Human Brain: Human brain is a highly complex organ, which is mainly composed of nervous

tissue. The tissues are highly folded to accommodate a large surface area in less space. The
brain is covered by a three-layered system of membranes, called meninges. Cerebrospinal
fluid is filled between the meninges. The CSF providers cushion the brain against mechanical
shocks. Furthermore, protection. The human brain can be divided into three regions, viz.
forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

Parts of Human Brain :

 Fore-brain: It is composed of the cerebrum.
 Mid-brain: It is composed of the hypothalamus.
 Hind-brain: It is composed of the cerebellum, pons, medulla, oblongata.
Some main structures of the human brain are explained below :
Cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest part in the human brains. It is divided into two
hemispheres called cerebral hemispheres.
Functions of cerebrum
 The cerebrum controls voluntary motor actions.
 It is the site of sensory perceptions, like tactile and auditory perceptions.
 It is the seat of learning and memory.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus lies at the base of the cerebrum. It controls sleep and
wake cycle (circadian rhythm) of the body. It also controls the urges for eating and drinking.
Cerebellum: Cerebellum lies below the cerebrum and at the back of the whole structure. It
coordinates the motor functions. When you are riding your bicycle, the perfect coordination
between your pedalling and steering control is achieved by the cerebellum.
 It controls posture and balance.
 It controls the precision of voluntary action.
Medulla: Medulla forms the brain stem, along with the pons. It lies at the base of the brain
and continues into the spinal cord. The medulla controls various involuntary functions, like
hear beat respiration, etc.
It controls involuntary actions.
Example: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting.
Pons: It relays impulses between the lower cerebellum and spinal cord, and higher parts of
the brain like the cerebrum and midbrain, also regulates respiration.
Spinal cord: Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conducts massages between
different parts of the body and brain.
Reflex Action: Reflex action is a special case of involuntary movement involuntary organs.
When a voluntary organ is in the vicinity of sudden danger, it is immediately pulled away from
the danger to save itself. For example, when your hand touches a very hot electric iron, you
move away your hand in a jerk. All of this happens in flash and your hand is saved from the
imminent injury. This is an example of reflex action.
Reflex Arc: The path through which nerves signals, involved in a reflex action, travel is called
the reflex arc. The following flow chart shows the flow of signal in a reflex arc.
Receptor → Sensory neuron → Relay neuron → Motor neuron → Effector (muscle)
The receptor is the organ which comes in the danger zone. The sensory neurons pick signals
from the receptor and send them to the relay neuron. The relay neuron is present in the
spinal cord. The spinal cord sends signals to the effector via the motor neuron. The effector
comes in action, moves the receptor away from the danger.

The reflex arc passes at the level of the spinal

cord and the signals involved in reflex action
do not travel up to the brain. This is important
because sending signals to the brain would
involve more time.
Although every action is ultimately controlled
by the brain, the reflex action is mainly
controlled at the level of spinal cord.

Protection of brain and spinal cord

Brain is protected by a fluid filled balloon which acts as shocks absorber and enclosed in
cranium (Brain box)
Spinal chord is enclosed in vertebral column.
Muscular Movements and Nervous Control: Muscle tissues have special filaments, called
actin and myosin. When a muscle receives a nerve signal, a series of events is triggered in
the muscle. Calcium ions enter the muscle cells. It result in actin and myosin filaments sliding
towards each other and that is how a muscle contracts. Contraction in a muscle brings
movement in the related organ.
Endocrine System: The endocrine system is composed of several endocrine glands. A
ductless gland is called endocrine gland. Endocrine gland secretes its product directly into the
bloodstream. Hormones are produced in the endocrine glands. Hormone is mainly composed
of protein. Hormones assist the nervous system in control and co-ordination. Nervous do not
react to every nook and corner of the body and hence hormones are needed to affect control
and coordination in those parts. Moreover, unlike nervous control, hormonal control is
somewhat slower.
Hormones: These are the chemical messengers secreted in very small amounts by
specialised tissues called ductless glands. They act on target tissues/organs usually away
from their source. Endocrine System helps in control and coordination through chemical
compounds called hormones.
Endocrine Gland: A ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream.

Endocrine Hormones
Location Functions
Gland Produced

Growth hormone
GH stimulates growth.
(GH).
Pituitary gland TSH stimulates the functioning
At the base of Thyroid stimulating
(also known as of the thyroid gland.
the brain hormone (TSH).
the master gland) FSH stimulates the follicles
Follicle stimulating
during ovulation.
hormone (FSH)

Controls general metabolism

Thyroid Gland Neck Thyroxine
and growth in the body.

Prepares the body for

emergency situations and
Adrenal gland Above kidneys Adrenalin
hence is also called Fight and
flight’ hormone

Pancreas Near stomach Insulin Controls blood sugar level

 Sperm production,
development of secondary
Testis (male) In Scrotum Testosterone
sexual characters during
puberty.

Egg production, development

Ovary (female) Near uterus Oestrogen of secondary sexual characters
during puberty.

Iodised salt is necessary because: Iodine mineral is essential part of thyronine hormone so it
is important that we must consume iodised salt as in turn it is essential for thyroid gland as it
controls carbohydrate, proteins and fat metabolism for best balance of growth deficiency of
iodine might cause disease called goitre.
Diabetes: Cause : It is due to deficiency of insulin hormone secreted by pancreas that is
responsible to lower/control the blood sugar levels.
Treatment : Patients have to internally administer injections of insulin hormone which helps in
regulating blood-sugar level.
In case of flight or fight reaction to an emergency situation, Adrenal glands → release
adrenaline into blood → which acts on heart and other tissues → causes faster heart beat →
more oxygen to muscles → reduced blood supply to digestive system and skin → diversion of
blood to skeletal muscles → increase in breathing rate.
Feedback mechanism: A type of self-regulating mechanism in which the level of one
substance in body influences the level of another.

Control and Co-ordination in Plants: Movements in plants and plant harmones.

Co-ordination in Plants: Unlike animals, plants do not have a nervous system. Plants use
chemical means for control and co-ordination. Many plant hormones are responsible for
various kinds of movements in plants. Movements in plants can be divided into two main
types :
1. Tropic movement
2. Nastic movement
1. Tropic Movement: The movements which are in a particular direction in relation to
the stimulus are called tropic movements. Tropic movements happen as a result of
growth of a plant part in a particular direction. There are four types of tropic
movements.
(i) Geotropic movement: The growth in a plant part in response to the gravity is
 called geotropic movement. Roots usually show positive geotropic movement, i.e. they
grow in the direction of the gravity. Stems usually show negative geotropic movement.
(ii) Phototropic Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to light is called
phototropic movement. Stems usually show positive phototropic movement, while roots
usually show negative phototropic movement. If a plant is kept in a container in which
no sunlight reaches and a hole in the container allows some sunlight; the stem finally
grows in the direction of the sunlight. This happens because of a higher rate of cell
division in the part of stem which is away from the sunlight. As a result, the stem bends
towards the light. The heightened rate of cell division is attained by increased secretion
of the plant hormone auxin in the which is away from sunlight.
iii) Hydrotropic Movement: When roots grow in the soil, they usually grow towards
the nearest source of water. This shows a positive hydrotropic movement.
(iv) Thigmotropism Movement: The growth in a plant part in response to touch is
called thigmotropism movement. Such movements are seen in tendrils of climbers. The
tendril grows in a way so as it can coil around a support. The differential rate of cell
division in different parts of the tendril happens due to action of auxin.
2. Nastic Movement: The movement which do not depend on the direction from the
stimulus acts are called nastic movement. For example, when someone touches the
leaves of mimosa, the leaves droop. The drooping is independent of the direction from
which the leaves are touched. Such movements usually happen because of changing
water balance in the cells. When leaves of mimosa are touched, the cells in the leaves
lose- water and become flaccid, resulting in drooping of leaves.

Pla
nt hormones: Plant hormones are chemical which help to co-ordinate growth,
development and responses to the environment.
Type of plant hormones: Main plant hormones are
 Auxin: (Synthesized at shoot tip).
Function: Helps in growth.
Phototropism: more growth of cells towards the light.
 Gibberellin: Helps in the growth of the stem.
 Cytokinin’s: Promotes cell division.
 Abscisic acid: Inhibits growth, cause wilting of leaves. (Stress hormone)

 Stimuli: The change in the environment to which an organism responds.

 Co-ordination: Working together of various organs of an organism in a
systematic manner to produce a proper response.
 Phyto-hormones: These are plant hormones.
 Auxin: It is a plant hormone which promotes cell enlargement and growth in
plants.
 Gibberellins: A plant hormone which promotes cell differentiation and breaking
dormancy of seeds and buds.
 Cytokinin: A plant hormone which promotes cell division and the opening of
stomata.
 Abscisic Acid: It helps in inhibiting the growth of the plant and promotes
wilting and falling of leaves and food.
 Tropism: A growth movement of a plant which determines direction with the
stimulus.
 Nastic: A growth movement of a plant which does not determine direction with
a stimulus.
 Phototropism: Movement of plants towards a light.
 Geotropism: Movement of plants towards the gravity of earth.
 Chemotropism: Movement of plants towards chemicals.
 Hydrotropism: Movement of plants towards the water.
 Thigmotropism: Movement of plants towards a response to the touch of an
object.

Question 6
How does phototropism occur in plants ?
Answer:
The movement in any part of a plant due to light is called phototropism. The shoot of
plant shows positive phototropism and roots show negative phototropism.
Phototropism in plants occurs due to the hormone auxin. When light falls on one side of
a plant, the secretion of auxin hormone is more in the part away from the light. Hence,
auxin causes growth in length of the cells in shady part. So, the plant appears to bend
towards light.
What is the need for a system of control and coordination in an organism ?
Answer:
An organism needs control and coordination system for the following functions :
(i) To save the body of the organisms from the harmful changes in the environment.
(ii) To control the speed of voluntary and involuntary actions.
(iii) To have the capability to think and learn for responding to any stimuli.

Question 11
Compare and contrast nervous and hormonal mechanisms for control and coordination
in animals.
Answer:

Nervous mechanism Hormonal mechanism

It is a fast process. It is a slow process.

Arteries and glands are affected. It affects the target organ.

It transmits in electrochemical form. It transmits in chemical form.

It does not control metabolism. It controls metabolism.

Growth is not affected. Growth is affected.