CBSE Class 12 Biology

Revision Notes

CHAPTER-02
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Reproduction ensures continuity of species generation after generations as the older

individuals undergo senescence and die. Flowering plants shows sexual mode of

reproduction and bears complex reproductive units as male and female reproductive units
along with accessary structures.

Flower is a modified stem which functions asa reproductive organ and produces ova and/or
pollen. A typical angiospermic flower consists of four whorls of floral appendages attached
on the receptacle: calyx,corolla, androecium (male reproductive organ consisting of

stamens) and gynoecium (composed of ovary,style and stigma).

Stigma Anther
Petal

Style

Flament

sep
Ovary
Nectariferous
area

Pre-fertilisation: Structures and Events

•Several structural and hormonal changes lead to formation and development of thefloral
primordium. Inflorescence is formed thatbears floral buds and then flower.

•In flowers, male (androecium) and female (gynoecium) differentiate and develops in which
male and female gametes are produced.

Stamen, Microsporangium and Pollen Grain :

•Stamen consists of long and slender stalk called filament and generally bilobed anthers.

Each lobe contains two theca (dithecious).

•The anther is four-sided structure consisting of four microsporangia, two in each lobes.
• Microsporangia develop further and become pollen sacs which contain pollen grains.

Anther

Polen grains

Pollcn

Aelisc

Plament
Istalk

fa

• Microsporangium is generally surrounded by four layered walls- the epidermis,

endothecium, middle layer and tapetum. Innermost layer tapetum nourishes the developing
pollen grains.

Sporogenoustissues- It is compactly arranged homogenous cells which are present at

centre of each microsporangium when the anther is young..

Microsporogenesis- The process of the formation and differentiation of microspores (pollen

grains) from microspore mother cells (MMC)by reductional division is called

microsporogenesis.

•The cells of sporogenous tissues undergo meiotic division to form microspore tetrad. As the
anther mature and dehydrate, the microspore dissociate and develops into pollen grains.

Eptdermts

Endothecium

Middle layers

Microspore
mother cells

Tapetumn
 Pollen grains

Pollen grain representsthe male gametophytes. Pollen grains are made of2 layered Wall,

1.Exine :- Made of sporopollenin- most resistant organic matter known.It can withstand high

temperatures and strong acids and alkali.No enzyme can degrade sporopollenin

2. Intine :
-Thin and continuous layer

- Made of cellulose and pectin

3. Germ pores

apertures on exine where sporopollenin is absent

forms pollen tube.

4.A plasma membrane surrounds cytoplasm of pollen grain.

MATURE POLLEN
-A mature pollen consist of 2cells with nucleus (Vegetative and Generative)

VEGETATIVE CELL

• Bigger
Abundant food reserve
• Large irregular nucleus
• Responsible for the development of pollen grain

GENERATIVE CELL

• Small
• Involvesin syngamy (fusewith an egg)
 • Dense cytoplasm and nucleus

Vegetative cell

Generative cell
(b)

Pollen grains of many species e.g Parthenium cause severe allergies and bronchial

diseases in some people and leads to chronic respiratory disorders- asthma,

bronchitis, etc.

• Pollen grains are rich in nutrients and are used as pollen tablets as food supplements.

•Viability of pollen grain varies with species to species and should land on stigma before this
period to germinate. Pollen grains of large number of species are stored in liquid nitrogen at

temperature -196°, called pollen bank.

The Pistil, Megasporangium (Ovule) and Embryo sac

Gynoecium may consists of single pistil (monocarpellary) ormore than one pistil
(polycarpellary) which may be fused (syncarpous) or free (apocarpous).

e.g Multicarpellary and syncarpous pistil- Papaver

Multicarpellary and apocarpous pistil- Michelia

•Each pistil has three parts the stigma, style and ovary. Inside the ovary is ovarian cavity

(locule).The placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity. Megasporangia (ovules) arise from
placenta.

Megasporangium (ovule)

Ovule is a small structure attached to placenta.

• Funicle -stalk by which ovule is attached to placenta

• Hilum- junction between ovule and funicle

• Integuments- protective envelops
• Micropyle- small opening atthe tip of ovule into where pollen tube enters
 • Chalaza- basal part of ovule
• Nucellus (2n)-mass of enclosed in integuments. Has abundant
cells food reserve.

Hilum

-Funicle
-Micropyle
Micropylar pole
-Outer integument

Inner integument

-Nucellus
-Embryo sac

Chalazal pole

Megasporogenesis- The process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell by

meiotic division is known as megasporogenesis. This process takesplace in ovule

Ovule differentiates a single megaspore mother cell (MMC)in the micropylar region of
nucellus. MMC undergoes meiotic division that results into the production of four

negaspores.

In most of the flowering plants three megaspores degenerate. 1megaspore develops into

female gametophyte (embryo sac).

•The nucleus of functional megaspore divides mitotically to form two nuclei which move to
opposite poles to form 2-nucleate embryo sac. Two more sequential mitotic division results
into 8-nucleate embryo sac.

•Six of theeight nuclei surrounded by cell wall and remaining two nuclei (polar nuclei) are

situated below the egg apparatus.

•Three cells are grouped at micropylar end to constitute egg apparatusMnd three cells at
chalazal end forms antipodal cells. At maturity ,embryosac is &-nucleate and 7 celled.
 Micropylar end Micropylar end Mieropylar end

-Nucellus
-Nucellus

Megaspore

-Megaspore Megaspore tetrad

mother cell dyad

al

Micropylar end
Chalazal end

Antipodals

SyTergds
Egg

Central
cel
Polar nuclet
2polar -Central cell
nucles Egg

Antipodals
Synergids

(bl
Flaform
apparatas
Micropylar end

)
Pollination -transfer of pollen

Autogamy- transfer

Cleistogamous
grains from anther to stigma.

of pollen grain from anther to stigma of same flower.

-flower which do not open. cleistogamous flowersare autogamous as

there is no chance of cross-pollen landing on the stigma.Cleistogamous flowers produce

assured seed-set even in the absence of pollinators. e.g Viola (common pansy), Oxalis, and

Commelina.

i.Chasmogamous- exposed anther and stigma.

b) Geitonogamy -transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma of different flower of same
plant. Geitonogamy is functionally cross-pollination involving a pollinating agent, genetically

it is similar to autogamy since the pollen grains come from the same plant

c)Xenogamy- transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of different plant's flower of

same species.

Agents ofpollination includes abiotic (water,wind) and biotic (insects,butterfly,honey bee

etc. large number of pollen grains are produced by plants using abiotic mode of pollination
as most of pollen grains are wasted during transfer.
Adaptations in flowers for Pollination

I. Wind Pollination

• pollen grains :- non- sticky,winged

light,

• anther- exposed
well

• stigma :-large and feathery

• flower one ovule, arranged as inflorescence
:-

Ex: corn cob, cotton, date palm

II. Water Pollination

- Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Algae

• pollen grains :protected by mucilaginous covering

Ex : Fresh water plants- Vallisneria, Hydrilla

Sea grass- Zostera

Main features of wind and water pollinated plants

-produce pollen grains in large no.

- do not produce nectar

III. Insect Pollination

- Flowers :large, colourful, fragrant, rich in nectar

-Pollen grains :sticky

- Stigma :sticky

Certain rewards to pollinators:

nectar and (edible)pollen grains as foods

• provide safe place for laying eggs

Ex :Amorphophallus, Yucca
 Pollen tube

Antipodal

Polar nuclei

Egg cell

Synergid

Outbreeding Devices- the various mechanisms take discourage self-pollinationand

encourage cross pollination as continued self-pollinationleads to inbreeding depression. It

includes

• Pollen release and stigma receptivity not synchronized.

•Anther and stigma are placed at different position.

Inhibiting pollen germination in pistil.

Production of unisexual flowers.

Pollen pistilinteraction -the pistil has abilityto recognize the compatible pollen to initiate
post pollination events thatleads to fertilisation. Pollen grain produce pollen tube through

germ pores to facilitate transfer of male gametes to embryo sac.

Artificial Hybridization

• Crossing diffvarieties of species- hybrid individual- with desirable characters of the

parent plants

• desired pollen grains for pollination- stigma protected from contamination

Emasculation :removal of anther
Bagging :flower covered- bag made up of butter-prevent contamination of stigma

from unwanted pollen

Bagged flower-attains receptivity-mature pollen grains- dusted on the stigma - rebagged

fruits allowed to develop

Double Fertilisation- after entering the one of the synergids, each pollen grain releases two
male gametes. One male gametes fusewith egg (Syngamy)and other male gametes fusewith
two polar nuclei (triple fusion) to produce triploid primary endosperm nucleus (PEN).
Since two types of fusion takes place in an embryo sac the phenomenon is called double

fertilisation.The PEN develops into the endosperm and zygote develops into embryo.

Degenerating
synergids

Zygote (2n)

Primary endosperm
cell (PEC)
Suspensor

Primary endosperm Radicle

nuctcus Sn)
(PEN)
Zygote

Cotyledon
feart-Shaped
Embryo
Degenerating.
cells PMumale
antipodal
Mature
Globular Embryo

Post fertilisation events include endosperm and embryo development, maturation of

ovules into seeds and ovary into fruits.

Endosperm- the primary endosperm cell divides many time to forms triploid endosperm

tissuehaving reserve food materials.

Two types of endosperm development:

(i) Free nuclear type (common method)
(ii)Cellular type

(a) Non-albuminous- endosperm completely utilized- before maturation of seeds. e.g pea,

groundnut

(b)Albuminous- a portion of endosperm remain in mature seeds.e.g wheat, maize, castor

Embryo- Embryo develops atthe micropylar end of the embryo sac where the zygote is
located.

Embryogeny -early stages of embryo development .The zygote gives rise to the proembryo

and subsequently to the globular, heart-shaped and mature embryo.

Embryo consists of:

- embryonal axis

- cotyledons

- plumule

- radicle

Monocotyledonous Seed
- Scutellem =Cotyledon
-Coleorrhiza: undifferentiated sheath covering radical & root cap
-Scutellum
Plumule

-Cotyledons
Coleoptile

Hypocotyl
Shootapex

Epiblast

Radicle

Root cap

a)
Radicle
Root cap
Figure 14. (a) A typical dicot
-Coleorhiza
embryo: (b) LS.ofan
embryo of grass
b)

- Coleoptile: sheath covering plumule

Seed

-Fertilized and mature ovule develops into seed.

Seed consists of:

- cotyledon(s)

- embryonal axis

-Seed coat- double layered- formed by integuments

Testa (outer coat)

Tegmen (inner coat)

-Micropyle:- small opening on seed coat, it facilitates entry of H20 & 02 into seeds (for

germination)
- Hilum:- scar on seed coat

- Seed - Albuminous / Non-Albuminous

- Perisperm: remnants of nucellusthat is persistent. Ex: Black pepper

- Dormancy: state of inactivity

•The wall of ovary develops into wall of fruit called pericarp. In true fruits only ovary

contributes in fruitformation by in false fruitthalamus also contributes in fruit formation.

Apomixis
- Form of asexual reproduction-mimics sexual reproduction- seed formed without
fertilisation

- Formation of apomictic seeds :

•diploid cell (formed without meiosis)- develop into embryo without fertilization
•cells of nucellus (2n)surrounding embryo sac- protrude into embryo sac- develop into
embryos. Ex. Citrus and Mango.

Polyembryony
Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed
Often associated with apomixes. Ex: Citrus, groundnut