CAD/CAM/CIM

MEC302

Unit 3

P. Dinesh babu
Associate Professor
School of Mechanical Engineering
[email protected]

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 Unit - III

CAPP and CAQC

Group technology – part families, parts classification and coding systems, OPITZ coding, CAPP –
retrieval and generative process planning systems. computer integrated production management system
– master production schedule, capacity planning, shop floor control, factory data collection system.

Structural model of manufacturing process, process control strategies, direct digital control supervisory
computer control. Computer aided quality control – contact inspection methods – CMM operation and
programming, optical inspection methods, non contact inspection methods, machine vision – image
processing and analysis.

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 GROUP TECHNOLOGY

❑ Group technology is an operations management philosophy based on the recognition

that similarities occur in the design and manufacture of discrete parts.
❑ By grouping similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of problems thus
saving time and effort .

❑ All the components combined into a group are usually subjected to common planning
and machining.

❑ This enables in achieving high rationalization effect particularly in case of single and
small batch production.

❑ For example, a plant producing 10,000 different part numbers may be able to group the
vast majority of these parts into 30-40 distinct families.

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 Need of Group Technology

❑ To make batch manufacturing more efficient and productive.

❑ To achieve a higher level of integration between design and manufacturing functions.

❑ An approach directed at both of these objectives is group technology (GT).

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 GROUP TECHNOLOGY

Layout of machines with process grouping Layout of machines with

in a conventional job shop, T - Turning, M functional grouping as per
- Milling, D - Drilling, CG – Cylindrical product requirements
grinding and SG – Surface grinding

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 ADVANTAGES OF GT

1) Group technology allows similar designs to be easily modified from the existing designs
from the database instead of starting from scratch.
2) Standard process plans can be developed for the groups. Greater efforts can be applied in
optimising the process plans.
3) Standard tooling can be developed for a part family, and then a standard set-up procedure
can be used.
4) The use of GT allows faster production, therefore there is less inventory, and Work in
Process (WIP).
5) The throughput time gets reduced.
6) Material handling and movement is reduced.

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 ADVANTAGES OF GT

7) Improvement in quality and reduction in scrap results in increase in production.

8) There is improved utilisation of machines, and as a result lesser number of machines

are required.

9) This increases the floor space available.

10)There is increase in output per employee and hence increase in productivity.

11) Manufacturing lead time is reduced leading to reduction in overdue orders.

12) There is improved ability to respond to market changes.

13) Increase in job satisfaction and greater management–worker harmony results.

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 LIMITATIONS OF GT

There are as many problems that need to be considered before implementing GT. They are the following:
1) The cost of implementation is generally high with an outside consultant often being necessary
since in-house expertise on GT is rarely available. It requires a long set-up time and painful debugging.
2) It may not be suitable for a factory with a very large variety of products.
3) The entire production of the company cannot be put under GT and hence GT will have to coexist
with conventional layouts.
4) There are too many GT codes in use and there is no one GT code that suits all applications.
5) It is often difficult to conceive all the operations for a group of components being taken care of in the
cell created for it.
6) The range of product mix in a plant may be under constant change in which case, the GT cells may
need constant revision, which is impractical.

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 PART FAMILIES

❑ Similar parts are grouped into part families.

❑ Each part family possesses similar design and/or manufacturing characteristics.
❑ Processing of each member in a part family would be similar.
❑ The production equipment is arranged into machine groups, or cells in order to facilitate
work flow and part handling.
❑ Grouping the production equipment into machine cells, where each cell specializes in the
production of a part family, is called cellular manufacturing.
❑ There are three general methods for grouping.
i. Visual inspection
ii. Production flow analysis
iii. Parts classification and coding system

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 VISUAL INSPECTION

❑ Simplest method.

❑ Least sophisticated method.

❑ Least accurate method.

❑ Especially for grouping parts by design attributes.

❑ Classification of parts by physical parts or photographs.

❑ Put parts into groups based on visual inspection method.

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VISUAL INSPECTION

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 ROUTE SHEET ANALYSIS (PFA)

❑ The route sheets used to route the parts through the various operations to be performed, are inspected.

❑ This method sometimes refers to as the production flow analysis (PFA) method.

❑ Use the information contained on production route sheet and not on part drawing.

❑ PFA is carried out in FOUR steps.

(i). Data Collection.

(ii). Sortation of process routings

(iii). PFA chart (Part-Machine Incidence Matrix)

(iv). Cluster Analysis

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 ROUTE SHEET ANALYSIS (PFA)

Data Collection (The Route Sheet)

✓ Part Number,
✓ Operation Sequence - determined the machine sequence.
Sortation of process routings
✓ Parts are arranged according to the similarities in process routings which make part families.

PFA chart Cluster Analysis

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 PARTS CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEMS

✓ Classification is the process of separating the parts into groups or families depending on the
characteristic attributes based on a set of rules or principles.
✓ Coding is the process of providing a symbol to the component.
✓ These symbols should have meanings that reflect the attributes of the part, thereby facilitating
further analysis.
✓ Parts classification and coding systems can be grouped into three general types:
I. Systems based on design attributes
II. Systems based on part manufacturing attributes
III. Systems based on both design and manufacturing attributes

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PARTS CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEMS

Part Design Attributes Part Manufacturing Attributes

❖ Basic (External/Internal) shape ❖ Major process of manufacture

❖ Axisymmetric/Prismatic/sheet metal ❖ Surface treatments/coatings

❖ Length/diameter ratio ❖ Machine tool/processing equipment

❖ Material ❖ Cutting tools

❖ Major dimensions ❖ Operation sequence

❖ Minor dimensions ❖ Production time

❖ Tolerances ❖ Batch quantity

❖ Surface finish ❖ Production rate

❖ Fixtures needed
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 PARTS CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEMS

Example:

If we take a look at a machine tool manufacturing industry, large part families can be grouped as:

❖ Heavy parts - beds, columns etc.

❖ Shafts, characterized by large L/D ratios

❖ Spindles (long shafts, screw rods included)

❖ Non-rounds (small prismatic parts)

❖ Gears, disc type parts (whose L/D ratios are small)

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 CODING STRUCTURES

✓ A part coding scheme consists of symbols that identify the part’s design and/or

manufacturing attributes.

✓ The symbols in the code can be all numeric, all alphabetic, or a combination of both types.

✓ There are three basic code structures used in group technology applications:

I. Hierarchical structure (Mono code)

II. Chain type structure (Poly code)

III. Hybrid structure which is a combination of the above two

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 HIERARCHICAL OR MONOCODE

✓ The monocode comes closest to matching a decision tree.

✓ In this type of code, the meaning of each character is dependent on the meaning of the previous

character, i.e., each subsequent character amplifies the information of the previous character.

✓ The monocode can be used to rapidly subdivide a population into small groups with relative ease.

✓ However, the meaning of any particular digit in the code is difficult to determine.

✓ This type of code is particularly preferred in design departments for part retrieval because this type

of system is very effective for capturing shape, material, and size information.

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HIERARCHICAL OR MONOCODE

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HIERARCHICAL OR MONOCODE

32XX

lic El e
u ctr
dra i ca
Hy l

Mechanical
321X 323X

Re
r

ce
we

i vi n
Po
322X Transmission

g
UN
ad
32XX 32XX 32XX 3231 3232 3233

Ct
e
thr

hre
No

ad
UNF thread

3221 3222 3223

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HIERARCHICAL OR MONOCODE

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 ATTRIBUTE OR POLYCODE

✓ The polycode is not structured like logic trees.

✓ The meaning of each character in an attribute code is independent of all other digits.
✓ Each digit is used to completely to classify some feature of the item.
✓ As can be seen, each digit of a polycode has a significance of its own and can be used to extract
a definition of the item from the database independent of any other digit.

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ATTRIBUTE OR POLYCODE (Chain type structure)

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 HYBRID, OR MIXED CODE

✓ Both the above codes cannot fully serve the functions of a

manufacturing organisation.
✓ To take advantage of both the coding systems, most codes that
are used in industry are neither monocode nor polycode, but are a
hybrid of the two.
✓ Initially, one or two digits form the monocode part to divide the
population into small groups, which is followed by a polycode
series of attributes that have significance to the group in the
branch.
✓ A hybrid code is relatively more compact than a pure attribute code
while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with specific
characteristics.

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HYBRID, OR MIXED CODE

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 CODING SYSTEM

❑ There are several factors to be considered for coding system for a component’s representation .
i. The geometry of components (i.e., rotational, prismatic, deep drawn, sheet metal etc.)
ii. The code structure
iii. The digital representation (i.e., binary, octal, hexadecimal etc.)
iv. Material of manufacture - ferrous, non ferrous, plastics, composites etc.
❑ When using a code to represent an engineering design, it is important to represent the basic
features of the design and distinguish unique production families for process planning.
❑ Some of the coding systems that have been successfully implemented are given below:

✓ OPITZ system ✓ The MICLASS system

✓ The CODE system ✓ DCLASS system
✓ The KK-3 system ✓ COFORM (coding for machining)

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 Opitz Coding System
Coding system uses the following digital sequence (13 digits)

12345 6789 ABCD

12345: Form Code
Primary design attributes of the parts like external shapes, (For example, rotational vs rectangular) and
machined features (for example, holes, threads, gear teeth, and so forth).

6789: Supplementary Code

ABCD: Secondary Code
✓ Manufacturing attributes
✓ Identify the production operation type
✓ Dimensions
✓ Operation sequences
✓ Work material

✓ Starting shape

✓ Accuracy

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Opitz Coding System

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Opitz Coding System

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 Opitz Coding System

EXAMPLE
Given the part design of Fig. the form code for this part is discussed below.

Length to Diameter ratio L/D=1.5 Digit 1=1

External Shape: Stepped on both ends with

screw threads on one end Digit 2=5

Internal Shape: Part contains a through hole Digit 3=1

Plane surface machining: none Digit 4=0

Auxiliary holes, gear teeth etc: none Digit 5=0

The form code in Opitz system is 15100

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 Opitz Coding System

EXAMPLE : Develop the Opitz form code (first 5 digits) for the component given in Fig

The form code in Opitz system is 13033

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 Opitz Coding System

EXAMPLE : Develop the Opitz form code (first 5 digits) for the component given in Fig

The form code in Opitz system is 12132

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 Opitz Coding System

EXAMPLE : Develop the Opitz form code (first 5 digits) for the component given in Fig

The form code in Opitz system is 00110

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 Benefits of group technology

Product engineering - Production engineering -

✓ Reduce part proliferation ✓ Reduce lead time

✓ Help design standardization ✓ Reduce delays

✓ Provide manufacturing feed back ✓ Reduce set-up time

Manufacturing engineering - ✓ Improve product quality

✓ Process selection Production planning and control -

✓ Tool selection ✓ Group scheduling

✓ Machine purchases ✓ Stock accountability

✓ Material handling ✓ Reduce expediting

✓ Improved product design
✓ Reduced materials handling
✓ Better employee satisfaction

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 Benefits of group technology

Other benefits:
✓ Increased productivity
✓ Improved accuracy in estimation of costs
✓ Greater standardization and variety reduction
✓ Reduced set up times
✓ Better product delivery (Helps to implement just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing)
✓ Reduced cost of purchasing
✓ Improved plant efficiency

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 Impact of Group Technology

Before After
✓ Discontinuous, Random Flow of Parts ✓ Structured Flow of Parts
✓ Reinvent New Parts ✓ Retrieve Parts Already in Production
✓ Multitude of Process Plans for Some Parts ✓ Consistent, Single, Best Process Plans
✓ Continuous Purchase of Components due ✓ Regulated Purchase of Components
to Lack of Total Visibility
✓ Inflexible, Rigid, Unable to Respond to ✓ Flexible
Changing Environment

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 Computer Aided Process Planning

✓ Computer Aided Process Planning ( CAPP) is a means to automatically develop the process plan
from the geometric image of the component.
✓ The key to development of such CAPP Systems is to structure the data concerning part design,
manufacturing facilities and capabilities into categories and logical relationships.
✓ CAPP thus appears to fully integrate CAD and CAM.

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 Methods of Computer Aided Process Planning

❑ The ultimate goal of a system is to integrate design and production data into a system that

generates useable process plans.

❑ There are two approaches:

✓ Variant process planning

✓ Generative process planning

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 Variant process planning

❑ A variant process planning system uses the similarity among components to retrieve the existing

process plans.

❑ A process plan that can be used by a family of components is called a standard plan.

❑ A standard plan is stored permanently with a family number as its key.

❑ A family is represented by a family matrix which includes all possible members.

❑ The variant process planning system has two operational stages:

✓ A preparatory stage

✓ A production stage.

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 Variant process planning

❑ During the preparatory stage, existing components are coded, classified, and subsequently
grouped into families.
❑ The process begins by summarizing process plans already prepared for components in the family.
❑ Standard plans are then stored in a data base and indexed by family matrices

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 Variant process planning

❑ The operation stage occurs when the system is

ready for production.
❑ An incoming part is first coded.
❑ The code is then input to a part family search
routine to find the family to which the component
belongs.
❑ The family number is then used to retrieve a
standard plan.
❑ Some other functions, such as parameter
selection and standard time calculations, can also
be added to make the system more complete.

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Variant process planning

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 Design of variant process planning system

The following are the sequences in the design of a variant process planning system:

I. Family formation

II. Data base structure design

III. Search algorithm development and implementation

IV. Plan editing

V. Process parameter selection/updating

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 Design of variant process planning system

Family formation

✓ Components requiring similar processes are grouped into the same family.

✓ A general rule for part family formation is that all parts must be related.

✓ Then, a standard process plan can be shared by the entire family.

✓ Minimum modification on the standard plan will be required for such family members.

Data Base Structure Design

✓ The data base contains all the necessary information for an application, and can be accessed

by several programs for specific application.

✓ There are three approaches to construct a data base: hierarchical, network, and relational.

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 Design of variant process planning system

Search Procedure
✓ The variant system retrieve process plans for similar components.

✓ The search for a process plan is based on the search of a part family to which the component

belongs.

✓ When, the part family is found, the associated standard plan can then be retrieved.

✓ A family matrix search can be seen as the matching of the family with a given code.

✓ Family matrices can be considered as masks.

✓ Whenever, a code can pass through a mask successfully, the family is identified.

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 Design of variant process planning system

Plan Editing and Parameter Selection

✓ Before a process plan can be issued to the shop, some modification of the standard plan may

be necessary, and process parameters must be added to the plan.

✓ There are two types of plan editing: One is the editing of the standard plan itself in the data

base, and the other is editing of the plan for the component.

✓ For editing a standard plan, the structure of the data base must be flexible enough for

expansion, additions, and deletions of the data records.

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

❑ Generative process planning is a system that synthesizes process information in order to

create a process plan for a new component automatically.
❑ Process plans are created from information available in manufacturing data base without
human intervention.
❑ Upon receiving the design model, the system can generate the required operations and
operation sequences for the component.
❑ Knowledge of manufacturing must be captured and encoded into efficient software.
❑ By applying decision logic, a process planner’s decision making can be imitated.
❑ Other planning functions, such as machine selection, tool selection, process
optimization, and so on, can also be automated using generative planning techniques.

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Generative Approach for CAPP

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

The generative part consists of:

✓ Component representation module

✓ Feature extraction module

✓ Feature process correlation module

✓ Operation selection and sequencing module

✓ Machine tool selection module

✓ Standard time / cost computation module

✓ Report generation module

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

❑ To generate a universal process planning system, variables such as process

limitations, and capabilities, process costs, must be defined at the planning stage.

❑ Several methods for creating generative process plans

✓ Forward and backward planning

✓ Input Format

✓ CAPP based on CAD models

✓ CAPP based on decision logic either using decision trees or decision tables

✓ CAPP based on artificial intelligence

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

Forward and backward planning

❑ In generative process planning, when process plans are generated, the system must define an
initial state in order to reach the final state (goal).
❑ For example, the initial state is the raw material and the final state is the component design.
❑ Then a planner works in modifying the raw workpiece until it takes on the final design qualities.
This is called forward planning.
❑ Backward planning uses a reverse procedure. Assuming that we have a finished component, the
goal is to go back to the un-machined work-piece.
❑ Each machining process is considered a filling process.
❑ For forward planning, we must know the successor surface before we select a process, because
the post condition of the first process becomes the precondition for second process.
❑ Backward planning eliminates this problem since it begins with the final surfaces and processes
are selected to satisfy the initial requirements.
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 Generative Approach for CAPP

Input format
❑ The input format of a process planning system affects the ease with which a system can be used,
and the capability of the system.
❑ The transitional form from the original design (either engineering drawing or CAD model) to a
specific input format may be tedious and difficult to automate.
❑ Such input can provide more complete information about a component.
Many different input formats used in process planning systems.
i) Code:
✓ Some generative systems such as APPAS use GT codes as input.
✓ Defines all the geometric features, feature sizes and locations and tolerances.
✓ It relate these features to their manufacturing requirements (machine for process, tooling and
clamping).

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

ii) Description language:

✓ Specially designed part description languages can provide detailed information for process
planning system.
✓ For example AUTAP system uses a language similar to a solid modelling language.
✓ A component is described by the union of some primitives and modifiers.
✓ Material, processes, machine selection, and time estimates can be selected by the system using
the input model.
✓ Another system CIMS/ PRO uses an input language called CIMS/DEC.
✓ Structuring of manufacturing planning, determines the appropriate process operations, machine
for each operation, tooling and fixturing, setup and cycle time and cost for each operation.
✓ Some generative CAPP systems: CPPP, AUTAP, APPAS, METCAPP

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

CAPP based on cad models

❑ Using a CAD model as input to a process planning system can eliminate the human effort of

translating a design into code and other descriptive form.

❑ A CAD model contains all the details about a design.

❑ However, an algorithm is necessary to identify a general machined surface in a CAD model.

❑ Additional code is needed to convert the machined surface shape from raw material shape.

❑ CAD/CAM system uses a CAD model as its input.

❑ Several other systems such as GENPLAN, AUTOPLAN, etc., also use a CAD database

interactively for tool and fixture selection.

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

CAPP based on decision logic

❑ The decision logic determines how a process or processes are selected.

❑ The major function of the decision logic is to match the process capabilities with the design

specification.

❑ The different techniques in decision logic are:

✓ Decision trees

✓ Decision tables

❑ These two techniques are methods of describing or specifying the various actions associated

with the combination of input conditions.

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 Generative Approach for CAPP

CAPP based on artificial intelligence (AI)

❑ AI can be defined as the ability of a device to perform functions that are normally associated with
the human intelligence.
❑ These functions include reasoning, planning, and problem solving.
❑ There are two types of knowledge involved : Component knowledge, and process knowledge.
❑ The component knowledge defines the current state of the problem to be solved (declarative
knowledge).
❑ On the other hand, the knowledge of processes defines how the component can be changed by
processes (procedural knowledge).
❑ Procedural knowledge can be represented by IF (condition), THEN (action) statements which are
similar to decision trees or decision tables. In AI such rules can be called production rules.

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Expert CAPP system

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 Benefits of CAPP

❑ Process rationalization

✓ Automated process planning- consistent and logical plans

✓ Same computer software is used by all planners.

❑ Increased productivity of the process planners

Systematic approach and availability of standard plans

❑ Reduced turn around time

Route sheet for a new part in less time.

❑ Improved legibility

Documents are neater and easier to read than manually

❑ Incorporation of other application programs

Process planning system is integrate with other software packages

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Computer integrated production management system

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 Computer integrated production management system

❑ Production management refers to the process of managing the activities of a business to furnish desired

outputs of products and services

❑ It involves planning, implementation and control to convert raw materials into finished goods and services.

❑ Various production activities such as planning, implementation and control are integrated together.

❑ Large amount of data are supplied with the

use of electronic computers and data
communication devices to handle and process.

❑ Management information system provides the

necessary information in-order to take right
decision at the right time with the lowest cost.

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Computer integrated production management system

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 Production Process

❑ Production is a process of transforming tangible and intangible inputs into goods or services.

❑ Raw materials, land, labour and capital are the tangible inputs, whereas ideas, information and

knowledge are the intangible inputs.

❑ These inputs are also known as factors of production.

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 Production planning and controlling

Production planning and control is the co-ordination of series of functions according to a

plan which will economically utilize the plant facilities and regulate the orderly movement of
goods through the entire manufacturing cycle from the procurement of raw materials to the
shipping of finished goods at a predetermined rate.
-Charles A. Koepke

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Production planning and controlling

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Levels in Production planning

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 Material Requirement Planning

❑ MRP was a simple computer program for planning material orders with the purpose of reducing

inventory, responding more effectively to market demand, and ultimately increasing sales.

❑ MRP was a very good management planning tool, if the indicated manufacturing lead time and

the inventory levels were correct.

❑ MRP-II systems go for beyond the planning tools of MRP. They are in effect manufacturing

control systems.

❑ These systems can plan, track, and control almost any aspect of manufacturing, from inventory

levels to job costing, to the placement of finished goods on the proper truck to get to the right

distributor.

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 MAJOR MODULES OF A MRP SOFTWARE

❑ Manufacturing Applications

❑ Engineering Applications

❑ Financial Applications

❑ Marketing Applications

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 MAJOR MODULES OF A MRP SOFTWARE

❑ Manufacturing Applications

❑ Business Plan

❑ Master Production Schedule (MPS)

❑ Materials Requirements Planning

❑ Capacity Requirements Planning (CRP)

❑ Shop Floor Control

❑ Inventory Management

❑ Purchase Order and Receiving

❑ Cost Accounting

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS)

❑ The production plan is in turn translated into the master production schedule (MPS).

❑ The master schedule is a macro level document which sets top-level priorities for what will be

manufactured and when, looking at the material that will be required over the production cycle.

❑ MPS determines what quantities of which product types should be produced, taking into account

the market demand and the limited capacity of resources, in order to maximize profit over the

planning horizon.

❑ If the master schedule is not achievable, the system modifies the MPS or the production plan (For

example, reduce the amount of products to be produced or commit to increasing the capacity of the

plant) until the master schedule is achievable.

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Master Production Schedule (MPS)

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS)

MPS relies on the following information:

✓ The production plan conveyed by the top management
✓ Long term forecasts of the individual items
✓ Actual orders received from the customers for the plan period
✓ Present inventory levels of the individual items
✓ Resource constraints

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS)

The objectives of the master production schedule are the following:

❑ Make the best use of the resources available in terms of equipment, material and labour.
❑ Maintain the inventory as low as possible to commensurate with the objectives of the company.
❑ Maintain the finished goods delivery as per the expectations of the customers.

In order to achieve these objectives, the framework to be followed is as follows:

❑ Use qualitative data for strategic levels, e.g., full customer order completeness.
❑ Direct linkage with customer order entry.
❑ Take over all product structure to evaluate the resource requirements
❑ Use lower-level constraints and historical data in the generation of MPS, such as machine breakdowns.
❑ Make use of the support tools, e.g., identification of bottlenecks, identification of critical items, etc.

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS)

❑ Based on the above framework, develop a preliminary MPS.

❑ Then check this MPS against the capacity constraints.

❑ If there is any difference in the capacities required and capacities available, explore the possibility of

resolving through various means available at the disposal of the planning department.

❑ The final MPS should be arrived at based on the following goals:

✓ Best use of all the resources in all the plan periods.

✓ The cost incurred is not in excess including the overtime payment, subcontracting, additional

manpower, etc.

✓ All the due dates for the orders can be met with.

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS) -Example

Our firm produces tables. According to the forecasts, there will be demand for 200 tables during the next 4
weeks and 250 from week 5 to week 8, but customers have previously ordered 210;80;40 and 70 pieces for the
first four weeks. We also know that we have an on-hand inventory of 400 tables, order policy contains 200 units
and lead time is 1 week. MPS Order was not made before week one. Let’s develop an MPS!

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Master Production Schedule (MPS) - Example

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Master Production Schedule (MPS) - Example

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 Master Production Schedule (MPS) - Example

Forecast of demand for the next four months is 70 units per month. Committed customer
orders for the next four months are 80, 50, 30, and 10, respectively. Order size is 100
units. Beginning inventory is 100. Prepare MPS

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 Capacity Planning

❑ The goal of capacity planning is to transform the manufacturing requirements, as set forth in the MRP
stage, into a detailed machine loading plan for each machine or group of machines in the plant.
❑ The decisions in this stage are confined to the demands of the MRP stage, and the optimisation
criteria are capacity balancing, meeting due dates, minimum level of work-in-process and
manufacturing lead time based on the available plant capacity, tooling, on-hand material and
workforce.
❑ The available plant capacity is also dependent upon its utilisation for each manufacturing unit which
can be defined as

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 Capacity Requirement Planning

Modules of Capacity
Requirement Planning

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 Capacity Requirement Planning

➢ Capacity Requirements Planning takes planned orders from MRP and open (release) shop

orders, and translates work orders into hours of work (pre-set standards) on a work centre

basis.

➢ CRP then, using the cumulative lead times, allocates the work required for each order to the

appropriate work centres for the time period that the order will be in that work centre.

➢ CRP considers many factors in allocating the load-queue time, move time, machine and

many others.

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 Capacity Requirement Planning – Short Term

Employment levels. Employment in the plant can be increased or decreased in response to changes

in capacity requirements.

Temporary workers. Increases in employment level can also be made by using workers from a

temporary agency. When the busy period is passed, these workers move to positions at other

companies where their services are needed.

Number of work shifts. The number of shifts worked per production period can be increased or

decreased.

Labour hour. The number of labour hours per shift can be increased or decreased, through the use of

overtime or reduced hours.

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 Capacity Requirement Planning

Inventory stockpiling. This tactic might be used to maintain steady employment levels during slow

demand periods.

Order backlogs. Deliveries of the product to the customer could be delayed during busy periods

when production resources are insufficient to keep up with demand.

Subcontracting. This involves the letting of jobs to other shops during busy periods or the taking in

of extra work during slack periods

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 Capacity Requirement Planning – Long Term

• New equipment Investments. Investing in more machines to meet future production

requirements or investing in new types of machines to match future changes in product design.

• New plant construction

• Purchase of existing plants from other companies.

• Plant closings

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 Shop Floor Control (SFC)

❑ The previous modules discussed cover the planning phase of MRP-II.

❑ The actual implementation starts with shop floor control, also called production activity control-PAC.
❑ The SFC or PAC module monitors all shop floor activities and communicates status information on
manufacturing orders and work centres back to respective managers.
❑ SFC determines what orders are released to the floor and when, the routing of a particular order,
and when operations are to be started and completed.
❑ It also maintains the paperwork and details concerning an order, and handles feedback (either
manual or automated) on the status of an order.
❑ The actual operations of ‘shop floor control’, may be classified into three sections:
✓ Planning
✓ Execution
✓ Control

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 Shop Floor Control (SFC)

Modules of Shop Floor Control

85
 Functions of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

1. Priority control and assignment of shop orders

➢ Priority planning is concerned with time phased planning of materials, work in process and
assembly of final product.

➢ It is concerned with maintaining the appropriate priorities for work in process in response to
changes in job order status.

➢ Demand increases – priority for the job order have to be increase.

➢ Demand decreases - priority for the job order to be decrease.

➢ Job priorities might change after the job order is issued to the shop.

➢ Priorities determined on a weekly or daily basis.

➢ Once priorities are established, the assignment of work to work centers in the factory must be made.

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 Functions of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

2. Maintain information on work–in-process

➢ Controlling the work-in-process in the factory.

➢ Managing the parts and assemblies that are currently being processed in the shop.

➢ Quantities and completion dates for the various steps in the production sequence are compared
against the plan.

➢ Any discrepancies, due, parts scrapped in production, might require additional raw materials to
be ordered and adjustments made in the priority plan for other components in that product.

3. Monitor shop order status

➢ Information on the status of the orders in the shop.

➢ It should be updated several times per week.

➢ It is sufficient to display in CRT.

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 Functions of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

➢ Exception report should be printed periodically in document form when orders are behind
schedule, machine breakdown.

➢ The accuracy and correctness of the work order status report are dependent on the
correctness and timeliness of the basic data collected in shop.

➢ These data deal with – job completions, material movement, time turned in against an order.

4. Production output data for capacity control

➢ Capacity control is concerned with making adjustments in labour and equipment usage to
meet the production schedule.

➢ To make these adjustments effectively, it must have up-to-date information on production

rates and order status from the factory data collection system.

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Shop Floor Control (SFC)

89
 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

Three phases

1. Order release

2. Order scheduling

3. Order progress

1. Order release
➢ The order release phase of shop floor control
provides the documentation needed to
process a production order through the
factory.

➢ The collection of documents is sometimes

called the shop packet.
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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

Shop packet consists of

(1) Route sheet, which documents the process plan for the item to be produced.

(2) Material requisitions to draw the necessary raw materials from inventory.

(3) Job cards -to report direct labour time devoted to the order

(4) Move tickets to authorize the M.H. personnel to transport parts between work centers in the
factory.

(5) Parts list, if required for assembly jobs.

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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

In a modern factory, automated identification and data capture technologies are used to monitor
the status of production orders, thus rendering the paper documents unnecessary.

The order release module is driven by two inputs

➢ The first is the authorization to produce that derives from the master schedule.

➢ The second input to the order release module is the engineering and manufacturing data base to
prepare the various documents that accompany the order through the shop.

2. Order Scheduling
➢ This assigns the production orders to the various work centers in the plant.

➢ It prepares a dispatch list, which indicates which production orders should be accomplished at
the various work centers.

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Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

The various objectives or performance measures in scheduling are as follows:

✓ Flow Time The total amount of time spent by the job in the shop is called flow time.
✓ Make Span The total amount of time required for a group of components in the shop is called make span.
✓ WIP Inventory Work-in-process inventory includes all the jobs in the shop which are in waiting queues,
moving, getting processed, or assembled.
✓ Utilisation This may be expressed as a percentage of the time actually utilised for productive work
compared to the total time available.
✓ Past Due The amount of time by which a job has missed its due date is called past due. Sometimes, it
may also be expressed as the percentage of the jobs from among a group that have missed the due
date.
✓ Total Inventory The total inventory gives a count of all the items in the inventory.
✓ This includes those in the inventory as well as the scheduled receipts.

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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC) System

It provides information about relative priorities of the different jobs, for example, by showing due dates
for each job.

The order scheduling module in shop floor control is intended to solve two problems in production
control:
• Machine loading
• Job sequencing

➢ Allocating orders to work centers is referred to as machine loading:

➢ The term shop loading is also used, which refers to the loading of all machines in the plant.

➢ Job sequencing involves determining the sequence in which the jobs will be processed.

➢ To determine this sequence, priorities are established among the jobs in the queue, and the jobs are
processed in the order of their relative priorities.

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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC)

Despatch rules used in production scheduling

96
 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC)

3. Order Progress
➢ The order progress module in shop floor control monitors the status of the various orders in the plant.

➢ The function of the order progress module is to provide information that is Useful in managing the
factory based on data collected from the factory.

➢ The information presented to production management is often summarized in the form of reports.

Work order status reports. These reports indicate the status of production orders. Typical information in
the report-the current work center where each order is located, processing hours remaining before
completion of each order, whether the job is on-time or behind schedule, and priority level.

Progress reports. A progress report is used to report performance of the shop during a certain time
period (e.g., week or month in the master schedule). It provides information on how many orders were
completed during the period, how many orders should have been completed during the period but
were not, and so forth.
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 Three Phases of Shop Floor Control (SFC)

❑ This module collects the data from the various manufacturing resources such as process
times, part status, material availability, inspection data, scrap and rework data, etc., and
analyses this data to give real-time feedback to other modules.
❑ Thus, it is able to compare whether the schedule given is in control or any corrective action is
necessary
❑ This module collects the data from the various manufacturing resources such as process
times, part status, material availability, inspection data, scrap and rework data, etc., and
analyses this data to give real-time feedback to other modules.
❑ Thus, it is able to compare whether the schedule given is in control or any corrective action is
necessary
❑ The data collection and reporting to be done should be as extensive as possible to keep the
schedules and actual production in close control.

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Shop Floor Control (SFC)

99
Factory Data Collection System / Shop Floor Data Collection

➢It play an important role in getting the feedback about the execution of work.

➢ Data collection equipment can be taken to that place -to collect the data.

➢Places of action: production line, a quality control station, a maintenance location or even an unattached
operation such as warehouse conveyor system.

➢ Monitoring the progress of the jobs is an integrated part of CIM.

➢Collection of machine data statistics, estimation of the non-production times and machine utilization,
tracking of flow of materials, determination of job completion times and realization of schedules, etc., are
necessary to evaluate the efficiency of the functioning of the system.

➢This requires automatic or direct data collection from the shop floor.

➢The techniques and technologies by which the status of production is collected are called shop floor data
collection.

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Factory Data Collection System / Shop Floor Data Collection

❑ There is a need for having a large amount of data that has to be sent to the shop floor as well as receiving
a large amount related to the progress.
❑ Some of the types of data that is either sent to or generated in the shop floor are as follows:
✓ Order releases
✓ Scheduling information
✓ The jobs or parts that are actually in production
✓ Number of pieces that have been scrapped
✓ Labour utilisation
✓ Machine utilisation
✓ Machines in production, set-up, idle or breakdown
✓ Work or production stoppages
✓ Cost of downtime
✓ Various other reports to help the management to better plan production
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Factory Data Collection System / Shop Floor Data Collection

➢ Data collection techniques.

Some data by the employees
the rest are recorded automatically.

➢ Later on a fully automated system - no human intervention.

➢ These methods are called as shop floor data collection systems.

➢ It consist of various paper documents, terminals and automated devices.

The use of data collection in shop floor are:

(i) To supply data to the order progress module.
(ii) To provide up to date information.
(iii) To enable the management to monitor implementation of master schedule.

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 Factory Data Collection System

❑ Most of this information can be generated and transmitted electronically.

❑ However, there is need for interaction with the labour on the shop floor at some point of time
to get or feed information in hard-copy form, for which a number of methods are normally
utilised in the shop floor.
❑ Some of the methods used for data transmission or collection can be accomplished by having
semi-automated data terminals that are located throughout the plant.
❑ These can download product data related to materials, process plans, tooling, labour content,
etc.
❑ At the same time, shop-floor data such as part completion, inspection data, timing, etc., can be
collected at this point.
❑ These terminals are semi-automatic, since plant personnel interact with them.

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 Types of Factory Data Collection System

The shop floor data collection systems can be classified into two groups.
(i) On-line data collection systems
(ii) Off-line data collection systems

ON-LINE DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS

➢The data are directly entered to the computer and are available to the order progress module.

➢The data file representing the status of the shop is always at the current state.

OFF-LINE (BATCH) DATA COLLECTION SYSTEMS

➢ The data are collected temporarily in a storage device or a stand alone computer system.

➢ In this there is a delay in the entry and processing of the data.

➢ It cannot provide real time information. But easier to install and implement.

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 Data Input Techniques

➢ The manual data collection methods require the production workers to fill out paper forms indicating
order progress data.

➢ Forms are compiled using a combination of clerical and computerized methods.

➢ It relys on the co-operation and clerical accuracy of the employees.

➢ Errors may creep in this type of method.

➢ The common errors –wrong dates, incorrect order numbers and incorrect operation numbers.

➢ There may be a delay in submitting the order progress for compiling.

➢ The reason is time lapse between when occurrence of events and recording of events.

105
 Various Types of Input Systems

1. CENTRALIZED TERMINAL

A single terminal is located centrally in the shop floor. This requires the employees to go to the
terminal and input the data.

2. SATELLITE TERMINALS

These are multiple data collection centres located throughout the shop floor.

3. WORK CENTRE TERMINALS

The most convenient arrangements to the employees are to have a data collection terminal at each
work centre.

This reduces the time to go to the central terminal. This can be applied when the amount of data to be
collected is very large.

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 Automatic Factory Data Collection System

The advantages of the automatic data collection:

(i) The accuracy of data collected increases.
(ii) The time required by the workers for data entry can be reduced.

The basic elements in data collection systems:

(i) Machine readable media
(ii) Terminal configuration
(iii) Software for data collection.
MACHINE READABLE MEDIA
Typical machine readable media include:
(i) Bar Code Technology
(ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
(iii) Magnetic Ink Character
(iv) Voice Recognition (VR)
(v) Magnetic Strip Technology
(vi) Smart Cards
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 Factory Data Collection System

Barcode Technologies
❑ Barcode technology allows for information input at a very high rate with very little error
rate compared to keyboard input.
❑ The input method used by barcodes is a simple and inexpensive method for encoding
textual information that can be easily read by inexpensive electronic readers.
❑ It was invented in 1949 and is now extensively used.
❑ A barcode consists of a series of parallel, adjacent bars and spaces.
❑ The symbols used in barcodes follow some specific predefined patterns.
❑ They generally consist of spaces, narrow bars and wide bars.
❑ The coded information depends upon the sequence of these bars.

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Factory Data Collection System - Barcode

109
 Factory Data Collection System - Barcode

❑ A barcode reader decodes a barcode by scanning a light source across the barcode and
measuring the intensity of light reflected back by the white spaces.
❑ A photodiode incorporated into the barcode reader generates the electronic signal which is then
decoded by the software present in the reader.
❑ The way the barcodes are designed does not make any difference in scanning a barcode from right
to left or from left to right.
❑ There are a large variety of barcodes that were developed and used by different users.
❑ Code 39 is a general purpose code and is widely used in the world including manufacturing
organisations.
❑ The structure of a barcode consists of a leading and trailing quiet zone, a start pattern, one or more
data characters, optionally one or two check characters and a stop pattern.
❑ The barcode may be of any length, though rarely more than 25 characters are used.

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 Factory Data Collection System – Barcode Readers

❑ There are a number of barcode reader types that are used in the industry.
❑ The type of technology used by each of them is slightly different for reading and decoding a
barcode. There are pen-type readers (e.g., barcode wands), laser scanners, CCD readers and
camera-based readers.

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 Factory Data Collection System – Barcode Readers

There are two types of bar code readers

(a) Fixed Beam Reader (b) Moving Beam Reader

Moving Beam Reader

❑ These minimize limitations of the fixed beam reader i.e.,
intervention problem and contact with the symbol.
❑ Moving beam reader, as the name indicates, scans the symbol
by a line of light emitted from the reader, which moves at
faster rates appearing as a straight line.
❑ A moving beam reader takes less time to scan the symbol
depending on the type of equipment.

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 Factory Data Collection System – Barcode Readers

Fixed Beam Reader

❑ Bar code readers are either fixture mounted or hand held.
❑ The simplest form of bar code reader is a light pen.
❑ The tip of the light pen is moved in contact with the symbol and
moves the tip from leading zone through trailing zone in a
smooth sweeping motion.
❑ The fixed beam light pen nearly or actually touches the symbol.
❑ Used in conveyor, packaging and shipping operations.
❑ The product passes in front of the scanner, the barcode
scanned, and the data sent to a computer for processing.

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 Factory Data Collection System – OCR

➢The optical character recognition (OCR) employs special fonts

which can be read by man and machine.
➢The conversion of written or typed text into a string of characters
formatted for machines.
➢This is more reliable than key entry but less reliable compared to
bar code technology.
➢The data is considered less secure than barcodes and 2D
symbols.
➢ Some OCR software tools convert paper documents to electronic
documents.

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 Factory Data Collection System – OCR

Presence: Ensure the characters have been marked

❑ Ensure the characters are present
❑ Check the readability of OCR characters
Tracking: From stock through manufacturing to packaging
❑ Lot, batch, expiration dates, serial numbers
❑ A common barcode application
Identification: Identify part or contents of a container
❑ Ensure proper labelling
❑ Ensure product matches container

115
 Factory Data Collection System – MICR

➢Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) uses stylized OCR

fonts.
➢The fonts are printed with a magnetic ink to permit readability after
being overprinted or even smudged.
➢Like OCR, these also require precise orientation and registration.
➢MICR code is printed on cheques.
➢The error rate for the magnetic scanning of a typical cheque is
smaller than with optical character recognition systems.
➢It can be easily read by humans.

116
 Factory Data Collection System – Voice Recognition

Voice recognition
❑ Speech is the most natural way of communication.

❑ This eliminates the need of the user to understand a computer system.

❑ Voice technology is intelligently packaged and applied in several applications.

❑ The key board entry can be eliminated and hand and eye co-ordination is no longer
needed.

Voice recognition (VR) is of two types:

✓ Speaker dependent

✓ Speaker independent

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 Factory Data Collection System – RFID

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

❑ Radio frequency identification tag, or RFID tag, incorporates a
microchip and antenna.
❑ The antenna in the tag enables it to transmit the data present in the tag
to a reader which without any line of sight requirements like barcode
scanners can read it.
❑ RFID is not necessarily ‘better’ than barcodes.
❑ The main advantage of RFID is that it will be automatically read once it
comes into the field of view of the reader.
❑ The main benefit provided by the use of RFID is the ability to
seamlessly integrate the new information captured by RFID, without
disruption, into existing and proven information infrastructure.

118
 Structural model of manufacturing process

❑ Most production operations are characterized by a multiplicity of dynamically

interacting process variables.
❑ These variables can be catalogued into two basic types, input and output
variables.

119
 Structural model of manufacturing process

Input variables:
❑ Controllable input variables
✓ Manipulative variables- can be changed and controlled during the
process (feed and speed, flow rate, temperature).
❑ Uncontrollable input variables
✓ Cannot be manipulated – tool sharpness, hardness, workpiece geometry.
❑ Fixed variables
✓ Conditions of the setup, tool geometry and work-holding device, which
can be changed between operations and not during operation.

120
 Structural model of manufacturing process

Output variables:
❑ Measurable output variables.
➢ Measured online during the process – flow rate, temperature, vibration,
voltage and power.
❑ Performance evaluation variables
➢ Overall process performance – Economics of the process or quality of the
product manufactured.

121
Structural model of manufacturing process

122
 Process control

❑ Control the measurable output variables so as to achieve some desired result in

performance evaluation .
❑ This is accomplished by manipulating the controllable inputs to the process.
❑ In this section we discuss the following control strategies:
1. Feedback control
2. Regulatory control
3. Feedforward control
4. Preplanned control
5. Steady-state optimal control
6. Adaptive control

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 Process control

Feedback control
❑ By measuring the output variable and comparing it to the input variable, there by forming
automatic feedback control system.
❑ The feedback control system is also called a closed loop system.
❑ Y is the controlled variable and X is the input variable. The input variable is often referred to as
the set point.

❑ The difference between the set

point and the measured y value is
called the error and becomes the
input to the process controller.

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 Process control

Regulatory control
❑ The objective is to maintain the overall performance evaluation variable at a certain set point level.
❑ In many industrial processes it is sufficient to maintain the performance evaluation variable at a
certain level or within a given tolerance band of that level.
❑ This would be appropriate in situations where performance was measured in terms of product
quality and it was desired to maintain the product quality at a particular level.

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 Process control

Feed-forward control
❑ The trouble with regulatory control and feedback control is Compensating action is taken after a
disturbance has affected the process output.
❑ In feed-forward control the disturbances are measured before they upset the process, and
anticipatory corrective action is taken.
❑ The feed-forward controller contains a mathematical or logical model of the process which includes
the effect of disturbance.

❑ This control is helpful when the process is

characterized by long response time or
lead time.

126
 Process control

Preplanned control
❑ Use of the computer for directing the process or equipment to carry out a predetermined series of operation
steps.
❑ Control sequence must be developed in advance.
(i) Computer Numerical Control
✓ It involves the use of computer to direct a machine tool through a program of processing steps.
(ii) Program Control
✓ It involves the application of the computer to start-up or shut down a large complex process.
✓ Use of computers in batch processing to direct the process through the cycle of processing steps.
✓ With program control the objective is to direct the process from one operating condition to a new
operating condition in minimum time.
✓ Example : Paper Industry –Slightly different operating cycle is required for each grades of paper.

127
 Process control

(iii)Sequencing Control
❑ Guiding the process through a sequence of on/off type steps.
❑ The process must be monitored to make sure that each step has been carried
out before proceeding to the next step.
❑ Example: Automated production flow line – sequence of workstation power
feed motions, parts transfer, quality inspections.
❑ Tool change schedules may also be included as one of the computer functions.
❑ The operators are directed by the computer when to change cutters.

128
 Process control

Steady state optimal control

(i) Performance evaluation variable
✓ Measure of system performance is also called Objective function, index of performance, figure of merit.
✓ Performance objectives: cost minimization, profit maximization, production rate maximization,
quality optimization.
(ii) Mathematical model of the process
✓ The relationship between the input variables and the measure of process performance must be
mathematically defined.
✓ The model is assumed to be valid throughout the operation of the process.
✓ The model of the process may include constraints on some or all of the variables.
❑ With these two attributes of the process defined, the solution of the optimal control problem consists of
determining the values of the input variables that optimize the objective function.

129
 Process control

Steady state optimal control

130
 Process control

Adaptive control
❑ It possesses attributes of both feedback control and optimal control.

131
 Process control

Identification function
✓ In this function, the current value of the index of performance of the system is determined, based
on measurements collected from the process.
✓ Since the environment changes over time, system performance also changes. Accordingly, the
identification function must be accomplished more or less continuously over time during system
operation
Decision function
✓ Once system performance has been determined, the next function is to decide what changes
should be made to improve performance.
✓ The decision function is implemented by means of the adaptive system's programmed algorithm.
✓ Depending on this algorithm, the decision may be to change one or more input parameters to the
process, to alter some of the internal parameters of the controller, or other changes.

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 Process control

Modification function
✓ The third function of adaptive control is to implement the decision.
✓ Whereas decision is a logic function, modification is concerned with physical changes in the
system.
✓ It involves hardware rather than software.
✓ In modification, the system parameters or process inputs are altered using available
actuators to drive the system toward a more optimal state.

133
 Direct Digital Control (DDC)

❑ Direct digital control replace the conventional analog control devices with the digital computers.
❑ The regulation of the process is accomplished by the digital computer on a time-shared, sampled-data
basis rather than by many individual analog elements, each working in a continuous dedicated
fashion.
❑ The computer calculates the desired values of the input variables, and these calculated values are
applied directly to the process.
❑ Analog devices were limited in terms of the mathematical operations.
❑ DDC increases flexibility in the control action.
❑ The digital computer is considerably more versatile with regard to the variety of control calculations
that it can be programmed to execute.

134
 Direct Digital Control (DDC)

Components of Analog system

✓ Transducers and sensors – located in plant
✓ Actuators - Servomotors, valves, which operate at the commands of the controller unit.
✓ Analog controller – controls the electronic or pneumatic devices that operate on the error
signal to drive the output variable into agreement with the set point.
✓ Recording and display devices- visual reading of the sensor measurements for the control
room operator
✓ Set-point dial and comparator – allow the operator to set the desired operating level for the
particular process variable.

135
 Direct Digital Control (DDC)

Typical analog control loop

Components of a DDC system

136
 Direct Digital Control (DDC)

Benefits of direct digital control

❑ DDC is more efficient control actions

❑ DDC provides more control options than traditional analog control system

❑ DDC has the ability to integrate feedback measurements multiple loops and to implement

optimizing strategies to improve overall performance

❑ A digital computer in DDC makes editing the control programs much easier and less costlier

137
 Supervisory computer control

❑ It is concerned with overall process performance and optimization.

❑ The problem is to determine the appropriate set points of each control loop.
❑ In DDC decisions about set point values are left to the operator.
❑ In supervisory control, the computer determined the appropriate set point values to optimize the
process performance.
❑ The performance objective of the process might be
✓ Maximum production rate, minimum cost per unit of product, yield based on the mathematical
model of the process, which is programmed into the computer, it calculates the set point values.
❑ The control strategies used in supervisor computer control are
✓ Regulatory control, feed-forward control, preplanned control, optimal control and adaptive
control.

138
Supervisory computer control

139
 Supervisory computer control

❑ In addition to set point adjustments in the control loops, the supervisory computer may also be
required to control discrete variables in the process.
❑ Example: starting and stopping motors, opening valves.
❑ Performing sequence of on/off steps called sequencing control.
❑ It perform a combination of sequencing control and set-point control.
❑ Adjustments in the set points are accomplished in either two ways:
1. Analog control - If the individual feedback loops are controlled by analog devices, the control
computer is connected to these devices.
The set point adjustments are made through the appropriate interface hardware between the
computer and the analog elements.
2. Direct digital control – If the feedback loops operate under direct digital control, the supervisory
control program provides the set point values to the DDC program.

140
 Computer aided quality control

Quality Definition:

Dictionary - The degree of excellence which a thing possesses.

Crosby - “Conformance to requirements“

Juran - “Fitness for use" and "quality is customer satisfaction”

The American Society for Quality Control (ASQC):

“The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear
on its ability to satisfy given need,"

141
 Computer aided quality control

❑ In the 1980s the issue of quality control (QC) became a national concern in the United States.
❑ The Japanese automobile industry had demonstrated that high-quality cars could be
produced at relatively low cost.
❑ US believed that superior quality is achieved only at a premium price.
❑ Japanese wages were in fact lower at that time, the reality that Japanese products were not
only cheaper, they were better quality.
❑ It was a combination of factors, including:
1) A well developed work ethic and orientation toward quality that is instilled into the
Japanese worker.
2) A philosophy of continuous improvement (the Japanese call it kaizen).
3) Attention to the use of QC techniques,

142
 Computer aided quality control

❑ Quality in a manufacturing context can be defined as the degree to which a product or its
components conform to certain standards that have been specified by the designer.
❑ The design standards generally relate to the materials, dimensions and tolerances,
appearance, performance, reliability, and any other measurable characteristic of the product.
❑ Quality assurance (QA) is concerned with those activities which will maximize the probability
that the product and its components will be manufactured within the design specifications.
❑ These activities should start in the product design area, where the designer can make
decisions among alternatives that might have quality consequences.
❑ QA activities continue in manufacturing planning, where decisions relative to production
equipment, tooling, methods, and motivation of employees will all have an influence on quality.

143
Computer aided quality control

Typical activities in Computer Aided Quality Control

144
 Use of Computers in CAQC

❑ A wide range of computer-based instrumentation is being used for quality control.

❑ In particular the increased sophistication of sensors and transducers, which are part of

CIM, is making it easier to carry out pre-process, in-process, and post-process inspection.

❑ At present, inspection with the use of computers has acquired a status of its own known

as Computer Aided Inspection (CAI) and Computer Aided Testing (CAT) is an integral part

of Computer Integrated Manufacturing.

145
 Inspection

❑ Inspection is normally used to examine whether a product conforms to the design

standards specified for it.
❑ For a mechanical component, this would be probably concerned with the dimensions,
surface texture and tolerances specified for the part.

❑ The common situations that warrant inspection are:

✓ Incoming materials (raw materials, standard items, subcontracted parts)
✓ Stage inspection during manufacturing (e.g., when the parts are moved from one
production section to another)
✓ At the completion of processing of the parts
✓ Before shipping the final assembled product to the customer.

146
 Testing

❑ Testing consists of the appraisal of the performance of the final product under actual or
simulated conditions.
❑ If the product successfully passes the tests, it is deemed suitable for use.
❑ Testing ascertains the quality of performance of the product.
❑ Various categories of tests used for final product evaluation are listed below:
✓ Functional tests under normal or simulated operating conditions
✓ Fatigue or wear tests to determine the product’s life function until failure
✓ Overload tests to determine the level of safety factor built into the product
✓ Environmental testing to determine how well the product will perform under different
environments (e.g. humidity, temperature, vibration).

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 Computer aided quality control

Inspection Testing
✓ Done to examine or observe a product to ✓ Done by applying some measurable influence to
check its satisfaction. the material and measuring the effect.
✓ The inspection is done by scaling the ✓ The testing is done in a material under forces
dimension, weighing, tapping with a hammer, until it deforms or fails its dimensions.
scratching with nail.
✓ These are done temporary checking. ✓ This is a permanent checking.
✓ Probability of errors is high in this method. ✓ Probability of errors is less in this method.

✓ Once done is re checking is necessary. ✓ Once done re checking s not necessary

✓ Easy to perform. ✓ Not easy to perform.
✓ Time saving method. ✓ Time consuming method.

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 Objectives of CAQC

The objectives of computer-aided quality control are to:

i. Improve product quality
ii. Increase productivity in the inspection process
iii. Increase productivity
iv. Reduce lead-time
v. Reduce wastage due to scrap/rework
❑ The strategy for achieving these objectives is basically to automate the inspection process
through the application of computers combined with sensor technology.
❑ Where technically possible and economically feasible, inspection should be done on a
100% basis rather sampling.

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 Role of computer in QC

❑ Inspection and testing are meant to reduce wastage and make maximum use of resources.

❑ In modern manufacturing systems, inspection is no longer considered as an appraisal oriented

process (ACCEPTED/ REJECTED) but as prevention oriented process.

❑ Computer-aided inspection (CAI) and computer aided testing (CAT) are the two major

segments of computer-aided quality control.

❑ Whereas these activities have been traditionally performed manually (with the help of gauges,

measuring devices and testing apparatus), CAI and CAT are performed automatically using

computer and sensor technology.

❑ Today, CAI and CAT can be well integrated into the overall CIM system.

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 Computer aided quality control

❑ With CAI and CAT, inspection and testing will typically be done on a 100% basis rather by
the sampling procedures normally used in traditional QC.
❑ Inspection is integrated into the manufacturing process to reduce the lead-time to complete
the parts.
❑ With non-contact sensing devices the parts can be inspected while in operation.
❑ The inspection can thus be completed in a fraction of a second.
❑ The on-line non-contact sensors are useful as the feedback element of adaptive control
systems.
❑ An important feature of QC in a CIM environment is that the CAD/CAM database will be
used to develop inspection plan.

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 Inspection Techniques

(1) Contact inspection techniques- physical contact is made between the object and the
measuring instrument.
(2) Noncontact inspection techniques- no physical contact is made.

Contact inspection :
➢ It involves the use of a mechanical probe or other device that makes contact with the
object being inspected.
➢ It is usually concerned with some physical dimension of the part.
➢ Accordingly, these techniques are widely used in particular in the production of metal
parts (machining, stamping, and other metalworking processes).

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 Computer aided quality control

The principal contact inspection technologies are:

❑ Conventional measuring and gauging instruments, manual and automated.

❑ Coordinate measuring machines (CMMs).

❑ Stylus type surface texture measuring machines - roughness and waviness.

Importance of contact inspection methods :

❑ They are the most widely used inspection technologies

today.

❑ They are accurate and reliable.

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 Conventional measuring and gauging techniques

❑ Conventional measuring and gauging techniques use manually

operated devices for linear dimensions such as length, depth, and
diameter, as well as features such as angles, straightness, and
roundness.
❑ Measuring requires more time to accomplish but provides more
information about the part feature.
❑ Gauging can be accomplished more quickly but does not provide as
much information.

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 Coordinate Measuring Machine

❑ The coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is the most prominent example of the equipment

used for contact inspection of parts.

❑ When used for CIM these machines are controlled by CNC.

❑ A typical three-dimensional measuring machine consists of a table, which holds the part in a

fixed, position, and movable head, which holds a sensing, probe.

❑ The probe can be moved in three directions corresponding to the X, Y and Z Coordinates.

❑ For manual operation, the control unit is provided with joysticks, or other devices which drive

X, Y and Z servo motors (AC/DC).

155
Coordinate Measuring Machine

156
 Coordinate Measuring Machine

Any basic coordinate measuring machine has the following major elements in order for it to properly
function in a measuring environment:

✓ High Precision Mechanical Structure

✓ Probing System

✓ Machine Control Unit

✓ CMM Software

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 High Precision Mechanical Structure

❑ CMM which has the ability to move the sensor probe to be positioned at the requisite location in
X-Y-Z on the part to be measured.
❑ This structure has to be very rigid to provide the necessary accuracy for the measurements.
❑ It can be controlled either manually or be CNC controlled for precise positioning of the probe
(position sensor) element on any point of its working volume with a very high repeatability.
❑ Typical accuracies are of the order of (1.7 + 3L/1000) μm.
❑ For higher accuracy, the drive axes are provided with linear glass scales.
❑ For faster motion and minimising vibration during high-speed, high-acceleration travel, air
bearings are provided for the linear axes.
❑ To provide a thermally stable surface for part placement, granite tables are generally used as
bases in most of the CMMs.

158
 High Precision Mechanical Structure

Bridge Type Gantry Type

Cantilever Type Column Type

159
 Probing System

❑ The touch-trigger probe is used to collect the basic information such as x, y, z coordinates of the
points where the probe touches the part to measure a particular dimension.
❑ It is a sophisticated mechatronic device capable of allowing the CMM to record a number of points
on the surface of the part, which need to be quickly measured.
❑ It is also possible to have an optoelectronic sensor for non-contact inspection in place of the touch-
trigger probe.
❑ The tip of the probe is usually a ruby ball.
❑ Ruby is a form of corundum (aluminum oxide),
whose desirable properties in this application include
high hardness for wear resistance and low density
for minimum inertia.
❑ Probes can have either a single tip, or multiple tips

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 Probing System

❑ When the probe moves along a direction and touches a surface, the elastic connection deflects and
triggers the measuring system.
❑ At a time when the stylus makes contact with the component, the stylus ball is slightly deflected.
❑ This is manifested as bending of the stylus and the stylus assembly pivots about the kinematic
contacts, resulting in one or two contacts moving apart.
❑ Then the machine backs off and the spring ensures that the stylus is returned to its seating position.
❑ From that the physical position of the surface where the probe contacts gets recorded.
❑ Ruby stylus balls are the most commonly used material in the industry because they are very hard
and wear-resistant.
❑ In addition, sometimes balls made of silicon nitride or zirconium are used for heavy-duty
applications.

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 Probing System

❑ The stylus stem is generally made of non-magnetic stainless steel.

❑ This is normally used for all styli with a ball diameter greater than 2 mm and a length of up to 30
mm.
❑ For a small ball diameter that is less than 1 mm or if the stylus is up to 50 mm long, tungsten
carbide is useful.
❑ Sometimes, a ceramic stylus offers the advantage of low weight compared to steel.
❑ For very long stylus lengths (up to 800 mm), a carbon-fibre stylus is used.
❑ It is good to keep the stylus as short as possible for the given application, for better accuracy.
❑ The stylus ball size used should be as large as possible that helps in minimising the component
surface finish effects.

162
Probing System

163
 Machine Control Unit and Software

❑ It is essentially a computerised system that serves the purpose of controlling the probe
positioning as well as getting the data in terms of the measured point sets which are then
utilised by the software for further presentation.
❑ The major component of a CMM is its metrology operating system, which allows it to do the
necessary computations on the point sets that were measured and communicate to other
equipment in the system.
❑ It consists of a number of application software depending upon the industry for the purpose of
special analysis such as comparing with CAD data and evaluating the deviations, evaluating
special profiles such as those used in gears and gas-turbine blades, etc.

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 CMM Operation and Programming

❑ Positioning the probe relative to the part can be accomplished in several ways, ranging from

manual operation to direct computer control (DCC).

❑ Computer-controlled CMM must be programmed.

Methods of operating and controlling a CMM:

(1) Manual drive

(2) Manual drive with computer-assisted data processing

(3) Motor drive with computer-assisted data processing

(4) Direct computer control

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 CMM Operation and Programming

(i) Manual drive CMM

❑ The operator physically moves the probe along the machine's axes to make contact with the
part and record the measurements.
❑ The measurements are digital readout.
❑ Any calculations on the data (calculating the centre and diameter of a hole etc.,) must be
made by the operator.

(ii) Manual drive with computer-assisted data processing

❑ Some data processing and computational capability for performing the calculations required to
evaluate a given part feature.
❑ The probe is still free floating to permit the operator to bring it into contact with the desired part
surfaces.

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 CMM Operation and Programming

(iii) A motor-driven CMM with computer-assisted data processing

❑ It uses electric motors to drive the probe - under operator control.

❑ A joystick is used for controlling the motion.

❑ Low-power stepping motors and friction clutches are utilized to reduce the effects of collisions

between the probe and the part.

❑ The motor drive can be disengaged for manual control method.

❑ Motor-driven CMMs are equipped with data processing to accomplish the geometric

computations.

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 CMM Operation and Programming

(iv) Direct computer control (DCC)

❑ Operates like a CNC machine tool.

❑ It is motorized, and the movements of the coordinate axes are controlled by a program.

❑ The computer also performs the data processing and calculations and compiles a record of the

measurements.
❑ The DCC CMM requires part programming.

❑ Two methods of programming a DCC measuring machine:

✓ Manual lead-through

✓ Off-line programming.

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 Direct computer control (DCC)

Manual Lead-through

❑ The operator leads the CMM probe through the various motions required in the

inspection sequence, and recording these into the control memory.

❑ This is similar to the robot programming technique.

❑ During regular operation, the CMM controller plays back the program to execute the

inspection procedure.

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 Direct computer control (DCC)

Off-line programming
➢ The program is prepared off-line based on the part drawing and then downloaded to the
CMM controller for execution.
➢ The programming statements include motion commands, measurement commands, and
report formatting commands.
➢ The motion commands are used to direct the probe to a desired inspection location.
➢ The measurement statements are used to control the measuring and inspection function of
the machine, calling the various data processing and calculation routines into play.
➢ Finally, the formatting statements permit the specification of the output reports to document
the inspection.
➢ Off-line programming on a CAD system is facilitated by the Dimensional Measuring Interface
Standard (DMIS).

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 CMM software

The features of CMM software will include:

✓ Measurement of diameter, centre distances, lengths, geometrical and form errors in
prismatic components etc.
✓ On-line statistics for statistical information in a batch.
✓ Parameter programming to minimize CNC programming time of similar parts.
✓ Measurement of plane and spatial curves.
✓ Data communications.
✓ Digital input and output commands for process integration.
✓ Programs for the measurement of spur, helical, bevel and hypoid gears.
✓ Interface to CAD software.

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 Advantages of CMM

❑ Shorter measuring times

❑ Higher throughput rates

❑ Better repeatability

❑ Economical even for small batches

❑ Simple operation

❑ Unmanned second and third shift inspection of parts if parts are loaded automatically.

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 Non-contact inspection methods

❑ In non-contact inspection, the part is not physically contacted by the measuring instrument.
❑ As a result, this process is faster compared to contact inspection.
❑ The part surface is not affected in any way with the inspection process in non-contact inspection.
❑ Also, since the probe does not physically contact the surface, there is no wear and tear of the
inspection probe.
Some of the areas where non-contact inspection finds application are as follows:
✓ Dimensional Dimensions, shape, positioning, orientation, alignment, roundness, etc.
✓ Structural Assembly (holes, slots, rivets, screws, clamps) Foreign objects (dust, burr, swarf)
✓ Surface Pits, scratches, cracks, wear, finish, roughness, texture, seams-folds-laps,
continuity
✓ Operational Non-conformance of operations to specifications

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 Machine Vision

❑ Machine vision can be defined as the acquisition of image data, followed by the processing and

interpretation of these data by computer for some useful application.

❑ Machine vision also called computer vision, since a digital computer is required to process the image

data. Vision systems are 2-D or 3-D.

❑ A few examples are delicate electronics component manufacturing, metal-product finishing, machine

parts, and Integrated Circuits (IC) manufacturing.

❑ The operation of a machine vision system:

(1) Image acquisition and digitization.
(2) Image processing and analysis.
(3) Interpretation.

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Machine Vision

175
Machine Vision

176
Machine Vision

177
 Image Acquisition and Digitization

❑ It is accomplished using a video camera and a digitizing system to store the image data tor
subsequent analysis.
❑ The camera is focused on the subject of interest, and an image is obtained by dividing the viewing
area into pixels in which each element has a value that is proportional to the light intensity of that
portion of the scene.
❑ The intensity value for each pixel is converted into its equivalent digital value by an ADC.
❑ In binary vision system, the light intensity of each pixel is ultimately reduced to either of two
values, white or black.
❑ A mort sophisticated vision system is capable of distinguishing and storing different shades of gray
in the image. This is called a gray-scale system.
❑ The amount of data that must be processed is significant.
❑ One category of techniques in image processing and analysis is called segmentation.

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 Image Acquisition and Digitization

Dividing the image into a matrix of picture elements, where each element has a light intensity
value corresponding to that portion of the image:

(a) (b) (c)

(a) The scene
(b) 12 x 12 matrix superimposed on the scene
(c) Pixel intensity values, either black or white, for the scene.

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 Image Processing and Analysis

❑ Segmentation technique are intended to define and separate regions of interest within the image.
❑ Two segmentation techniques are thresholding and edge detection.
❑ Thresholding involves the conversion of each pixel intensity level into a binary value, representing
either white or black.
❑ This is done by comparing the intensity value at each pixel with a defined threshold value.
❑ If the pixel value is greater than the threshold, it is given the binary bit value of white, say 1.
❑ If less than the defined threshold, then it is given the bit value of black, say 0.
❑ Reducing the image to binary form by means of thresholding usually simplifies the subsequent
problem of defining and identifying objects in the image.
❑ Edge detection is concerned with determining the location of boundaries between an object and its
surroundings in an image.

180
Image Processing and Analysis

181
 Image Processing and Analysis

❑ This is accomplished by identifying the contrast in light intensity that exists between adjacent
pixels at the borders of the object.
❑ For example the area of the object can be determined by counting the number of white (or black)
pixels that make up the object.
❑ Its length can be found by measuring the distance (in terms of pixels) between the two extreme
opposite edges of the part.
❑ Another set of techniques in image processing and analysis that normally follows segmentation is
feature extraction.
❑ Some of the features of an object include the object's area, length, width, diameter, perimeter,
center of gravity, and aspect ratio.

182
 Interpretation

❑ The image must be interpreted based on the extracted features.

❑ The interpretation function is usually concerned with recognizing the object, a task termed object
recognition or pattern recognition.
❑ The objective is to identify the object in the image by comparing it with predefined models or
standard values.
❑ Two commonly used interpretation techniques are template matching and feature weighting.
❑ Template matching is the name given to various methods that attempt to compare one or more
features of an image with the corresponding features of a model or template stored in computer
memory.
❑ In template matching technique, the image is compared pixel by pixel with a corresponding
computer model.

183
 Interpretation

❑ Within certain statistical tolerances, the computer determines whether the image matches
the template.
❑ One of the technical difficulties is the problem of aligning the part in the same position and
orientation in front of the camera.
❑ Feature weighting is a technique in which several features (e.g., area, length, and
perimeter] are combined into a single measure by assigning a weight to each feature
according to its relative importance in identifying the object.
❑ The score of the object in the image is compared with the score of an ideal object residing
in computer memory to achieve proper identification.

184
 Machine Vision Applications

❑ The reason for interpreting the image is to accomplish some practical objective in an
application.
❑ Machine vision applications in manufacturing divide into three categories:
(1) Inspection
(2) Identification
(3) Visual guidance and control

(1) Inspection
❑ Machine vision installations in industry perform a variety of automated inspection tasks, most
of which are either on-line-in-process or on-line/post-process.

185
 Machine Vision Applications

❑ Dimensional measurement: Determining the size of parts moving at relatively high speeds on a
moving conveyor.
❑ It must compare the features (dimensions} with the corresponding features of a computer-
stored model and determine the size value.
❑ Dimensional gauging.
❑ Verification of the presence of components in an assembled product.
❑ Verification of hole location and number of holes in a part.
❑ Detection of surface flaws and defects.
❑ Detection of flaws in a printed label: Poorly located label or poorly printed text, numbering or
graphics on the label.

186
 Machine Vision Applications

2. Part identification applications

❑ Vision system is used to recognize and perhaps distinguish parts or other objects.
❑ Part sorting, counting different types of parts flowing past along a conveyor, and inventory monitoring.
❑ Part identification can usually be accomplished by 2-D vision systems.
❑ Reading of 2-D bar codes and character recognition.

3. Visual guidance and control

❑ A vision system is teamed with a robot or similar machine to control the movement of the machine.
❑ Examples of these applications include seam tracking in continuous arc welding, part positioning
and/or reorientation, bin picking, collision avoidance, machining operations, and assembly tasks.

187
Machine Vision Applications

188
Machine Vision Applications

189
Machine Vision Applications

190
Machine Vision Applications

191
 Scanning laser system

➢ Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.

➢ Laser for measurement applications are low power gas lasers such as helium-neon, which emits
light in the visible range.
➢ The light beam from a laser is
Highly mono- chromatic – single wave length
Highly collimated – light rays are parallel
➢ It uses a laser beam that is deflected by a rotating mirror to produce a beam of light that can be
focused to sweep past an object.
➢ A photo-detector on the far side of the object senses the light beam except for the time period
during the sweep when it is interrupted by the object.
➢ This time period can be measured with great accuracy and related to the size of the object in the
path of the laser beam.

192
Scanning laser system

193
 Scanning laser system

❑ It can complete its measurement in a very short time cycle.

❑ It can be applied in high-production on-line / post-process inspection or gauging.
❑ A microprocessor counts the time interruption of the scanning laser beam as it sweeps past the
object.
❑ Makes the conversion from time to a linear dimension, and signals other equipment to make
adjustments in the manufacturing process.

Applications of the scanning laser technique

✓ Rolling mill operations
✓ Wire extrusion
✓ Machining and grinding processes

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 Linear Array Devices

❑ The operation of a linear array for automated inspection is similar in some respects to machine vision,
except that the pixels are arranged in only one dimension rather than two.
❑ It consists of a light source that emits a planar sheet of light directed at an object.
❑ On the opposite side of the object is a linear array of closely spaced photo diodes.
❑ Typical numbers of diodes in the array are 256, 1024, and 2048.
❑ The sheet of light is blocked by the object, and this blocked light is measured by the photo diode array to
indicate the object's dimension.

Advantages
✓ Simplicity, accuracy, and speed.
✓ It has no moving parts.
✓ It can complete a measurement in a much smaller time cycle than
either machine vision or the scanning laser beam technique.

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 Optical Triangulation Technique

❑ Triangulation techniques are based on the trigonometric

relationships of a right triangle.
❑ It is used for range-finding, that is, determining the distance or
range of an object from two known points.
❑ A light source (typically a laser) is used to focus a narrow beam at
an object to form a spot of light on the object.
❑ A position-sensitive optical detector is used to determine the
location of the spot.

196
 Optical Triangulation Technique

❑ The angle A of the beam directed at the object is

fixed and known and so is the distance L between
the light source and the photosensitive detector.
❑ Accordingly, the range R of the object from the base
line defined by the light source and the
photosensitive detector can be determined as a
function of the angle from trigonometric relationships
as follows:

R = L cot A

197