CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
This chapter presents available related literature that explores the subject under the
study. This literature shall systematically be presented in three categories of
conceptual review, theoretical review and empirical review.

Conceptual review

The concepts to be review are teacher’s characteristics, teacher’s qualification,

teacher’s experience and teacher’s skill and student Academic performance.

Teacher Characteristic

Shulman (1986) indeed came up firstly, with the idea of knowledge for teaching
and whose work later inspired other researchers and the type of knowledge were
adapted to various discipline such as geography, mathematics and physics.

More so, Ball, Thames and Mishra (2009), carried out studies on the type of
knowledge which concerns the professional knowledge that the teacher should have
and comprising the pedagogical knowledge alongside the teaching knowledge and
the content knowledge for the course that is to be taught, Baki and Arslan (2016).
Many educators have indicated that a teacher’s professional knowledge is related to
students’ academic performance, Mertzler and woessman (2012).
According to Martin and Sass (2010), viewed on the aspects that which teachers
should make use of instructional management that is it consist of a series of
components, from how the classroom is arranged to the teaching styles and
teaching practice to be used within the classroom and also, the purpose of it is to
create a classroom environment that is beneficial to students’ achievement.
However, Corbertte and Wilson (2002) emphasized that instructional management
is an influential indicator for teacher effectiveness. In addition, Collins and O’brien
(2003), generally accepted that a student-centered approach provides greater
motivations to learn, deeper conceptual understanding of the materials.

Hence (2015) and Tan (2017) as such, viewed that new curricular are often
developed according to a constructivist approach, which differs to differs to
student’s-based learning. According to the attachment theory, Ainsworth (1982),
implemented, one of the basic assumptions is that positive relationships between
teachers and students are essential for a safe and secure learning setting, enabling
scaffolding for students’ academic performance or achievement as well as
developing social skills, Tement and Collins (2011).

Thus professional knowledge and instructional management are the factors

considered in term of teacher characteristics. Tucker, Stronge and Hyndman (2004)
reviewed dentally the characteristics of effective teachers as a social phenomenon,
referring to humor, caring and fairness as components of social Interaction with
students. Robinson and Xavier (2007), Strong et al (2004), asserted that
communication has been highlighted as a crucial element of socialization between
students and teachers is accepted as another component that affect student’s
academic performance.
Timmermans et al (2016) investigated the linked between teacher expectations and
student academic performance and found a positive effect.

Furthermore, another study by Xu (2012) revealed the effects of teachers’ beliefs

on teacher consciousness, teaching methods and teaching policy. On the other
hand, in investigating another component of personal qualities, Loy (2006),
demonstrated the impact of communication skills in a learning setting on students’
performance.

As Cranston (2000) pointed out, teachers’ skills and knowledge competencies, as

well as their classroom activities are in the process of change in the 21 st century. In
addition, Wilson (2012) found no significant effect between students achievements
and instrumental management at the elementary school level, Akbari and Allvar
(2012) did observed that classroom management had an impact on achievement at a
high school level. In cultivating and sustaining teacher characteristic is therefore an
important aspect for students’ academic performance. This can be achieved
through;

Teachers’ Qualification

This study is been anchored on teacher’s characteristic and it effects, as a result of

teacher’s qualification on student’s academic performance, Colfalter, Ladd and
Vidgor (2006) found a significant difference that exists in the mean performance of
the students in schools, staffed with unqualified teacher’s. Adeniji (2004) supported
these findings to a great extent that teacher’s qualification has a potential
relationship with student’s academic performance. Iheanacho (2002) argued that
learner’s with higher education qualification are more effective than those with
lower qualification and that skilled teacher’s with some additional skills are more
productive that the skilled.
This could be a reason for specifying the minimum educational qualification for
entering into the teaching profession. Also Iheanacho, further reports was that
when an individual opts to obtain additional qualification, his rate of return at a
particular level is raised. Therefore, proving this by comparing the performance of
secondary school learners’ and the university graduates. More so, teachers with
bachelor, master degrees are expected to be more productive, with all things been
equal, especially as they earn more, they also see themselves as experts in their area
of specialization. Sewage (2002) also discovered that there is a significant different
between student’s performance thought by HND and Degree certificate holders in
Education.

Those taught by degree holders in education such as M.Sc. and B.Sc. in Education,
where consistently better in their performance than HND Certificate holders,
Simatawa and Okwash (2016) showed the expected results that teachers with
Bachelor of Education, qualification significantly effects students’ performance. It
also revealed that the unexpected outcomes with the discovery that teachers’ with
the master of education or diploma (HND) qualification did not significantly have
an effect on students’ academic performance.

Qualified teachers refers to an individual that guides learners to get knowledge and
skills, who has achieved the minimum criteria for teaching a particular level of
education Lydia and Migosi (2015). Herman (2015) indicated that high quality
teacher education as well as trainings is one of the pre-requisite that leads to quality
teaching and it also improves learning outcomes where there effective teaching
should be observable and can be communicated effectively and also consulting to
degrees and diplomas as well as certificates as a form of signaling.
Though, some traditional teacher’s training institutions, May not effective capacity
of delivering of teachers having high quality learning Taleb (2007). The provision
of teachers’ training and development are not enough to make a qualified teacher
UNESCO (2014), having degrees, certificate as well as having effective code of
conducts so as to meet the universal schooling goals , Moon (2013). Furthermore,
the content developed during professional training, so as to enhance, teacher
qualification, does not always meet the needs of educators.

Teachers’ qualification in an Educational system

There importance of good teaching to the academic success of students is

spontaneous to any parent whose child at school, Abell (2010). Basically, principle
that should sound to statistical analysis taken to enhance academic performance as
well as discipline, that may be violated routinely due to failing to control various
variables related to students’ academic performance, caused by insufficient
qualified teachers’ teaching in most level of education Ronald (2012).

According to Jason and Kerry (2011), the shortage of qualified teachers teaching in
secondary schools was affected by the lack of attention related to teachers’ training
as well as development due to insufficient financial. Barley (2016) revealed that,
the entry related to school productivity and quality education is rooted from the
qualification of teachers as well as professional credential., therefore Barley
suggested that teachers training and research could be one of the results related to
the improvement of student teachers’ who needs to become more qualified.
Darling-Hammond (1999) examined a fifty state survey on teacher policies, case
analysis and National Assessment of Educational progress and specifically looked
at teacher qualifications and how other schools inputs are related to students’
academic performance across all fifty states and discovered that teacher academic
qualification, that is teacher quality related to increased students’ academic
performance and more importance than other factors.

Again, Charles et al (2007) explains that regular certification has positive effects on
students’ academic performance, also they found that teachers with low
certification scores have student’ with extreme low performance, having a strong
teacher is better than been in the classroom with fewer students than an average
classroom. Wilson et al (2001) suggested that even with the short comings of
current teacher education and certification, fully prepared and certified teachers are
more successful with students than teachers without this preparation. Ashton (1996)
summarized that teachers with regular states certification receives higher
supervision rating and student academic performances than teachers who do not
meet the standards.

Teacher qualification and student academic performance

Qualification of teachers have been considered as the essential catalyst that

promotes the improvement of the school settings, where teachers are taken as the
main source used in school development as well as student’s school development
which is considered to become the source of that helps the knowledge and changes
Wallace (2011). The awareness and motivation of teachers help the educational
policy makers. Qualified teachers should use various technics that helps students to
improve their academic performance Concordia (2003). Despite, Halsey (2004)
revealed that every qualified teachers should make an improvement that sustain
inclusive classroom as qualified evaluator for the purpose of enhancing the level of
teaching standards and that of the quality of education.

According to Concordia (2004) teacher’s initiatives makes effective

implementation of school curriculum and improved quality education. According to
Ukeje (1966) teaching is a conscious behavior that makes learning more probable
and more efficient and teachers remain architects forever of all professions. This
means that extra care should be taken in the recruitment and posting of teachers to
our urban and rural secondary schools. There should be equal distribution of
teachers in these areas for greater productivity. On the quality of teacher, Itotoh
(1977) said quality of teachers is important in any meaningful presentation of
educational transactions. Quality of teachers is essential to the achievement of the
great National Aspiration.

In support of the above statement, Obasi (1982) has also said “The concept of
education cannot be properly defined or conceptualized without reference to those
who impact the knowledge. In other words, teachers are the pillars and life wire of
the educational sectors”. For that reason, extra care should be taken when recruiting
them into the teaching profession.

Teacher’s experience and academic performance

Cubbons et al (1997) suggested that teacher’s experience and students’ academic

performance are positively correlated as students taught by more experienced
teachers achieve at a higher level, because their teachers have mastered the content
and acquired classroom management skills to deal with different types of classroom
problems.
According to stringfield and Teddie (1991), professional teachers are considered to
be more able to concentrate on the most appropriate way to teach particular topics
to students who differ in their abilities, prior knowledge and background. Lillis
(1988) recognized that certifications are not necessary reliable indicator of the
performance of students. UNESCO (2010), reports that teacher’s experience is
considered as one of the critical aspects which enhances and improves learners’
performance.

Wandera, Imonje and Akala (2019), acknowledge teaching experience as a global

issue that influences the implementation of classroom activities and learners’
performance. Lee and Kim (2012) says that competency is linearly related to
performance of any task and that the same can be built periodically to enhance self-
learning and innovation. Thuranira (2010) says teaching experience improves
learners’ and the teachers’ thereby improving preparedness and performance.
Whereas, many studies have linked performance of learners’ to teacher
‘experience, some published studies showed that under some circumstances
experienced teachers’ do not enhance learners’ performance. Boyd et al (2008),
Haris and Sass (2007), Papay and Kraft (2007), posits that learners’ who are taught
by less experienced teachers perform poor compared to learners.

Patil (1984) observed experienced of teaching plays a vital role in the development
of favorable altitudes towards the teaching profession.
 It was supported by other studies Pandey and Maikhuri (1999) that highly
experienced effective teachers’ altitude was more positive towards teaching
profession than low experienced ineffective teachers’ on contrary, Ravi,
Ramakrishnan (2014), revealed no significant effect of experience towards
teaching. Only a few studies find that teachers experience, do not matter at all
Goldhabe and Brewer (1996, 1997).

Generally, speaking, empirical studies published before (2011) which suggested

that increasing teacher experience is largely. Only initially, contributes to student’s
performance but that after 3-5 years, additional experienced is largely irrelevant
with respect to explain variations in student performance, Nye et al (2001).

Interestingly, Boy’d et al (2006) recognized that relatively weak teachers are more
likely to quit the teaching profession at the beginning of their careers and when
controlling for teacher attritions, no teacher experienced effects were found on
student performance. More so, it has been established, that- inexperienced teachers’
have perform less effectively than the experienced once. The inexperienced
teachers are those with less than three years’ experience.

Rivkin, Hannushek and Kain (2001) also, pursue a non-parametric investigation of

experience and find that experienced effects are concentrated in the first few years
to some extent their second year tend to perform significant worse in the classroom.
However, a study conducted by Martins, Mullis, Gregory, Hoyle and Shen (2000)
showed that in a situation where experienced teachers’ are not promoted out of the
classroom into management positions, level of experience has a significant effect
on teaching of effectiveness of the teachers’ and their students’ academic
performance.
Findings from Martin et al (2000) showed a strong positive relationship between
teachers’ experience and students’ outcome. According to Kain (2005), further
suggested that the greatest gain in teacher performance from experience occurs in
the early years of their careers and then quickly flatters, as summarized by
Hanusheck and Rivkin (2004), it has been observed in several studies that holding a
masters’ degree is generally not a strong predictor of teacher performance.

Teacher Skills and Academic Performance

According to Akiri and Ugborugho (2019) emphasized that teachers’ skills

recognized a multi-dimensional construct teaching which encompasses numerous
interconnected elements towards transformation of knowledge to learners’.
Previously studies have been conducted by Schacter and Thum (2004), Adediwara
and Tayo (2007), revealed that different elements of teacher skills includes, teacher
subject knowledge, teaching skills, teacher character of attitude and teacher
attendance.

Subject knowledge on teachers’ skill

According to Eggen and Kauchak (2001), there are three dimensions under which
teachers’ knowledge of subject matter can be measured; namely the content
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge of content and general knowledge. The
implication of these dimensions; are that a teacher cannot teach what he/she does
not know.

Adediwura and Tayo (2007) further emphasized the existence of high correlation
between what teachers’ subject knowledge and what they teach students’. In line
with these findings, they further accentuated that the ability of a teacher to teach
effectively depends on the depth of knowledge the teacher possesses. Therefore, a
teacher whose understanding of the subject content is thoroughly using clear
expressions in comparative to those whose background of the subject mastery is
weak.

Teaching skills/expertise

The teaching skills of a teacher can be measured based on the teachers; abilities
around comprehension and transformation of knowledge concepts to be imparted to
learners by Ganyauptu (2013). Shulman (1992) further reminded that the teaching
requires one to first understand the specific outcomes of the topic as well as the
subject matter structures of the respective disciplines.

According to, Glatthorn (1990), investigated that teachers’ ability to distinguish the
knowledge based of his/her teaching lies at the intersection of content and
pedagogy in the respective teachers’ capacity to transform content knowledge into
practices that are pedagogically influential and adaptive to numerous students’
abilities and backgrounds. Glathorn (1990), further emphasized that it is also
imperative that teacher’ consider the relevant aspects of students’ distinct abilities,
languages, cultures, motivations, prior knowledge and skills that affect their
responses to different forms of representations.

Teachers’ Attitudes

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) viewed that research in Education policy reveals that
teachers’ attitude refers to consistent tendency by the teacher to react in a particular
way; often positively or negatively towards an academic matter. Another study
carried on by Fazio and Roskes (1994), indicated that attitude possess both
cognitive and emotional components which strongly influence the manner in which
a teacher thinks and response to specific experiences. In proceeding further with the
analysis, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) founded that, positive teachers’ attitudes are
fundamental to effective teaching and students’ academic achievements.

Brunning et Al (1999) also out stated that a number of elements that constitute
teachers’ attitude that will facilitate a caring and supportive classroom
environment, these elements includes caring, enthusiasm, teaching efficacy,
democratic practices to promote students’ responsibility, effective use of lessons,
constructive interaction with learners’ and high expectations to promote learners’
motivation.

Teachers’ Attendance

According to studies made by Manlove and Elliot (1977) found that the overall
academic performance of students, an academic institution is negatively affected by
high teachers’ absenteeism. More so, some analyses gotten from research found a
correlation between teachers’ attendance and students’ performance. Jacobs and
Kritsonis (1997) conducted a study involving certain classes revealed that teachers’
who posted the highest level of absenteeism recorded the lowest scores of students’
academic performance. Woods and Montagne (1997) purposed that the higher the
teachers’ attendance, the higher the students’ academic performance becomes.

Consistent with the above findings are the results from the study conducted by
Pitkoff (1993), the study founded that teachers’ who received low performance
markings, missed a larger number of days than those who did not. However, Scott
and Mcclellan (1990) discovered that the higher the degree obtained by the teacher,
the higher the number of days they became absent from the classroom.
In addition, Bruno (2000) reported that high absenteeism by certain teachers tend to
lower, the morale of remaining teachers, thereby resulting in high teacher turnover
as other teachers tend to feel more burden regarding additional planning for their
absent colleague. Newman (1979) outstated when teachers and students’ have
frequent opportunities for informal interactions, students tend to perceive their
teachers as being more interested in them as individuals. Getzels (1969) indicated
that this ability to respond to students as individuals is a central skill of successful
teaching. Martin (1972) viewed that individual’s responsibilities build trust in the
teacher student relationship.

Test Scores

Test scores used in this respect are licensure test scores, test scores on subject
knowledge, verbal skills test GPA. Coene et al. (2014) support this first main
finding, but instead of using teacher test score data as a proxy for teacher ability,
they use information on how teachers were tracked in secondary education in the
Netherlands. This tracking decision is a direct consequence of the final
standardized and nationwide tests at the end of primary education. In support of the
above, Bereday and Lauwery (1983) said “The strength of an educational system
must largely depend on the quality of its teachers’.

However, enlightened the aims, however up to rate and generous the equipment;
however through efficient administration, the value to the children is determined by
the teachers’. There is no more important matter than that of attracting sufficient
number of the right caliber of people to the profession, providing them with the
requisite training and finally ensuring that their status is commensurate with the
important and responsibility of their work.
For the achievement of the educational aims and objectives, success or failures lies
in the hands of the teachers. In supporting these views, Over date (1964; 31) said “
Given the most meaningful and realistic education and training programs, which
those with experience, imaginations and foresight can be devised in the final
analysis, no real achievement is possible without the necessary cadre of trained and
motivated teachers”.

Ukeje (1971) said that the role that education plays in the society and it depends
largely on the teaching personnel who are to teach. He further said that any possible
attempt to raise the standard of education, must starts with the improvement of the
quality of teaching personnel. Also, Yeager in his book titled: Administration and
the teacher, said “A competent teaching staff is one of the indispensable element of
a good school. Good instruction depends on good teachers’; the focus of good
administration should always be securing and maintaining good teachers and good
teaching. This is in support of the view that no school can function effectively
without good and well qualified teachers’.

We use information about the task performed at work to distinguish math and
science teachers from other teachers in secondary school. For example, participants
in PIAAC are asked how often they use simple and advanced algebra at work.
Having classified teachers according to the frequency and extent of math skills at
work, we use only the numeracy scores of the teachers identified as math-related
teachers and illiteracy scores of all other teachers in Secondary school.

At the same time, we use both numeracy and literacy skills of all primary school
teachers, especially since primary school teachers typically teach both math and
language classes. There statistics for the country-specific teacher skills in 22
countries.
The Sample sizes range from 127 teachers in Germany to 413 teachers in Denmark
and 834 teachers in Canada (which oversampled to obtain regionally reliable
estimates), with an average of 222 teachers per country. With a difference in
average achievement between these two countries mounting to 89 percent of a
standard deviation in test scores in the international sample. Teacher’s in the United
State (288 points in numeracy) score below the mean achievement across all 22
countries (293 points). Both the country ranking and the cross-country variation in
test scores are similar to those of all prime-aged workers with full time employment
(Hanushek et al. 2013).

Academic Performance

The complexity of the academic performance starts from its conceptualization.

Sometimes it is known as school readiness, academic achievement and school
performance, but generally the differences in concepts are only explained by
semantics as they are used as synonyms, Escolar and Lamar, (2015).
Conventionally, it has been agreed that academic performance should be used in
university populations and school performance in regular and alternative basic
education population, Escolar and Lamar (2015).

According to, Escolar and Lamar (2015), several authors agree that academic
performance is the result of learning, prompted by the teaching activity by the
teacher and produced by the student. From a humanistic approach, Martinez (2007)
stated that academic performance is “the product given by the students and it is
usually expressed through school grades”.
Pizarro (1985), referred to academic performance as a measure of the indicative
and responsive abilities that express, in an estimated way, what a person has
learned as a result of the process of education or training. According to the
Encyclopedia of America Politics (2015, 2 nd edition), academic performance is the
measurement of student achievement across various academic subjects.

Teachers and education officials typically measure achievement using classroom

performance, graduation rates and results from standardized tests. This
encyclopedia adds that academic performance is the extent to which a student,
teacher or institution has attained their short or long-term educational goals.
Completion of educational benchmarks such as secondary school diplomas and
bachelors’ degrees represents academic achievement or performance.

For caballero et al (2007), academic performance involves meeting goals,

achievements and objectives set in the program or course that a student attends.
These are expressed through grades which are the results of an assessment that
involves passing or not certain tests, subjects or courses. On their part, Torres and
Rodriguez (2006) quoted by Willcox (2011), defines academic performance as the
level of knowledge shown in an area or subject compared to the norm, and it is
generally measured using the grade point average.

Academic performance is commonly measured through examination’s or

continuous assessments but there is no agreement on how it is best evaluated or
which aspects are most important-procedural knowledge such as skills or
declarative knowledge such as facts. Furthermore, there are inconclusive results
over which individual factors successfully predict academic performance.
 Teacher Characteristics

Teachers’ qualification

Teachers’ experience

Teachers’ Skills/expert

Test Scores and Academic Performance

Figure1: Conceptual Diagram showing teachers’ characteristics and its’

effects on students’ Academic Performance.

Source: Research work (2024).

Theoretical Review
Three theories that are related to this study are reviewed. They include the
Reinforcement Theory of motivation by BF Skinner (1938), Maslow needs theory
by Abraham Maslow (1968), Piaget theory of cognitive development (1929) by
Piaget that is related to an understanding of teacher’s characteristics and academic
performance of students.

Maslow’s Need Theory by Abraham Maslow (1968)

The theory states that man has various needs to best satisfy. This theory is
psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualization
needs, man, always wants to satisfy each of these needs, once a particular needs is
accomplished, he turns to the other again seeking satisfaction.

The implication of this theory to the present study is, we cannot ask teachers to put
some efforts in teaching of the learners’ (student) in the school after signing time
book (records) or logbook for their personal business just because the salary they
get is not reasonable, one way they may be made to show commitment in the
teaching and learning activity, is to encourage them by way of prompt and making
their payment reasonable. This will help them satisfy their personal and family
needs. Since man’s needs drive him to engage in several activities, he can be
handsome by being rewarded to get his attention in the right direction that would
produce tangible results for the betterment of their society and educational system.
This theory has great impact on educational structure, in order to maximize on the
effectiveness of school-wide and individual classroom teaching programs,
administrators and must consider teachers needs and their hierarchical order.

This must be a top priority in the development of these programs so that students
have the capacity, capability of reaching their highest levels of potential. As a
humanist, Maslow believed that people have an inborn desire to be self-actualized
that is, to be all they can be. To achieve this ultimate goal, however, a number of
more basic needs must be met. This includes the needs for food, safety, love, and
self-esteem. Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a
major role in motivating behavior. There are five different levels of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, starting at the lowest level known as psychological need.

Physiological Needs: The physiological needs are fairly apparent and include
the needs that are vital to our survival. Some examples of psychological needs
include: Food, water, Breathing, Homeostasis in Addition to the basic needs
requirements of nutrition, air and temperature regulation, physiological needs also
include such things as shelter and clothing. Maslow included sexual reproduction in
this level of the hierarchy as well since it is essential to the survival and
propagation of the species. A teacher therefore needs these physiological needs in
order to effectively work.

Security and Safety Needs: Some of the basic security and safety needs
include; Financial security, Health and Wellness. Safety against accident and
injury, finding a job, obtaining health insurance and health care, contributing
money to a savings account, and moving into a safer neighborhood are all examples
of actions motivated by security and safety needs which will enable the teacher to
work more effectively.

Social Needs: The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as
love, acceptance and belonging. Some of the things that satisfy this needs include;
Social groups, community groups, churches and religious organizations.

In order to avoid problems such as loneliness, depression and anxiety is important

for teachers to feel loved and accepted by others. Personal relationships with
friends in the school environment, not leaving out family, and love once, play an
important role.

Esteem Needs: At this level a teacher need to sense that they are valued by
others and feel that they are making a contribution to the world. Participation in
professional activities, academic accomplishments, athletic or team participation,
and personal hobbies can all play a role in fulfilling the esteem needs. Teachers
who are able to satisfy esteem needs by achieving good self-esteem and the
recognition of others tend to feel confident in their abilities. Conversely, those who
lack self-esteem and the respect of other can develop feelings of inferiority.
Together, the esteem and social levels make up what is known as the
“Psychological needs” of the hierarchy.

Self-Actualization Needs: At the very peak of Maslow’s hierarchy are there

self-actualization needs. Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with
personal growth, less concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in
fulfilling their full potential. Maslow explanation referring to the need people have
to achieve their full potentials as human beings. According to Maslow’s definition
of self-actualization, “it may be loosely described as the full use and exploitation of
talents, capabilities, potentialities, such people seem to be fulfilling themselves and
to be doing the best that they are capable of doing. They are people who have
developed or are developing to the full stature of which they are capable. This
theory is very influential in this research in that, teacher’s whose basic needs are
met, will be highly motivated to teach.

According to the researcher the lower-level needs are the psychological needs
which relate to the teachers survive which includes foods, love, air, shelter, water.
The safety needs such as the needs for security and assurance of protection in the
school environment, will motivate teachers to teach. The needs for love and
belongings such as receiving support from other teachers and the administration
will increase effectiveness. The self Esteem needs through recognition and high
expectation on education and finally to self-actualization becomes the motivating
factors.

Piaget Theory of Cognitive Development (1929)

This theory was propounded by a French-Swiss in (1929), Piaget a product of max

Wertheimer, stipulated that the learner has to progress from a state of not knowing
to knowing, so as to develop their mental process by which knowledge is acquired
and utilized. It deals with age related transition in pattern of thinking which include
reasoning, remembering and problem solving. Piaget saw cognitive development
as a continuous process of unfolding which passes through a series of motivation
stages and formal operational stage. Each of this stage is associated with distinctive
way of thinking.

The sensorimotor stage is characterized by coordination of sensory inputs and

motor responses as well as development of object performance with little or no
capacity for symbolic representation. The preoperational stage deals with the
representation. The preoperational stage deals with the development of symbolic
thought, heavy reliance and initiation with no understanding of conservation,
whereas at the concrete operational stage, a child’s mental operation stage applies
concrete object and events as well as development of conversion and mastery of
concepts of reversibility as they evolved.

The signal of emergence of formal operation stage is when children develop into
adolescence and gradually starts to apply logical and systematic thinking. This
theory is relevant to this study, because it helps the teacher to be aware of the
development stage in which a child is functioning and should be taught only when
he/she is ready at the present stage of development. By this situation, the teacher
should be able to plan curriculum in such a way that it favors the level of cognitive
operation and structures that children have successfully attained in mind.

Operant Conditioning by BF Skinner (1938)

Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Sinner, a great

psychologist. He thought psychology at the University of mine Soto. Skinner
synthesized the operant conditioning research using the Sinner box.

He devised a method that allowed animals to repeat the operant response many
times in a conditioning situation. Studies were done where the animals or rat
pressed the level. Skinner believed that future probability of a behavior is affected
by the consequences of a behavior. Operant Conditioning is when the consequences
of actions shape the behavior. That is the consequence that follows a certain
response after future probability (or strength) of the response that preserve level
and is been rewarded with food.

Furthermore, operant conditioning is a method of learning that involves reward and

punishment for showing the desired behavior. It states that individual’s behavior
with positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behavior with
negative consequences tends not to be repeated. It overlooks the internal states of
an individual, that is, the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by
skinner. This theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes
some action.

Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the organization must be

designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the learners. This theory is a
strong tool for analyzing, controlling mechanism for individual’s behavior.
However, it does not focus on the causes of individual’s behavior. The following
methods can be used to improve teachers’ effectiveness.

Positive Reinforcement: This implies giving a positive response when an

individual shows positive and required behavior. For example – Immediately,
praising a teacher for coming early for work. This will increase probability of
outstanding behavior occurring again. Reward is a positive reinforce, but not
necessarily.

If and only if the teachers’ behavior improves, reward is said to be a positive

reinforce. Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of behavior. It must be
noted that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement
value it has.

Negative Reinforcement: This implies rewarding a teacher by removing

negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can
be used for increasing desirable / required behavior.

Punishment: It ensures removing the positive consequences so as to lower the

probability of undesirable behavior in future. In other words, punishment means
applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behavior.

For instance – Suspending teacher for breaking thee school rules. Punishment can
be equalized by the positive reinforcement from alternative source.

Extinction: It is the absence of reinforcements. In other words, extinction is

lowering the probability of undesirable behavior by removing reward for that kind
of behavior. For instance – if a teacher no longer receives praise and admiration for
his good work, he may feel that his behavior is generating no fruitful consequence.
Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behavior.

According to Skinner an individual’s behavior has been influenced by the stimulus

he/she received from the environment. In teaching a teacher is also motivated by
his or her job or work environment. He identified different types of reinforcement
that’s positive and negative reinforcement. He explained that positive
reinforcement or reward are consequences that increase the probability of a given
behavior whereas negative reinforcement are consequences that increase the
probability of a given behavior by reducing some negative external stimulus. This
theory is of paramount importance to this study because teachers are already
demotivated following the overcrowded classes, noise, space lack of teaching aids,
and poor school location amongst other factors.

Therefore, the administration needs to develop reinforcement strategies in order to

motivate these teachers to improve on teaching in other to meet their lesson
objectives. Under this framework, the teacher’s job is to produce good grades and
praise to reward desired behavior in class.

Empirical Review
The researcher intents to present an empirical review of what other authors have
written on teachers’ qualification, experience, skills/expertise and students’
academic performance.

The Effects of Teachers Qualification on Student Academic Performance

Steve (2021) examined the effect of educational qualification on student academic

performance on music teacher’s motivation and performance of students in
Secondary School in South-South Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive design
method. This study was conducted in South-South geopolitical zone. The
population of the study consisted of all music teachers in public post primary
schools in the four states in South-South Nigeria. The sampling technique was used
in selecting 150 music teachers from Urban and Rural settings in the four states in
south-south Nigeria. The main instrument used for this study was a questionnaire.
The data of the study was analyzed with inferential statistics. The study concluded
that the level of music teachers’ motivation and secondary School students’
performance in music in south-south Nigeria is significantly affected by the high
level of educational qualification of music teachers positively.

Bolarinwa and Kolawole (2020) examined the influence of teachers’ education

qualification on academic performance of student in public secondary school in
Ekiti state, Nigeria. The purpose of the research is to find out the relationship
between teachers’ educational qualification and academic performance of student
in public secondary schools.

The descriptive research of the survey type was employed for the study. The study
revealed that there was a significant relationship between educational qualification
and academic performance. The study had shown that educational qualification had
influence on academic performance of students.
Filgona and Saykiyo (2020) determines the degree to which teachers’ academic
qualification predicts students’ altitude and academic achievement in Geography in
Senior Secondary schools of Adamawa state. The research design employed was
predictive correlation design. The study, which sampled 400 teachers and 400
students from senior secondary schools in Adamawa State, employed the
multistage sampling technique to actualize this. The result found that students’
attitude to geography was not predicted by teachers’ qualification.

Obonyo, Chen and Maina (2018) established whether advanced degrees are
associated with students science achievement gain in public secondary schools in
Kenya. A sample of 610 respondents was sampled consisting of 570 respondents
consisting of 450 students and 120 grade 12 science teachers was selected from 40
public secondary schools in the county.2-level Hierarchical Linear modeling was
used to disentangle variance associated with students nested within classes and
teachers nested within four categories of high rank and low rank school in the
country. The study found no variation in teacher qualification, between high and
low ranking secondary schools with respect to educational level.

Ramli (2018) examined the influence of professional teachers on vocational school

students’ achievement in Padang. The population was 2,647 students in vocational
school. The sample, consisting of 160 students, was selected using a multi-stage,
random sampling technique. Data were collected using questionnaires and
documentation, and then analyzed and presented using the SPSS software.

The result showed that there was a significant influence of professional teachers on
vocational school students’ achievement in Padang.

The Effects of teachers’ Experience on Students’ Academic Performance

Irvine (2019) examined claims that teacher’ years of teaching experience correlate
to teachers’ effectiveness. The assumed experience-effectiveness relationship was
used to support the Government of Ontario, Canada’s policy decisions concerning
teacher hiring practices. This study critically examined sources cited in the policy
report and reviewed other research on teacher effectiveness. Findings indicated that
the relationship between total years of experience and teacher effectiveness, as
measured by student achievement gains, is complex and non-linear. The conclusion
is that the decision is based on assumption that the relationship between experience
and effectiveness is direct and linear are simplistic and leads to less than optimal
policy.

Bamidele and Adekola (2017) examined the effects of teachers’ teaching

experience on Junior Secondary Schools (JSS) students’ achievement in Basic
Science. The survey type of research design was adopted in the study. Four
hundred and Fifty JSS ¿ Students were randomly selected from fifteen selected
secondary school in Oyo State. Teachers’ teaching experience was used as criteria
for selection of basic science teachers. The results showed that there was a
significant difference in the achievement of students taught by long time
experienced teachers and short time experience teachers.

Agbor-Egwu, Adadu, Nwokolo-Ojo and Enaboifo (2017) investigated the effect of

teacher’s teaching experience on the academic performance of Secondary school
students in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) in the
three senatorial zones of Benue state, Nigeria. The study adapted descriptive
research design.
A sample of 300 including students and teachers were randomly drawn from 150
secondary schools, 50 schools from each senatorial district through the process of
simple random sampling technique. An inventory scheduled was the instruments
used for data collection. 300 questionnaires, two questionnaires per school were
administered. 278 (92.67%) questionnaires were returned.

Their responses were analyzed through content analysis. Findings reveal that
teachers teaching experience significantly influenced students’ academic
performance in SSCE examinations and as perceived by the respondents. Schools
having more teachers with above 10years teaching experience achieved better
results than schools having more teachers with 10years and below teaching
experience.

The Effects of teacher skills on student academic performance

Khojastehmehr & Takrimi (2009) conducted a study to identify teacher

effectiveness factors, according to the perceptions of the English teachers in
Khuzestan. Participants were 215 male and female secondary school English
teachers, selected by a multistage sampling method. 36-item researcher-constructed
questionnaire was administered to these teachers, asking them what characteristics
they thought effective English teachers should possess or demonstrate. A Principal
component Analysis was used.

Badawood in a survey studied the features of effective English teachers as viewed

by English Language teachers and 17 secondary students, all from Saudi Arabia.
The study depended on the descriptive approach to evaluate English teachers
Language proficiency, pedagogical knowledge and socio-affective features. The
results assert that the teachers advocated socio-affective skills, English proficiency
and pedagogical knowledge in order of importance, whereas the students advocated
English proficiency, socio-affective skills and pedagogical knowledge, (2015).

Summary of Chapter

In this chapter, the researcher sought to give a vivid empirical review of what other
authors and scholars have written concerning the topic. This study reviewed the
concept under investigation: teacher qualification, teacher experience, teacher
skills/expertise and students’ academic performance. This study sought to
investigate related theories that aimed at enriching the work such as Piaget theory
of Cognitive development, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory and the
reinforcement theory by BF Skinner.