 and CO2
measurement.
Contact thermometer:
These are thermocouples which measures
for example flue gas, hot air, hot water
temperatures by insertion of probe into the
stream.

For surface temperature, a leaf type probe

isused with the same instrument.

InfraredThermometer:
This is a non-contact type measurement
which when directed at a heat source directly
gives the temperature read out. This
instrument is useful for measuring hotspots
in furnaces,surface temperatures etc.

Pitot Tube and manometer:

Air velocity in ducts can be measured using
a pitot tube and inclined manometer for fur-
ther calculation of flows.

Waterflowmeter:
This non-contact flow measuring device
using Doppler effect / Ultra sonic
principle.There is a transmitter and receiver
which are positioned on opposite sides of the
pipe. The meter directly gives the flow.Water
and other fluid flows can be easily measured
with this meter.
 SpeedMeasurements:
In any audit exercise speed measurements are critical as
they may change with frequency,beltslip and loading.

A simple tachometer is a contact type instrument which

can be used where direct access is possible.

More sophisticated and safer ones are noncontact

instruments such as stroboscopes.

Tachometer Stroboscope

LeakDetectors:
Ultrasonic instruments are available which can be used to
detect leaks of compressed air and other gases which are
normally not possible man abilities.

Luxmeters:
Illumination levels are measured with a luxmeter. It
consists of a photo cell which sens-es the light
output,converts to electrica impulses which are calibrated
as lux.