BE Sixth Semester

Course Title: Fixed Fire Fighting Installation

Name of faculty: Rakesh Shambharkar, Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering

Unit: - 2
Design and installation of the Automatic sprinkler system:
Standard automatic sprinkler system design,
Sprinkler system component and types,
Determine system types and configuration,
Area protected, Branch line, Maximum allowable distance between sprinkler.
Hydraulic calculation of sprinkler systems,
Sprinkler K- factor calculation.
Testing and Maintenance of Automatic Sprinkler Systems as per relevant national and
international standards.

Automatic Sprinkler System

Water sprinklers have been used since the end of the nineteenth century, and they are
considered so effective in minimizing property losses that insurance companies will give
substantial discounts (up to 60 percent) on the premiums to building owners who have
installed them.
Sprinkler systems are designed to extinguish small fires and to contain growing fires until the
fire service arrives. Most sprinkler heads are heat-sensitive, operating at a fixed temperature.
Normally, this is around 68°C, but in certain situations, it might be set at a higher level. It is
always wise to design it so that it exceeds the highest anticipated temperature by about 30°C.
Each head acts as its own heat detector and, unlike in many Hollywood films, only those
where
the set temperature is exceeded will operate and release water. The maximum area that can be
covered by an individual head depends on the potential fuel load, but 9 m2 is normally taken
for all but the most special risks in high-hazard areas. This gives the maximum fire size
already discussed for smoke calculations, and it is expected that the fire will be contained
within this area (3 m × 3 m, giving a 12 m perimeter). If fast-response sprinklers are used
then the fire may be contained within a smaller area, perhaps half this size. Sprinklers will not
be able to extinguish a fully developed fire as the operation of too many heads reduces the
water pressure at each open head to such an extent that it would be insufficient to suppress or
control the fire. The contribution of sprinklers to life safety is harder to quantify, and their
value lies in the limitation of the fire while the occupants have an opportunity to escape.
The most widely used sprinkler system acts as a fire control system. An automatic sprinkler
system is considered one of the best products for the protection of buildings. Several tests
have been conducted on the performance of sprinkler systems and some findings are given
below:
i. Maximum temperature of ceiling level with sprinklers would be 190 oC compared
to 940oC without sprinklers.
ii. The volume of smoke and gases within the first seven minutes produced with
sprinklers would be 1500m3, whereas without sprinklers, it would be nearly
10000-20000m3.
iii. Nearly 10% of fire load consumed with sprinklers operation compared with fire
conditions could cause the entire damage without sprinklers.
iv. Additional time of nearly one minute is available for the evacuation of the
building.
 v. Full control of fire is much faster for a particular size of fire.

The automatic sprinkler system is normally recommended to cover basement, shopping

complex, parking space, public places, large unsegregated halls, mixed occupancies and high
rise buildings.

Automatic Sprinkler System in general

The sprinkler system is designed to control a fire without human activity. It is especially
useful in unattended buildings. A layout of a sprinkler system is given in Figure 1. The
sprinkler system consists of a Pipe layout designed hydraulically to provide the required
amount of water at a particular design pressure. The pipes are suspended or embodied under
the ceiling with openings at regular intervals that are sealed with thermally operated sprinkler
heads. Sprinklers are mounted on pipework beneath the ceiling of the protected risks and
operated in fire conditions. Sprinklers are operated automatically by means of melting fusible
elements or breaking of frangible glass bulbs. The fusible elements or glass bulb acts like a
plug for the pressurized water in the piping system. Once this plug breaks, the water shoots
out from the sprinkler. The sprinkler system is designed to spread out the water falling over
the fire. The pipe distributing the water is constantly under pressure. The network of pipe is
connected to common riser. Pumps are used to maintain the pressure in the system.

Figure 1: - General layout of sprinkler system

Since the sprinkler system serve unattended areas, it is important that humans can be altered
whenever sprinkler is activated for this purpose, flow switches are installed at each sprinkler
zone. Whenever a sprinkler is activated water flows out from the pipes to the sprinkler head.
The flow of the water through a zone pipe activates a flow switch. The electrical signal from
the flow switch activates an alarm at the main fire alarm panel. Each zone is provided with an
isolation valve, a flow switch and a test drain valve. Depending on the size of the building,
there may be several water riser pipes supplying to all the floors of a building.
Pressure gauges, check valves and alarm gongs are installed in each riser. The alarm gong is
actuated by the flow of water through the check valve and not by electrical signal of the
individual sprinkler zones.
Normally, the sprinkler system is fed from the underground water storage tank and dual
supply is maintained from the overhead water storage tank. The water supply from the tank is
generally provided in such manner to give positive pressure to the pump suction side. Fire
brigade connections is provided on the installations to facilitate the fire brigade appliances to
provide water to sprinkler heads. The pumps are designed to supply required quantity of
water at a particular design pressure. The pumps are installed in series to meet the increasing
demand of sprinler heads in the fire zone, these pumps operate automatically when the
pressure falla at a predetermined level through the pressure switches. However, the minor
lekage in the sprinkler system can be replenished with jockey pump at a higher pressure. The
detail of different compnents of automatic sprinkler system are given below:
A. Automatic sprinkler Heads
a. Fusible link
b. Bulb type
c. On-off sprinkler head

B. Installation Alarm Valves Automatic sprinkler Heads

Types of sprinkler System

A. Wet Pipe System
B. Dry Pipe System
C. Alternate Wet and Dry Pipe System
D. Pre Action System

Design of Sprinkler System

Automatic sprinkler system is supposed to work full proof in most of the fire conditions. The
sprinkler systems fails rarely. When the system fails that may be due to inadequate water
supply in the system or lack of proper design such as less number of sprinkles in the
protected area, lower size of sprinkler nozzle, underestimation of protected hazard, higher
rating of sprinkler heads or improper maintenance. Several design standards are in-existance
now a days, which may be effectively adhered according to the type of risk to be protected.
The guidelines are formulated by the ‘National Fire Protection Association’(NFPA)’,
Únderwriters Laboratory’(UL), ‘Factory Mutual Research Corporation’(FM), Society of Fire
Protection Engineers’(SFPE), ‘Tariff Advisory Council’(TAC), Australia Standards’(AS),
Burea of Indian Standards’(BIS) and many more. However the basic design philosophy is the
common ad design practices are the same. For the sprinklers system design, the following
parametrs are taken into consideration as envisaged from many design standards and
regulations:
A. Hazard Classification
The sprinklers system design based on the type of hazard to be protected. It should not be
over or under the design specification for a particular type of hazard. For the purpose of
design, the occupancies are divided into four main categories depending upon the nature of
combustible material namely (IS15103, 2002):
a. Light Hazard Occupancies: Light hazard includes occupancies where the
contents have low calorific value. Light hazard occupancies are non-industrial
premises, where the area of rooms, corridors, halls, etc., are not more than 125m 2
and above are bounded by masonry/RCC walls raised up to the roof and door
openings therein protected by doors. The occupancies include such as hospitals,
hotels, institutions, libraries, laundries, nursing home, office buildings, prisons,
schools and colleges, etc.
b. Moderate Hazard Occupancies: Moderate hazard includes the occupancies
where the processing of substances that has nominal calorific value and presents
substantial risk in bulk. Moderate hazard occupancies are any occupancy or block
larger than 125m2 in area or having an area less than 125m2 in area but not bound
on all sides. The occupancies such as airport terminals, bakeries, breweries, cable,
candles, carpet, car parking area, chemical plants, cinematographic and TV
production studios, cloth processors confectioneries, diaries, engineering
workshops, flour mills, laboratories, paint shops, plywood factories, restaurants
and cafe, textiles, theatres etc. are covered under this category.
c. High Hazard Occupancies: High hazard occupancies account for large quantity
of highly comfortable material processed and likely to develop rapid and intense
fire. The occupancies such as airport hangers’ celluloid goods, distilleries,
fireworks, foam plastic and foam rubber, oil mills, paint, colour and varnish
factories, etc., are covered under this category.
d. Storage Hazard Occupancies: Hazard stacked or high piled storage risks further
sub divided into four categories.
a. Category I
b. Category II
c. Category III
d. Category IV
The storage method may be freestanding storage, block stacking storage, bin box storage, box
pallets, palletized rack storage or bonded store (spirituous liquors) storage. Hazard
classification given in NBC (2005) are reproduced in a list at Appendix C.

B. Sprinkler Rating
The sprinkler heads have numerous rating values and hence proper selection sprinkler
head is an important aspect in the design of sprinkler system. If the sprinkler heads of
lower rating is chosen, this results in operation of more number of sprinkler head
resulting in wastage of water, whereas the sprinkler heads of high rating results in
operation of less number of sprinkler heads on a relatively larger fire. The rating of
fusible link type and bulb type sprinkler head can be identified with the colours of the
yoke arm and bulb which are given in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.

Table 1: - Temperature rating of fusible link type sprinkler heads

Rating of sprinkler heads (oC) Colour of yoke arm
68 to 74 Un-coloured
93 to 100 White
141 Blue
182 Yellow
 227 Red

Table 2: - Temperature Rating of bulb type sprinkler heads

Rating of sprinkler heads (oC) Colour of bulb
57 Orange
68 Red
79 Yellow
93 Green
141 Blue
182 Mauve
204 to 260 Black
The size of fire can be determined at the performance of various sprinkler heads rating.
There should be balance between the number of sprinkler heads operating and size of fire.
This could be interpreted keeping in mind the maximum environmental temperature
likely to be encounter in the year at a particular location and expected rate of material
burning. The sprinkler rating could also vary depending upon the ceiling height.
Temperature rating of sprinkler head should be chosen as close as possible but not less
than 30oC above the highest anticipated temperature at that location. The bulb or fusible
link type sprinkler head must not be painted.
C. Sprinkler Spacing
The maximum area covered per sprinkler and spacing of sprinkler heads depend the risk
covered. The maximum permissible coverage of sprinklers and the space between the
sprinklers are shown in Figure 2 and Table 3.

Figure 2:- Distance between rows (X) and spacing of sprinklers (Y) requirement

Table 3 Relationship between maximum space and maximum permissible coverage

Hazard Class Maximum space between Net maximum permissible
sprinklers (X) or distance coverage per sprinklers (X
between rows (Y) x Y)
Light Hazard 4.5 m 21 m2
Moderate Hazard 4.0 m 12 m2
High Hazard 3.7 m 9 m2
Storage (Single row) 2.5 m 10 m2
Storage (double row) 2.5 m 7.5 m2
 If the fusible element of the sprinkler is too close or too far below the ceiling, there
would be a delay in sprinkler operation. The location of sprinklers below the ceiling
should be between 6 and 10 inches. (i.e. 152mm and 254mm).
D. Sprinkler Array
Individual sprinklers are not connected directly to the main distribution pipes, and
sprinklers are arranged in a particular layout based on the area to be covered Figure 3. It
becomes important from the perspective of hydraulic design consideration. The pipe array
with range pipes on one side only of a distribution pipe is stated to be ‘end side array’ and
if the pipe with range pipes on both sides of a distribution pipe is called ‘end centre
array’. The pressure requirement at the water pump reduces to some extent if the feed
from the centre.

Figure 3: - Types of sprinkler arrays used in sprinkler installation

E. Sprinkler Orifice
The diameters of the sprinklers are 10mm, 15mm, and 20mm. Generally, orifice 10m
diameter sprinkler heads are used for light hazards, orifice 15mm diameter sprinkler
heads for ordinary hazards, and orifice 15mm or 20mm diameter sprinkler heads are used
for high hazards. To determine the discharge of a sprinkler, the K-factor should be known
(See Table 4. The discharge rate can be calculated by following the equation
Q=K √ P (1)
Where,Q = flow through the sprinkler orifice (lpm)
P = Pressure at the sprinkler (bar)
K = K-factor
 Table 4 Sprinkler Orifice size and K-factor as per IS15105(2002)
Nominal Mean Limiting values of K-factor
Orifice value of Dry Sprinkler Others
size (mm) K-factor Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
10 57 52 62 54 60
15 80 74 86 76 84
20 115 106 124 109 121

F. Water Application Rate

The application of water for extinction varies for different occupancies, and hence, for
controlling the fire at the initial phase, an optimum water application rate is required. This
can be expressed in liters per minute. Water application can also be described in
millimeters per minute, i.e., mm/min, as termed as design density. The design density is
determined from the discharge of a specified group of sprinklers (lpm) divided by the
covered area (m2). Design density ‘Assumed Maximum area of Operation’ (AMAO)
and other requirements are given in Table 5.

Table 5 Water application rate and other requirements of different occupancies

Hazard Design AMAO Pump Delivery Minimum Water
Class Density (m2) Capacity pressure pressure storage
(mm/min) l/s (m3/h) (kg/m3) at capacity
sprinkler min (m3)
(bar)
Light 2.25 84 27 (96) 5.6 0.70 20 (35)*
Hazard 30 (110) 5.6
Moderate 5.0 360 38 (127) 5.6/7.0 0.35 60 (200)
Hazard 47 (171) 7.0
76 (273) 7.0
High 7.5 260 47 (171) 7.0 0.50 120
Hazard 76 (273) 7.0/8.8
114(410) 7.0/8.8
Storage 5.0 360 38 (127) 5.6/7.0 2.00 60 (200)
(Moderate 47 (171) 7.0 2.00 60 (200)
Hazard) 76 (273) 7.0 2.00 60 (200)
Storage 12.5 to 260 to 47 (171) 7.0 2.00 120
(High 22.5 360 76 (273) 7.0/8.8 2.00 120
Hazard) 114(410) 7.0/8.8 2.00 120
3
*Not less than 20 minutes run for the pumping capacity or 35 m whichever is greater
For light hazard installation, the nominal sizes of range pipe and terminal distribution
pipes, i.e. distribution pipes downstream of the design point and maximum number of
sprinklers to be fed are given in Table 6.

Table 6: - Range and terminal distribution pipe nominal sizes for number of
sprinklers in light hazard installation
 Pipe Pipe size (mm) Maximum Length (m) Maximum number of sprinklers
to be fed
Steel 20 8 1
25 NA 3

For moderate hazard installation, range pipe nominal sizes downstream of the design
point and maximum number of sprinklers to be fed are given in Table 7.

Table 7: - Range pipe nominal sizes for number of sprinklers in moderate hazard
installation

Range pipe layout Pipe size Maximum number of sprinklers to be fed

1. Range at the remote end of each distribution pipe spur:
a. The last two range in 25 1
three end side layouts 32 2
b. The last three ranges in 25 2
three end-side layout 32 3
c. Last range in all other 25 2
layouts 32 3
40 4
50 9
d. All other ranges 25 3
32 4
40 6
50 9
The distribution pipe nominal size downstream of the design point and a maximum number
of sprinklers to be fed are given in Table 8.

Table 8: - Distribution pipe nominal sizes for the number of sprinklers in moderate
hazard installation
Range pipe layout Pipe size Maximum number of sprinklers to be fed
a. Two end side 32 2
40 4
50 8
65 16
b. All other type 32 3
40 6
50 9
65 18

For high-hazard installation, recalculated range pipe and distribution pipe nominal bores
downstream of the design point and a maximum number of sprinklers to be fed are given in
Table 9 and Table 10, respectively.

Table 9: - Range pipe nominal sizes for the number of sprinklers (15mm dia.) in high-
hazard installation
Range pipe layout Pipe size Maximum number of sprinklers to be fed
 a. Range at remote end of each distribution pipe spur:
1. Last two range in 25 1
an end side layout 32 2
2. The last three 25 2
ranges in an end- 32 3
side layout
3. Last range in all 25 2
other layouts 32 3
40 4
4. All other ranges 25 3
32 4

Table 10: - Distribution pipe nominal sizes for number of sprinklers (15mm dia) in high
hazard installation
Distribution pipe nominal size (mm) Maximum number of sprinklers to be fed
32 2
40 4
50 8
65 12
80 18
100 48

G. Hydraulic Design Parameters

The water supply running pressure (P) at the installation valve can be determined with the
help of following formula
P=P p+ P s +∆ P f (2)
Where, Pp = Pressure at sprinkler specified in Table 4.
Ps = Static pressure difference between the highest sprinkler and installation valve
(bar)
ΔPf = Frictional losses between the most hydraulic remote design point and
installation valve (bar)

Static pressure difference between two interconnecting points in a system is calculated from:
Ps = 0.1h (3)
Where, h = Vertical distance between the points (m)
Frictional losses (Pf) between the most hydraulic remote design point and installation valve is
the combined value of frictional loss in pipes and pressure losses in fittings and valves.
Frictional loss in pipes can be calculated from the Hazen-Williams formula as under:
5
6.05 × 10 1.85
∆ P f = 1.85 4.87
× l× F (4)
K P × Da
Where, ΔPf = Frictional loss per meter length in pipe (bar)
F = Flow rate through the pipe (lpm)
Do = Mean bore of the pipe (m)
l = Equivalent length of pipe and fitting (m)
KP = A constant for the type and condition of pipe
Cast Iron Pipe = 100, Mild Steel pipe = 120
Galvanised Steel = 120, Copper = 150
Loss of pressure due to water flow through pipe fittings and valve can be calculated
by adding the appropriate equivalent pipe lengths as given in Table 11.
Table 11: - Equivalent pipe length for fittings and valves (Kf =120)
Fitting Equivalent length (m) of medium-grade steel pipe for diameter in (mm)
Valve 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 150 200 250
Screwed 90o 0.77 1.04 1.22 1.46 1.89 2.37 3.04 4.30 5.67 7.42
elbow
Welded 90o 0.36 0.49 0.56 0.69 0.88 1.10 1.43 2.00 2.64 3.35
elbow
Screwed 45o 0.40 0.55 0.66 0.76 1.02 1.27 1.61 2.30 3.05 3.89
elbow
All other 1.54 2.13 2.44 2.91 3.81 4.75 6.10 8.61 11.34 13.85
fitting
Gate Valve - - - 0.38 0.51 0.63 0.81 1.13 1.50 1.97
Alarm valve - - - - - 3.4 5.07 7.17 9.40 12.30
NR valve
Alarm valve - - - - - 119.71 5.36 35.88 47.27 61.85
NR valve
(Mushroom)
Butterfly - - - 2.19 2.86 3.55 4.56 6.38 8.62 9.90
valve
Globe valve - - - 6.43 21.64 126.80 34.48 48.79 64.29 84.11
Note: -
1. The equivalent lengths can be converted as necessary for pipes of cast iron by
multiplying the above values by 0.714.
2. It is recommended to avoid, as far as possible, 25 mm-sized elbows in the installation.

For the purpose of calculating minimum sprinkler discharge pressure and required discharge
density, hydraulically, most unfavourable location (AMAO) is to be determined. The AMAO
is the sprinkler array of specified shapes at which the water supply pressure is the maximum
needed to give the specified design density. The shape of the hydraulic most unfavorable area
is assumed as far as possible, rectangular and normally considered the most remote loop or
between the distribution pipes. The discharge pressure and flow are determined at the nodes
in the AMAO. The nodes are the specified points in the AMAO.

Numerical
Analyse the following sprinkler arrays for water and energy power consumption:
 a. Two end centre with end feed array
b. Four end side with end feed array
c. Two end centre with centre feed array
The following design parameters are to be considered common:

Type of Hazard Moderate Sprinkler Coverage 9 m2

AMAO 360 m2 Sprinkler Orifice 15mm
Datum Height 30 m K-factor 80
Discharge Density 51/min/m2 Kf 120

Solution:
The example analyses three types of sprinkler arrays used in sprinkler installation
a. Two end centre with end feed
Water flow (F) and pressure (P) requirements are determined at the remotest sprinkler and
in two end center arrays see Figure 4 and Table 12. Forty sprinklers are considered in
AMAO (360 m2).

If the pressure requirement at the remotest sprinkler is 0.35 bar (from Table 8.8), using
Equation, the discharge at the remotest sprinkler head is calculated as:
Q=K √ P=80 √ 0.5=56.57 lpm
At sprinkler 2, using Equation, frictional loss (ΔPf) between sprinkler Sp1 and SP2 (length
3m and dia 25mm) is determined as:
5
6.05× 10
×3 ×56.57 =0.0 7 ¿¯
1.85
∆ Pf= 1.85 4.87
120 ×25
Hence, for maintaining the pressure requirement at sprinkler SP1 as 0.5 bar, total pressure
requirement at sprinkler SP2 is 0.5+0.07 = 0.57 bar.
The discharge at sprinkler SP2 is calculated as follows
F=K √ P=80 √ 0.57=60.40 lpm
Hence, total water flow in the range pipe of two end sprinkler array on one side is 56.57 +
60.40 = 116.97 lpm

Frictional loss between sprinkler SP2 and node 1 (Length 1.5m and Diameter 25mm) is
determined as :
5
6.05× 10
×1.5 ×116.97 =0. 13 ¯¿
1.85
∆ Pf= 1.85 4.87
120 ×25
Hence, total pressure requirement at node 1 is 0.57 + 0.13 = 0.70 bar.

The total water discharge to the range pipe on both sides at the node 1 is 116.97 x 2 = 233.94
lpm.

Branch K-factor (Kf-factor) is determined at the extreme end branch where the water flow is
equivalent to the center feed pipe.
233.94
Kb= =27 9.61
√0.70
At node 2, frictional loss between nodes 1 and node 2 (length 3m and diameter 40mm
Diameter of pipe is considered as per IS15105:2021, Table 21) is determined as:
5
6.05 ×10
×3 × 233.94 =0.0 9 ¯¿
1.85
∆ Pf= 1.85 4.87
120 ×40
Hence, total pressure requirement at node 2 is 0.7 + 0.09 = 0.79 bar.
The total discharge to the range pipe from node 2 is calculated as
F=K √ P=27 9.61 √ 0.79=2 48.52 lpm

Hence, total water flow at the node 2 is 248.52 + 233.94 = 482.46 lpm.

Similarly the discharge and pressure requirement is calculated at the other nodes. Outcome
are shown in the figure and table.

Figure 4 :- Design pressure and flow requirement in two end centre with end feed
sprinkler installation

Table12: - Design pressure and flow requirement in two end center with end feed
sprinkler installation
 Sprin Pipe Pipe Eq. Total Press Cumul Sprinkler Cumula Remark
kler or Dia Length Length Length ure ative or node tive
Node (Da) (l) (l) (l) loss pressu flow (F) flow
(ΔPf) re loss
(P)
Sp1 - - - - - 0.50 56.57 - Hydraulic
remotest point
Sp2 25 3 0 3 0.07 0.57 60.40 116.97 -
1 25 1.5 0 1.5 0.13 0.70 233.94 233.94 Branch K-factor
= 279.61
2 40 3 0 3 0.09 0.79 248.52 482.46 -
3 50 3 0 3 0.13 0.92 268.19 750.65 -
4 65 3 0 3 0.08 1.00 279.61 1030.26 -
5 65 3 0 3 0.14 1.14 298.54 1328.80 -
6 80 3 0 3 0.08 1.22 308.84 1637.64 -
7 80 3 0 3 0.12 1.34 323.67 1961.31 -
8 80 3 0 3 0.17 1.61 354.79 2316.10 -
9 100 3 0 3 0.08 1.69 363.49 2679.59 -
10 100 3 0 3 0.10 1.79 374.09 3053.68 -
11 100 1.5 3 4.5 0.20 1.99 3053.68 Fitting 90o elbow
12 100 6 3 9 0.39 2.38 3053.68 Fitting 90o elbow
13 100 30 3 33 1.45 3.83+3 3053.68 Fitting 90o elbow;
= 6.83 Static pressure
(30m = 3 bar
approx.)
14 150 25 30 55 0.34 7.17 3053.68 Six 90o elbow
(18m); NR, ICV
and alarm valve
(12m)

The fire pump is required to deliver a minimum flow rate 3053.68 lpm (50.89 l/s) at 7.17
bars.

b. Four end side with end feed array

Following figure and table show the water flow and pressure requirement in four end
side with end feed sprinkler installation. Forty sprinklers are considered for AMAO.

Figure 5 :- Design pressure and flow requirement in four end side with end feed
sprinkler installation
 Table13: - Design pressure and flow requirement in four end side with end feed
sprinkler installation
Sprin Pipe Pipe Eq. Total Press Cumul Sprinkler Cumula Remark
kler or Dia Length Length Length ure ative or node tive
Node (Da) (l) (l) (l) loss pressu flow (F) flow
(ΔPf) re loss
(P)
Sp1 - - - - - 0.50 56.57 - Hydraulic
remotest point
Sp2 25 3 0 3 0.07 0.57 60.40 116.97 -
Sp3 25 3 0 3 0.27 0.84 73.32 190.29 -
Sp4 32 3 0 3 0.20 1.04 81.58 271.87 -
1 40 1.5 0 1.5 0.07 1.11 84.29 356.16 Branch K-factor
=
356.16
=338.05
√ 1.11
2 40 3 0 3 0.21 1.32 388.39 744.55 -
3 50 3 0 3 0.28 1.60 427.60 1172.15 -
4 65 3 0 3 0.18 1.78 451.01 1623.16 -
5 65 3 0 3 0.33 2.11 491.04 2114.21 -
6 80 3 0 3 0.20 2.31 513.79 2628.00 -
7 80 3 0 3 0.30 2.61 546.14 3174.14 -
8 80 3 0 3 0.42 3.03 588.44 3762.58 -
9 100 3 0 3 0.19 3.22 606.61 4369.19 -
10 100 3 0 3 0.26 3.48 630.62 4999.81 -
11 100 1.5 3 4.5 0.49 3.97 4999.81 Fitting 90o elbow
12 100 4.5 3 7.5 0.82 4.79 4999.81 Fitting 90o elbow
13 100 30 3 33 3.61 8.4 + 3 4999.81 Fitting 90o elbow;
= 11.4 Static pressure
(30m = 3 bar
approx.)
14 150 25 30 55 0.83 12.23 4999.81 Six 90o elbow
(18m); NR, ICV
and alarm valve
(12m)

The fire pump is required to deliver a minimum flow rate 4999.81 lpm (83.33 l/s) at 12.23
bars.
c. Two end centre with centre feed array
Following figure and table show the water flow and pressure requirement in two end
centre with centre feed sprinkler installation. Forty sprinklers are considered for analysis
as given AMAO = 360m2.

Figure 6 :- Design pressure and flow requirement in two end centre with centre
feed sprinkler installation
 Table14: - Design pressure and flow requirement in two end centre with centre
feed sprinkler installation
Sprin Pipe Pipe Eq. Total Press Cumul Sprinkler Cumula Remark
kler or Dia Length Length Length ure ative or node tive
Node (Da) (l) (l) (l) loss pressu flow (F) flow
(ΔPf) re loss
(P)
Sp1 - - - - - 0.50 56.57 - Hydraulic
remotest point
Sp2 25 3 0 3 0.07 0.57 60.40 116.97 -
1 25 1.5 0 1.5 0.13 0.70 116.97x2 233.94 Branch K-factor
= 233.94 = 279.61
2 40 3 0 3 0.09 0.79 248.52 482.46 -
3 50 3 0 3 0.13 0.92 268.19 750.65 -
4 65 3 0 3 0.08 1.00 279.61 1030.26 -
5 65 3 0 3 0.14 1.14 298.54 1328.80 -
6 80 1.5 3 4.5 0.13 1.27 315.10 1643.91 Fitting 90o elbow
7 100 6 3 9 0.13 1.40 330.84 1974.75
13 100 30 3 33 0.65 2.05+3 1974.75 Fitting 90o elbow;
= 5.05 Static pressure
(30m = 3 bar
approx.)
14 150 25 30 55 0.15 5.20 1974.75 Six 90o elbow
(18m); NR, ICV
and alarm valve
(12m)

The fire pump is required to deliver a minimum flow rate 1974.75 lpm (32.91 l/s) at 5.20
bars.
The results of three analyses are compared and shown in following table. Analysis of
three sprinkler arrays shows the two end centre with centre feed is the most
advantageous in terms of water discharge and pressure requirement (energy saving)

S.N. Sprinkler Area Discharge Discharge Discharge

array Covered pressure flow (lpm) Density
(AMAO) m2 (mm/min)
1 Two end 360 7.17 3053.68 8.48
centre with
end feed
2 Four end 360 12.23 4999.81 13.89
side with end
feed
3 Two end 360 5.20 1974.75 5.49
center with
centre feed
 The Elements of Fire Sprinkler System Design
Fire sprinkler systems save lives. When a fire breaks out, standard spray sprinklers control
the blaze by cooling and wetting surfaces to deprive it of fuel sources and prevent flashover,
the sudden ignition of everything in a room when it reaches autoignition temperature. Some
sprinkler types in specific systems take this further—they’re designed to completely suppress
a fire in more challenging environments like storage facilities.
This chapter gives an overview of the basic steps of fire sprinkler system design, including:
[1] Identifying and evaluating the water supply
[2] Determining what kind of sprinkler system the building needs
[3] Identifying the hazard level of the building and the protection required
[4] Picking and laying out sprinkler heads
[5] Choosing and laying out pipe
At each step, we explain broadly what a designer has to do, including the calculations
(financial and technical) involved. We’ll frequently refer to NFPA 13: Standard for the
Installation of Sprinkler Systems (2019 edition), the document adopted by jurisdictions that
govern commercial fire sprinkler system design.

Fire sprinkler design is a detailed process, and designers are highly skilled and qualified
professionals. They frequently hold a Professional Engineer (PE) certification and meet local
and state licensing standards. Jurisdictions often defer testing and licensing for sprinkler
system layouts to the National Institute for Certification in Engineering Technologies
(NICET). Usually, at least a NICET Level III Water-Based System Layout certification is
required to work without supervision as a sprinkler system designer.

1. Identifying and evaluating the water supply

Sprinkler system design begins with water— everything else depends on having enough of it
ready to control a fire. NFPA 13 requires an automatic water supply for sprinkler systems
(5.1.2), meaning that the water will flow through sprinkler heads without any human
intervention.

Many possible sources can be used, including city water, ponds, rivers, reservoirs, water
tanks, pressure tanks, and gravity tanks or water towers. But in most cases, a municipal
waterworks is the go-to supply.

Whatever the source, it must have sufficient capacity for fire control (5.1.3). The factors that
determine capacity include flow rate (in gallons per minute, GPM), pressure (in pounds per
square inch, PSI), and duration (how long it can maintain the required pressure and flow).
For a municipal water supply, capacity is determined with a flow test performed at nearby
fire hydrants.

A flow test requires at least two hydrants, A and B. First, a static pressure reading is taken at
hydrant A while neither hydrant is flowing water. Then, hydrant B is opened wide and
another pressure reading is taken at hydrant A. This residual pressure reading is the amount
of pressure that can push water through sprinkler heads (minus some losses). A pitot tool is
used to measure the pressure of the water flowing from hydrant B. In this video, Grapevine,
TX’s fire department shows how to conduct a flow test:

This value is used to calculated flow as follows:

Q=29.83 x C x d2 x P
With:

Q = flow rate (GPM)

C = C-factor, the roughness coefficient of the hydrant outlet

d = inside diameter of the outlet

P = pressure observed at hydrant B

The water supply capacity is the foundation of sprinkler system design. Many of the steps
following this one is all about ensuring hydraulic demands won’t exceed this capacity.
Designers choose pipes and sprinklers to make the hydraulic calculations work out. If they
can’t do it with the available flow and pressure, they have to resort to using a fire pump
(which may cost tens of thousands of dollars) to boost the water supply.

Know the building—what kind of sprinkler system does it need?

If the first step of sprinkler system design is knowing the water supply, the second is
understanding the building. Sprinkler system designers sit down with the architectural and
engineering plans to sort out just what the building needs from a sprinkler system. Is it a
residential structure? Industrial? How significant is the fuel load? Will it have climate
control?

Questions like these. determine the requirements the system should meet and what kind of
sprinkler system is appropriate.

NFPA 13, NFPA 13R, or NFPA 13D—which standard to use?

As mentioned, NFPA 13 is the go-to standard for commercial sprinkler system design. NFPA
13-compliant systems are defined by full sprinkler coverage. The standard is typically used
in commercial facilities—offices, mercantile spaces, warehouses, industrial buildings, etc.

Two alternatives to NFPA 13 exist:

 NFPA 13R: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise

Residential Occupancies
 NFPA 13D: Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and
Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes.
NFPA 13R and NFPA 13D both focus on affordable and convenient life safety protection, so
they don’t require sprinklers in unoccupied spaces like closets and attics. But in some larger
residential settings, a full-coverage NFPA 13 system is still used.

Does the building need a wet, dry, or preaction system?

In addition to determining the standard, designers also have to figure out whether a building
needs a wet pipe system, dry pipe system, or preaction sprinkler system.

Most buildings simply use a wet sprinkler system in which water fills the pipes at all times.
As soon as a sprinkler head operates, water flows.

Structures like parking garages where freezing is a concern need dry pipe systems, so named
for the absence of water in the pipes. A dry valve, held shut by a pressurized gas, stops the
water in an insulated section of the pipe until its needed. When a sprinkler head activates, the
gas depressurizes, the dry valve opens, and water flows.

Parking garages and other structures without climate control often use dry sprinkler systems
to prevent water in pipes from freezing. Image source: ArmourCo
Where the cost of an accidental discharge would be severe (such as in an art gallery),
a preaction system may be used. Water is held back by a preaction valve, which may also
function as a dry valve. Activation also relies on a separate trigger, such as electric input from
a smoke or heat detector, providing another layer of control over whether the water flows
from sprinklers.

Know the building—how much water is needed for fire sprinkler design, including the
hazard level?
How much water does it take to control a fire? This depends on many factors, including the
size of the fire and the type of fuel. Three conceptual tools help designers plan systems that
can produce sufficient water flow and pressure: occupancy hazard, design area,
and density/area curves.

Occupancy hazard

NFPA 13 groups (4.3) buildings or portions of buildings into occupancy hazards, helping
designers estimate the fuel load and thus the water demands. The assignment of an occupancy
hazard depends on several factors explained in NFPA 13:

19.3.1.2.3 Occupancies or portions of occupancies shall be classified according to the

quantity and combustibility of contents, the expected rates of heat release, the total potential
for the energy release, the heights of stockpiles, and the presence of flammable and
combustible liquids, using the definitions contained in 4.3.2 through 4.3.7.

Warehouses—like the Redlands warehouse near Los Angeles that burned June 5, 2020—have
special hydraulic needs. The occupancy hazard concept helps designers plan systems that can
meet a facility’s hydraulic needs. Image source: KTLA via Redlands Community News
NFPA 13’s hazard classifications are (19.3.1.2.4):

 Light Hazard
 Ordinary Hazard (Group 1)
 Ordinary Hazard (Group 2)
 Extra Hazard (Group 1)
 Extra Hazard (Group 2)
 Special occupancy hazard (including storage)
It’s important to note that NFPA 13’s occupancy hazard categories apply only to the design
of sprinkler systems and “shall not be intended to be a general classification of occupancy
hazards” (4.3.1.2). NFPA 101: Life Safety Code also groups buildings into occupancy
hazards, but these classifications are different; they’re related to threats to life, not fuel load.
Design area

The design area concept lets designers select a worst-case scenario part of their building to
base the whole system around. As with hazard level, “worst-case scenario” refers to
hydraulics. The design area is a “hydraulically challenging” location, usually because of high
elevation and/or its distance from the fire sprinkler riser. The design area concept is used
because it would be impractical to supply every fire sprinkler with water at once.

Identifying a design area isn’t always straightforward, so layout professionals often perform
calculations for multiple areas to find the one with the highest demand. NFPA 13 has various
rules for the selection of the design area.

Density/area curves

Designers use the hazard level and design area to determine how much water they need
with density/area curves. “How much water” means water density—gallons per minute per
square foot (GPM/ft2). When designers know the hazard level of their building and the size of
the design area, they can use the density-area curves (19.3.3.1.1) provided by NFPA 13 to
determine the exact required water density.

Once the design area density is determined from the curve, calculating the total required flow
is simple. Flow (GPM) is density times area.

Figure Density/Area Curves

NFPA 13’s density/area curves let designers determine the required water density based on
design area size and hazard level. In this case, a 2500-ft.2 design area in extra hazard group 1
requires 0.30 GPM/ft.2. Graph source: NFPA 13
Laying out sprinkler system components—sprinkler heads

Sprinkler system design is an iterative process. Designers have to tentatively plan a set-up
and then check the math to see if the hydraulic calculations work out. One part of this process
involves laying out and sizing the sprinkler heads.
Laying out sprinkler heads and determining their coverage area in fire sprinkler design

To know how much density a sprinkler can deliver, a designer must first determine the area it
covers. They follow guidelines from NFPA 13 to ensure that sprinklers cover an appropriate
amount of space.

Tables 10.2.4.2.1(a-d) tell how far apart, on centre, standard-spray upright and pendent
sprinklers can be. The max distance is 15 ft., but this is reduced in many situations. Whatever
distance between sprinklers is allowed, the heads can be no more than half that distance
(10.2.5.2.1) from the walls. So, the max length from a sprinkler to a wall is 7.5 ft.

Designers mark the location of sprinklers and pipes on the plans based on these rules and then
determine how much space each head protects according to NFPA 13’s rules. There is a limit
to how much floor space one sprinkler can reasonably cover. These maximum protection
areas for standard spray sprinklers are also laid out in Tables 10.2.4.2.1(a-d); the biggest
possible value is 225 ft.2, but this is only applicable in non combustible unobstructed spaces.
(And note that different types of sprinklers, such as extended coverage, have different rules
and values.)

Protection area, As is calculated with the formula A s=S x L (9.5.2.1). Along the branch line, S
is the larger of either:

 The distance to the closest sprinkler

 Twice the distance to the closest obstruction or wall
The value of L is determined in the same way but perpendicular to the branch line (e.g., in the
direction of the next branch line).

Sprinkler K-factor determines the flow a sprinkler can produce

Sprinkler system designers have a lot of sprinklers to choose from

when designing a system. There is an incredible array of
temperature ratings, finishes, and performance characteristics
available. But when it comes to the hydraulics of sprinkler system
design, perhaps the most critical sprinkler spec is K-factor,
which is essentially its orifice size.

Every sprinkler has a defined K-factor, which describes how

much flow (GPM) it can produce at a given pressure (psi).
Common K-factor values include 2.8, 5.6, and 8.0. The
relationship between K-factor, flow (q), and pressure (p) is:

K=q/√p
Designers often select a common K-factor and check to see if
they can achieve the required flow with the available pressure. If
they can’t, they may choose another K-factor. Or, they may change something about the
pipes to boost the available pressure.
Laying out system components—pipes, fittings, and hydraulic calculations in fire
sprinkler design

When designers lay out a sprinkler system on paper (or digitally, nowadays), they mark
where the pipes will go and decide their size and material. Pipe selection affects hydraulic
calculations, cost, corrosion resistance, and more.

The flow test only tells designers how much pressure is available from the source and at the
base of the system riser. They have less to work with at the sprinkler heads because of head
loss. Head loss is the loss of pressure due to resistance as fluid flows in pipes from its source
to its destination.

Three kinds of resistance create head loss—gravity, friction, and turbulence. Designers
can’t fight the effects of gravity unless they use pumps; no matter the pipes’ diameter, 0.433
psi is lost for every vertical foot. But they can and do select pipes, fittings, and devices to
reduce the head loss from friction and turbulence.

Pipe selection and friction loss

The friction of water against the walls of the pipe fights against the pressure from the water
supply. The size of the friction force depends on three factors:

 The rate of flow (q)

 The empirical roughness of the pipes (C; small C means rough pipe)
 The diameter of the pipes (d)
Designers use the Hazen-Williams formula (28.2.2.1.1) to calculate pressure loss per foot of
pipe (p):

p = (4.52Q1.85) ÷ (C1.85d4.87)
Selecting appropriate pipe materials and sizes helps minimize friction losses. If hydraulic
calculations reveal that a sprinkler head in the design area won’t get enough pressure to
produce the design density, the pipes’ size can be increased to reduce pressure loss.

Pipe material also affects the pressure losses. C-value describes the roughness of the pipe,
and pipe made of copper (C=150) or CPVC (C=150), for example, is smoother than one
made of unlined cast iron (C=100).

With pipe size and material, there are considerations other than the hydraulic calculations.
Up-front and long-term costs are also important things to think about. Bigger pipe costs more,
and copper pipe costs more than thermoplastics, for example. Nonmetallic pipes like CPVC
also have unique concerns regarding exposure and melting and can only be used in specific
settings.

Balancing cost and function is a major part of a fire sprinkler system designer’s job.

Devices and fittings and turbulence loss

Turbulence also creates pressure loss. Devices (such as valves) and fittings (like elbows
and tees) create turbulence that, in turn, decreases the amount of pressure available
downstream. Turbulence occurs when water is forced to change direction or pass through
small orifices.

The math behind turbulence loss is complicated, but NFPA 13 allows designers to estimate
head loss from devices and fittings in terms of equivalent feet of pipe (27.2.3.1.1). Tables
from either NFPA 13 or manufacturer data indicate what length of pipe will create the same
head loss that a particular device or fitting makes.

Backflow preventers are frequently unavoidable sources of pressure loss from turbulence.
There are pressure-eating devices that can’t be left out of the equation. For
instance, backflow preventers are frequently required to prevent the contamination of
municipal water supplies. If the city supply loses pressure for whatever reason, stagnant
water in a fire sprinkler system could flow backward, contaminating potable water. Backflow
preventers tend to create large head losses, but this is unavoidable where they are required.

Fire sprinkler system design takes a pro

Designing fire sprinkler systems involves many elements. Designers check the water supply,
identify building needs, lay out pipes and sprinklers, and perform hydraulic calculations.

Sprinkler systems definitively save lives and property, but they only work as intended when
they’re well-engineered and up to code. Always rely on a licensed professional to design a
fire sprinkler system. And note that different states and municipalities may have additional
requirements from what’s specified in NFPA 13.

Sprin Pipe Pipe Eq. Total Press Cumul Sprinkler Cumula Remark
kler or Dia Length Length Length ure ative or node tive
Node (Da) (l) (l) (l) loss pressu flow (F) flow
(ΔPf) re loss
(P)
Sp1 - - - - - 0.50 56.57 - Hydraulic
remotest point
Sp2 25 3 0 3 0.07 0.57 60.40 116.97 -
1 25 1.5 0 1.5 0.13 0.70 233.94 233.94 Branch K-factor
= 279.61
2 50 3 0 3 0.03 0.73 238.90 472.84 -
3 65 3 0 3 -
4 65 3 0 3 -
5 65 3 0 3 -
6 65 3 0 3 -
7 65 3 0 3 -
8 80 3 0 3 -
9 80 3 0 3 -
10 100 3 0 3 -
11 100 1.5 3 4.5 2551.06 2551.06 Fitting 90o elbow
12 100 6 3 9 2551.06 2551.06 Fitting 90o elbow
13 100 30 3 33 2551.06 2551.06 Fitting 90o elbow;
Static pressure
(30m = 3 bar
approx.)
14 150 25 30 55 2551.06 2551.06 Six 90o elbow
(18m); NR, ICV
and alarm valve
(12m)