Report

FLOWABILITY STUDIES AND SILO DESIGN

Submitted to
NTPC Ramagundam Super Thermal Power Station
Stage-III Coal Silo

Prof. B.Pitchumani

Jan 2002
PARTICLE SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, DELHI

 Contents
Chapter Title Page
no.
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Flowability of powders and flow problems 1
1.2 Flow patterns in Silo 4
1.3 Flow properties characterization of powders 5
2 Theory and Methodology of Jenike Shear testing 7
2.1 Some basic concepts in powder mechanics 7
2.2 Evaluation of flow properties of powders 10
2.3 Determination of the Yield Loci, the steady state yield 13
locus and flow function
2.4 Wall Yield Locus measurement 15
2.5 Time Consolidation of Powders 17
2.6 The Jenike method of determination of critical outlet 19
widths for flow in mass flow hoppers
3 Results and discussion 21
3.1 Evaluation of instantaneous Yield Locus 21
3.2 Effect of moisture content on instantaneous flow function 28
3.3 Evaluation of Time Yield Locus and time flow function 29
3.4 Effect of moisture and time consolidation on wall friction 34
angle
3.5 Configuration of proposed coal silo 35
References 37
Appendix-1 Instantaneous Yield locus test results at 0.5, 5, 10, 16, 24, 38
27 % moisture contents
Appendix-2 Time Yield locus test results at 24 % moisture content at 62
12, 24, 48 and 72 hrs. time consolidation.
 Chapter 1

Introduction
Coal being major raw material for thermal power stations, powder handling is
a major unit operation involved. Loading, unloading, transportation and storage of
coal in the form of powder are some of the commonly employed operations in these
places. But unfortunately coal handling is area in process plant design which gets least
attention in design phase of equipments due to lack of adequate behavioral
information about bulk solids [1]. Therefore it is necessary to understand and
characterize the coal powder in terms of its physical and chemical properties in order
to successfully handle it [1,2].

1.1 Flowability of powders and Flow Problems in silos:

Powders in general behave as solids when at rest, as liquids when fluidized
and assumes properties of gases when dispersed in small quantities in gases thus
making them difficult to handle. Moreover unlike liquids, which can only transmit
normal pressure, powders can transmit normal forces as well as shear forces resulting
in poor flow properties. Pressure profile variations along the length silo in case of
powders while at rest and flow conditions increases complexity of the flow problem.
Moreover as the powder gets finer in particle size distribution its flowability tend to
get affected adversely to a great extent because of reduced permeability. In addition to
this powders have the tendency of getting consolidated due to their self-weight,
moisture content, confining wall forces and their interactions in the silos resulting in
compact and cohesive mass having strength. Consolidation in silo essentially is
accompanied by increase in bulk densities of powders with decrease in intra particle
porosities [2,3]. This further causes deterioration in flow properties of powders. Due
to reasons cited above series of problems like arching, channeling, hang ups, flooding,
choking and fluctuations in flow rates routinely occur in process industries because of
insufficient flow characterization of powders under consolidation as depicted in
Fig.1.1 and briefly described below.

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1.1.1 Arching:
Stable arches may stop the outlet as shown in Fig.1.1(a). This may happen
both with fine and coarse powders. With fine powders, stable arches may stop outlet
right from the start if the outlet width is less than the minimum necessary to avoid
arches, but may also happen after the silo has been in use for some time-if the
properties of powders change. Such changes may be due to higher moisture contents,
smaller particles, prolonged storage times,etc. Thus unfavorable changes in powder
properties or storage conditions cause increase in minimum outlet width needed to
avoid arching.

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1.1.2 Ratholing:
Flow takes place only in vertical channel directly over the outlet (funnel flow)
and the powder around the channel forms stable walls even after the flow channel has
been completely emptied. This emptied channel is usually called “rathole” as shown
in Fig.1.1(b). For ratholing silos live capacities may decrease considerably as
compared to actual volumes.

1.1.3 Unreliable flow:

Intermittent arching causing wide fluctuations in the flow rates may occur at
various positions in the hopper, for instance near the transition between the parallel
part of the silo and the hopper as shown in Fig.1.1(c). Also ratholes may be emptied
partly, and then collapse giving large variations in the flow rates. In such cases the
bulk density of powders flowing out of silo varies considerably causing problems in
volumetric feeding devices.

1.1.4 Flooding:
In case of unreliable flow, the powder from collapsing arch or rathole may
pick up air, become aerated and start flooding. The powder then behaves more or less
like fluids causing passage even through small openings resulting in difficulties in
flow control as depicted in Fig.1.1(d). This is observed to be the case only with
powders which very fine and dry.

1.1.5 Degradation:
In silos working as shown in Fig.1.1, the powder around the flowing channel
in the bottom part of the silo only is discharged if the silo is emptied completely. It
happens only seldom, this powder will be kept in the silo for long time and may be
damaged if it deteriorates with time.

1.1.6 Level Control:

In silos where ratholes occur it will be difficult, if not impossible, to measure
the amounts of powder left in the silo without weighing the silo.

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1.1.7 Segregation:
Various mechanisms may cause a separation of different fractions of powder
both during filling and flow out of silos. Depending upon how the silo works this may
cause a permanent separation of the various fractions. Segregation due to differential
particle sizes and densities can thus cause unacceptable fluctuations in process solids
flow rates resulting in poor quality control of products along with increased run down
time of plants leading to decreased economic viability of the process [4, 7]. This
problem is believed to be occurring due to absence of information about flow patterns
in silos storing these powders.

1.2 Flow patterns in silo:

The storage in silos gives a series of serious and expensive problems.
However, storage in the silos can be made virtually free of operating problems if they
are anticipated in advance and the silo is dimensioned and designed according to the
properties of powder to be stored. Jenike[1] provided a method of designing silos,
which work reliably, based on measurements of flow properties of the powders. He
distinguished the flow pattern in silo as mass flow and funnel flow, which are
accepted on a worldwide basis. The two types of flow patterns are illustrated in
Fig.1.2.

1.2.1 Mass Flow pattern:

Fig.1.2(a) shows a mass flow silo where whole powder mass is moving
downwards as rigid plug. The flow rate is higher in the middle, as shown in Fig
1.2(a). With this type of flow first comes into silo, comes out first, also the flow is
even reliable and there is no flooding problems. The bulk density of the powder
leaving the silo is constant and there will be minimal segregation problems in spite of
the powder had given rise to segregation during filling of the silo.

1.1.3 Funnel Flow Silo:

Fig.1.2(b) shows a funnel flow silo, where only the powder directly above the
outlet is moving, while the powder at the walls is completely stagnant. Unfortunately
this type of silo still is commonly used in industry although in many circumstances it
has several disadvantages. Mainly the powder mass is stationery while the silo is

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being emptied and flow out of the silo only happens by powder at the top surface
sliding down the slope, into the flowing channel as shown in Fig.1.2(b). This type of
flow gives a first in, last out sequence of discharge, the flow is uneven, flooding may
occur, the bulk density varies during discharge and there may be considerable
segregation problems, which is its most severe disadvantage. This type of flow should
only be accepted for coarse, free flowing, chemically stable and where segregation is
unlikely. Such occasion are in fact are very rare in process plants.
For a given powder the type of flow depends on the angle of inclination
between the vertical and the hopper wall. If the inclination is less than a critical value,
there will be mass flow. The critical inclination depends on the friction between the
powder and the wall material, and to varying extent also on an effective angle of
internal friction of the powder thus making their evaluation quite important.

1.4 Flow properties characterization of powders:

From above discussion it can be realized that the major influencing factor on
the flow of bulk solids from silo is the flow behavior of the bulk solid itself along
with interaction between flow patterns and silo geometry. Flow characterization thus
in essence involves evaluation of failure surface in the consolidated mass of powder
for initiation of flow known as yield locus. Yield locus is determined by shearing bulk

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of powder consolidated at increasing consolidating forces against various levels of
normal forces, which are typically observed in the industrial silos. This helps in
determining the strength acquired by the bulk of the powder in situations like arching,
rat-holing, etc. and stresses needed to overcome these resistances for uninterrupted
flow of powders out of silo. Further, Yield locus of concerned powder under given
consolidation is dependant on characteristic properties like
• Major consolidation stress on powder
• Unconfined yield stress on powder
• Angle of internal friction of powder
• Angle of Wall friction between powder and wall material of silo
• Type and structure of wall material
• Instantaneous and time consolidated flow function of powder
thus making exclusive flow characterization of the bulk powder essential before
selection of hopper design for storage of bulk materials for trouble free operation.
Flow properties in turn are observed to be dependant on array of physical and
chemical parameters. Typical physical parameters known to have influence on flow
behavior of powders are
• Particle Size distribution
• Specific surface area
• Moisture content
• Time of storage
along with chemical parameters thus necessitating exclusive characterization of bulk
solid in question in order to design equipment for storage, transportation and handling
[3,4]. It is therefore important to undertake detailed experimental evaluation of yield
loci and flowability of powders in terms of their flow parameters as listed above when
they are to be stored in silos to quantify various effects like variation of flow function,
inter particle frictional behavior, particle wall frictional behavior, as a function of
particle size distribution, moisture content, time consolidation, etc [5,6]. Since type of
wall material is observed to have a definite role in successful silo operation, effect of
various wall materials having different grain structures on the flowability of powders
should also be assessed experimentally.

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 Chapter 2

Theory and Methodology of Jenike shear testing

2.1 Some basic concepts in Powder Mechanics:

2.1.1 Stresses, strains and Mohr circle:
If we consider a prismatic body as shown in Fig.2.1 because of external forces
acting from all sides, the body will be somewhat deformed as shown. Clearly the
deformation of the body depends on the force per unit area on the external surfaces of
the body. Therefore the concept of force per unit area is introduced and this is called
stress, sigma.

The deformation measure is called strain, which is defined as the change of a

given length when the external stress is applied, divided by the original length. Strain
is denoted by epsilon and in powder mechanics a compressive strain is considered to
be positive, whereas a negative strain is an expansion indicated in figure. Usually the
stress can be split into two components, normal to the surface, the normal stress, σn
and a component parallel to the surface, the shear stress, τ respectively. The normal
stress σn can either be compressive or tensile, and in powder mechanics a positive
stress is a compressive stress, where as a negative stress is a tensile stress. The shear
stress τ will always act in pairs on opposite surfaces, exerting a torque on the body. In
order to give zero total torque, shear stresses on perpendicular surfaces have to be
equal. In Fig. 2.1 there are only normal stresses on the outer surfaces, which are
perpendicular to each other. The external forces will produce internal forces, which

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will be transmitted throughout the body. In case of Fig.2.1 all planes parallel to outer
surfaces will only have normal stresses equal to the corresponding external stresses.
Such planes with zero shear stresses are called Principle planes and the corresponding
normal stresses are called principle stresses. It can be shown that there will always
exist three principle planes, which are perpendicular to each other as illustrated in
Fig.2.2. The largest principle stress is called Major Principle stress, σ1, the second
largest is called Intermediate principle stress, σ2 and the smallest is called Minor
Principle stress, σ3. The principle planes are numbered and named after the
corresponding principle stresses.

If the principle stresses are all different, there will be shear stresses along all
the planes, which, are not principle planes. In Fig.2.3 the intermediate principle plane
is the plane of paper, and the major and minor principle planes are perpendicular to
paper. In Fig.2.3, a plane perpendicular to intermediate principle plane inclined to an
angle α with the major principle plane is indicated. On this plane there will be a
normal force and a shear stresses σn and τ, which can be calculated by considering
force balance in the directions of the major and minor principle stresses. Force
balance in the direction of σ1 gives
For force balance in the direction of σ1
σn A Cos α+ τ A Sin α = σ1 A Cos α (2.1)
For force balance in direction of σ3

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σn A Sin α + τ A Cos α = σ3 A Sin α (2.2)
Solving eqs. (2.1) and (2.2) with respect to σn and τ we get
σn = (σ1+σ3)/2 + (σ1-σ3)/2 Cos2α (2.3)
τ = (σ1-σ3)/2 sin2α (2.4)

As shown in Fig.2.4 equations 2.3 and 2.4 describe a half circle if τ is plotted as a
function of σn and α is varied between 0 and π/2. This circle is called Mohr circle and
it gives as shown above the normal stress and shear stresses on planes perpendicular
to one of the principle planes and at all inclinations to the two other principle planes.
Since there are three principle planes, there will generally be three Mohr stress circles
as shown in Fig.2.5. The shaded area shows stresses on planes, which are not
perpendicular to the principle planes. Thus all possible combinations of stresses in a
body are restricted to the area enclosed by the three Mohr circles, which are given by
the three principle stresses acting on the body.

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 To describe stresses and strains in powders concept of Mohr circles can be
used as shown in Fig.2.5. The largest shear stresses are always found on the largest
Mohr stress circle, defined by the Major and Minor principle stresses, σ1 and σ3. The
largest Mohr circle, therefore usually gives the stresses decisive for the deformation
of the body.

2.2 Evaluation of flow properties of powders:

In order to have better understanding and knowledge of the flow properties of
powders so as to design silos having characteristically reliable flow conditions, use of
principles of Powder Mechanics is done. The pioneer in this field has been Dr.
A.W.Jenike, who developed a complete method of designing reliable silos based on
the tests of the flow properties of powders as explained above.
Jenike method consists of two main parts, an experimental part enabling the
characterization of the flow properties of the given powder and a theoretical part
enabling the determination of critical silo parameters for reliable flow based on the
measured properties of the powder to be stored. Brief outline of the method is given
below.
In order to design a mass flow hopper for a given powder, it’s steady state
yield locus and flow function must be known. Also the friction between the powder
and the hopper walls given by the so-called Wall yield locus, WYL, must be known.
Jenike developed a special apparatus, known as Jenike shear cell, for determination of
yield loci of powders [1,7].

2.2.1 First Step: Filling and compaction of powder:

A vertical cross section of the Jenike shear cell at the filling and consolidation
steps is shown in Fig.2.6a. The apparatus consists of a circular base, which is kept
firm by frame. On top of the base is circular ring, the shearing ring, placed somewhat
off-center of the base during filling and compaction stage as shown in Fig.2.6b. On
the top of the shearing ring is mounted another ring, the moulding ring. Powder is
filled loosely into the cell by a spoon and scraped level with the moulding ring, and a
lid, twisting lid, is placed on top of the powder. The twisting lid has a smooth bottom
surface. It is essential that it always rest entirely on the powder and not on the
moulding ring. On the top of the twisting lid a normal load, twisting load Wt, is

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placed. If the lid then sinks into the shearing ring, the load Wt and the lid are removed,
more powder is filled into cell and scraped level with moulding ring, and the twisting
lid along with twisting load Wt are placed on the top of the powder again. If
necessary, this procedure is repeated several times.

When sufficient filling of the cell has been obtained, the lid is twisted back
and forth 90-1800 a certain number n, times under the normal load Wt.
Having carried out this procedure, the twisting load Wt, the moulding ring and
twisting lid are removed. Excess powder is scraped level with shearing ring and the
sample is ready for the next step of the procedure.

2.2.2 Second Step: Steady state shearing of the sample

Having finished the compaction of the sample, another lid, the shearing lid, is
placed on top of the powder, as shown in Fig. 2.6b. A normal load, W, the
consolidation load, is placed on top of the shearing lid.
The shearing lid is equipped with a bracket and a pin, which will touch the
shearing ring, as shown in Fig.2.6b. another pin, shearing pin, pushes the bracket, the
lid, and the ring, at a constant rate to the right. The shearing force S, acting on the
bracket during this shearing process is recorded as a function of time. Three types of
curves are possible, as shown in Fig. 2.7. Curve c in Fig.2.7 shows the shearing force
as a function of time for an under consolidated sample of powder. In this case the
sample has to be rejected, and another sample has to be prepared with larger twisting
load, Wt, and/or a larger number of twists. Curve a in the figure shows the shearing
force S as a function of time for an over consolidated sample. Also in this the sample
has to be rejected, and another sample has to be prepared, this time with lower

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twisting load and/or lower number of twists. Curve b of the figure shows the shearing
force S as a function of time for a critically consolidated sample. In this case steady
state is reached after a relatively small strain, and the sample is accepted. Having
reached steady state, the shearing process is stopped when the shearing ring is
approximately concentric with the base. The shearing pin is then retracted, reducing
the shearing force to zero, the consolidation load W is removed, and the sample is
ready for the third and final step.

2.2.3 Third Step: The shearing test

Having finally obtained steady state shearing of sample by trial and error as
described above, a third load, the shearing load W*, is placed on the shearing lid, as
indicated in Fig.2.6b. The shearing load W* is less than the consolidation load W
during the steady state shearing of the sample.
The shearing pin is again moved at constant rate to the right, pushing the
shearing ring and lid with the upper half of the powder sample. The shear stress is
recorded as a function of time, and will in this case a curve of type b as shown in
Fig.2.7. The peak value of the shear stress τ and the normal stress S on the shearing
plane give one point of the yield locus corresponding to the steady state stresses
determined in the second step.
The shearing plane is assumed to be the horizontal plane between the base and
the shearing ring. The normal stress S on the shearing plane is the sum of the weight
on the top of the lid and weights of the lid, the shearing ring and the powder above the

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shearing plane, divided by the area of the shearing plane. The shear stress τ is the
shearing force S on the shearing pin divided by the area of the shearing plane. Finally
the cell is emptied, ready for the next test, starting with the first step again.

2.3 Determination of the Yield Loci YL, The steady state yield locus SSYL and
the flow function FF:
Having determined the first point of yield locus, the whole procedure is
repeated a number of times, keeping Wt, n and W constant and varying W*. Each time
a new point of the yield locus is determined in the second step, but this point should
be constant as long as Wt, n, and W are kept constant, and the points on the same
yield locus are determined. Usually about four points are assumed sufficient for a
fairly accurate determination of a yield locus.
By changing to another set of Wt, n and W values, another void ratio of the
powder is obtained, giving another yield locusYL, which is determined in the same as
the first one. Usually four yield three loci YL corresponding to three void ratios of the
powder are determined. Having determined the yield loci YL, the steady state Mohr
circles and the fc Mohr circles are constructed as shown in Fig.2.8, giving one point of
the flow function FF per yield locus. The steady state yield locus SSYL is finally
determined as the envelope of the steady state Mohr circles as shown in Fig.2.9[3].

The concept of flow function FF is introduced in order to determine the

critical outlet width for commencement of flow in a silo as outlined below.

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If the outlet width is less than critical, the powder will form self-sustaining structures
between walls of hopper, preventing flow from the silo. Such self-sustaining
structures are called arches. On the free surface under an arch, the stresses are equal to
zero. The free surface will therefore be a principle plane and since the normal stresses
on all other planes in the powder must be greater than zero, the free surface has to be
a minor principle plane. Hence, the largest Mohr circle of the stresses in the arch will
pass through the origin. If this Mohr circle touches the yield locus YL of the powder
as shown by Fig.2.8, the arch will collapse and flow will commence. Thus the Major
principle stress fc of Mohr circle touching the yield locus YL and passing through the
origin, is the major principle stress, which will cause an arch across the outlet to
collapse. Since fc denotes the strength of an unconfined body of powder, it is called
the unconfined yield strength.
The void ratio e and the yield locus YL of the powder at the outlet is
determined by the stresses acting during flow, i.e. by the steady state stresses with
major principle stress σ1. At the outlet σ1 will be proportional to the outlet width and
by introducing the flow function ff(σ1) one indirectly has fc as a function of the outlet

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width. The flow function, corresponding to the three yield loci YL1, YL2 and YL3 is
shown in Fig.2.10

The Major principle stress σ1b, which will act in the arch in order to sustain its
weight is proportional to the width of the outlet. As already mentioned σ1 acting
during flow is also proportional to the outlet width. Hence the ratio ff=σ1/σ1b is a
constant, given by the hopper and powder parameters. ff is called the flow factor of
powder/hopper system. ff is always greater than one. The flow factor is a measure of
how well the powder will flow in the hopper. The closer ff approaches unity, the
better the powder will flow. By means of the flow factor ff, which can be calculated
for any hopper/powder system when relevant parameters are known, the stress σ1b
needed to sustain an arch can be plotted as a function of σ1 in the same diagram as the
flow function as shown by Fig.2.10. ff is a line passing through origin. If this line
crosses the flow function, there will be a critical outlet width of the hopper,
corresponding to the intersection with the flow function as shown. From this the
critical outlet width can be calculated.

2.4 Wall Yield locus measurement:

The Wall yield locus WYL is measured by sliding a powder sample along a
sample of the wall material. The Shear stress τw needed to move the powder along the
wall sample is measured for number of normal stresses. This is done by replacing the

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base of the Jenike shear cell as shown in Fig. 2.11 by the wall sample, varying the
normal load on the lid and measuring the shearing force on the shearing pin as the
ring filled with powder is pushed along the wall sample.

2.4.1 The Wall Yield Locus:

The friction between a powder and the wall in a silo, is described by the wall
yield locus, WYL, as shown in Fig.2.12. The wall yield locus gives the maximum
shear stress τw, which can act between the powder and the wall as a function of the
normal stress σw on the wall. As indicated in Fig.2.12 the wall yield locus generally
lies below the steady state yield locus SSYL. A perfectly smooth wall would, on the
other hand, have a WYL identical to σn axis. Usually WYL is somewhat curved, but
for practical purposes the wall yield locus is approximated by a straight line from
tensile stress σo on σn axis, as shown by the line in Fig.2.12. The angle between this
straight line and σn axis is called the wall friction angle ϕo.

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2.5 Time consolidation of powders:
So far only the flow properties of powders during continuous flow or
including only very short stationary periods, have been considered. Generally these
are called instantaneous flow properties. However, of a powder is left stationary, its
strength nearly always will increase, although the stresses may be constant. This
phenomenon is called time consolidation. There are many possible causes of time
consolidation. It may be a compaction process, simply kind of a slow viscous flow
where is powder is greatly compacted into smaller volume by the constant external
compressive stresses, giving higher bulk density and a higher strength. Time
consolidation may also be caused by change in the nature of the binding forces
between the particles causing dramatic increase in the powder strength. In most cases
time consolidated powder will regain their instantaneous flow properties as soon as
flow has re-commenced, and all the extra bindings caused by time consolidation will
be broken, and in such cases the instantaneous flow properties will have changed after
time consolidation. Graphically, time consolidation appears as shown in Fig.2.13
where an instantaneous yield locus YL together with corresponding time
consolidation yield locus TYL. As explained above, the strength of the powder
increases with time, thus the time consolidation yield locus TYL is situated above
instantaneous yield locus YL. Correspondingly, the time flow function FFt is situated
above the instantaneous flow function FF as shown in the Fig.2.14.

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2.5.1 Time Consolidation tests:
Using Jenike method, the time consolidation effect is determined
experimentally using nearly the same procedure as for determining the instantaneous
flow properties, as described previously. After instantaneous yield locus YL has been
determined, the corresponding time yield locus TYL is determined by filling the cell,
consolidating the powder and doing the steady shear test in the same way as for the
instantaneous test. After steady state has been obtained, however, the packed cell is
left with a load on the lid corresponding to a normal stress equal to sigma1 on the
shear plane. The cell is locked into a sealed container to prevent any change in its
condition. It is also essential that there are no vibrations or other disturbances to the
cell during this period. After the desired time corresponding to duration of the time
consolidation which is to be tested has elapsed, the shear test is performed as before,
giving one point of the TYL. In order to obtain full time yield locus TYL as shown in
Fig.2.13, the same procedure has to be performed on several powder samples using
the same consolidation and steady state loads, and in order to determine the time flow
function FFt as shown in Fig.2.14, several time yield loci have to be determined.
Time consolidation also affects the WYL and hence need to be evaluated
similar to the procedure as given earlier.

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2.6 The Jenike method of determination of critical outlet widths for flow in mass
flow hoppers:
To avoid arching across the outlet, its width has to be larger than a critical
value, the critical outlet width, as previously stated. To decide whether arching is
possible or not, the strength of the powder has to be known, and also the stresses
required to carry weight of a possible arch.
The strength of the powder depends on the degree of consolidation of the
powder, given by the major consolidation stress,σ1 during flow. Jenike found that in
the lower part of the hopper σ1 is proportional to the width B between the hopper
walls at the actual level of arch.
σ1 = KgρB (2.5)
where ρ is bulk density of the powder, g is the acceleration of gravity and K is a
constant given by the hopper geometry, the effective angle of internal friction, δ, and
the wall friction angle ϕ’.
Stresses necessary to carry the weight of the arch can be calculated as given in details
by Jenike [1]. Therefore for conical hoppers one finally has the general expression for
both wedge shaped and conical hoppers as given by
σ1b = Bρg/(1+m) (2.6)
where m=o for wedge shaped and m=1 for conical shaped hoppers.
Hence both the consolidation stress σ1 during flow and the arching stress σ1b are
proportional to the width of the hopper, and the ratio ff of these two stresses therefore
be a constant.
ff= σ1/σ1b (2.7)
Jenike introduced this parameter ff and named flow factor. By means of flow factor
critical widths are calculated. The actual values of the flow factor were calculated by
Jenike and are given in terms of charts in the bulletin[1]. Having determined the value
of flow factor, the arching stress σ1b is plotted in the same diagram as the flow
function as shown in Fig.(2.10). To the left of crossing point with the flow function,
the arching stress σ1b is less than strength fc of the powder, and there will be stable
arches. To the right σ1b is larger than fc, and arching is impossible. Hence the
crossing point fc*=σ1* gives the critical outlet width Bm which is given by
Bm= (1+m) σ1*/ρg (2.8)

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Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
Jenike has however fount it necessary to introduce a safety factor H(θ), since the
arches have more stable geometries than assumed in the analysis. The formula
therefore used is therefore
Bm= H(θ)σ1*/ρg (2.9)
H(θ) also replaces the factor (1+m) and is given in terms of standard chart in Bulletin
[1]. Typical values for conical hoppers is 2.3
After time consolidation the critical outlet width is determined in a same way,
only using the time flow function instead of instantaneous flow function.

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 20

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Chapter 3

Results and discussion

In order to arrive at suitable configuration for coal storage silo at NTPC,

Ramagundam for phase III, flowability studies for coal samples from Deepka mines,
SECL, Korba, are carried out at various conditions using Jenike shear tester as
summarized in Table 1. All the experiments are carried out as per standard EUR14022
formulated by Commission of the European Bureau of References. Brief outline of
the procedures are reported previous chapter.

Table: Summery of experimental conditions for Jenike shear tests

Parameter Parameter levels

Consolidation levels 7, 10, 14 Kpa

Time Consolidation 0,12,24,48,72 hrs.

Moisture Content 5,10,16,24 %

3.1 Evaluation of instantaneous Yield locus:

Coal Samples obtained from the site as mentioned above are sampled for
getting representative samples for flowability studies using standard technique like
coning and quartering. In order to find out instantaneous flowability of the coal as a
function of moisture content shear testes are carried out at three consolidation levels
as reported in Table1. In order to know the complete behavior of given coal samples
flowability tests are also carried out at 0.5 and 27% moisture content levels. Results
for instantaneous shear testing for both yield locus and wall yield locus are reported in
Appendix-1. Appendix-2 gives time consolidation shear test results for 24% moisture
content at 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours storage time.
To illustrate the methodology for arriving at flow function of the given
samples, representative yield locus data at 7,10 and 15 Kpa consolidation levels is
given in Fig.3.1, 3.2 & 3.3 respectively. As can be seen from these figures, shear
stress is found to be an almost linear function of normal stress at all moisture levels.

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 21

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.1: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus

0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 7.8441 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= 45.949o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 22

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.2: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

12
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 11.266 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= 42.925o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 23

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.3: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.430 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= 41.465o
Phi=

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 24

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.4: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.430 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= 41.465o
Phi= 32.748o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 25

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.5: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.430 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= 41.465o
Phi= 23.816o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 26

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Therefore instantaneous yield locus is evaluated using least square regression
technique having typical correlation coefficients above 0.95 indicating satisfactoriness
of the approach. Then larger Mohr circle representing all possible stress conditions of
the sample at steady state flow is drawn such that it is tangent to the already evaluated
yield locus to arrive at one of the powder specific characteristics known as Major
Consolidation Stress. Effective angle of internal friction, δ, can now be evaluated by
drawing a line passing through origin and tangential to the bigger Mohr circle. In
order to find out the strength of the arch, which may form due to interparticle
cohesive forces at the outlet as explained earlier, another Mohr circle is drawn passing
through the origin of the plot, which is also tangent to the yield locus resulting in
second powder specific characteristic Unconfined Yield Strength. From above
analysis three flow functions defined as ratio of Major Consolidation Stress to
Unconfined Yield Stress are evaluated corresponding to three consolidation levels.
Further, Unconfined Yield Strength of coal samples is plotted as function of Major
Consolidation Stress to achieve instantaneous Flow Function Curve at different
moisture content levels as depicted in Fig.3.6 for the results given in Appendix-1. As
can be seen from the figure, instantaneous flow function of given coal samples can
also be considered to be linear satisfactorily.

18

16

14
Unconfined Yield Stress,(kpa)

12

10

8
24% Moisture
6
10%Moisture
4 16% Moisture
21%Moisture
2 5%Moisture

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Major Consolidation Stress,(Kpa)

Fig.3.6 Instantaneous Flow function of coal at various moisture content levels

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 27

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 In order to evaluate the wall particle friction for given coal samples shear tests
are carried out by shearing coal samples against the wall material samples like Mild
Steel and stainless steel of grade SS409M/2B finish as explained already in earlier
sections. The data for wall shear stress as a function of normal stress for Mild steel
and stainless steel is plotted in Fig.3.4 and 3.5 respectively. These are further fitted
using least square regression analysis to arrive at Wall Yield Locus. The angle of wall
friction, ϕ, can therefore be evaluated by drawing line through origin up to the
intersection point of Wall Yield Locus and bigger Mohr circle for corresponding
Yield Locus data. As can also be observed from these figures, the inter particle
friction is considerably less in case of Stainless steel as compared to Mild steel.
Therefore for given coal sample having known effective angle of internal friction and
angle of wall friction, flow factor indicating flow channel characteristics can be
evaluated using standard charts which also decides the corresponding half conical
angle for the mass flow hopper as proposed by Jenike[1]. Once the flow factor (ff) is
known it is plotted along with the flow function of the concerned coal sample and so
called critical stress characteristic of flow-no flow criteria, is evaluated which is a
direct function of the minimum outlet width for known bulk density of sample of the
mass flow silo as illustrated in Fig.2.10 and given by eq.(2.9). Thus the minimum
outlet dimension and half conical angle for the mass flow silo can be arrived at for
coal sample of given moisture content level. Similar procedure is followed for all the
samples having different moisture content levels.

3.2 Effect of moisture content on instantaneous flow function:

As can be observed from the instantaneous Yield locus data, corresponding
Major consolidation stress and Unconfined Yield Strength from Appendix-1,
flowability of the given coal particles reduces as a function of moisture content
indicating poor flow properties as expected. As can also be confirmed from Fig.3.6,
flow function gets upward with increasing moisture content. When instantaneous flow
function values at given consolidation level are plotted as a function of moisture
content of coal a definite trend as depicted in Fig.3.7, which indicates the effect of
moisture content on flowability of coal at 7Kpa consolidation level. Similar trends are
also observed in case of other consolidation levels confirming the behavior. It can also
be observed from above figure that rate of increase of difficulties in instantaneous

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 28

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
coal powder flow goes on decreasing with moisture content of coal. As the moisture
content increases a limit is reached after which there is insignificant change in
flowability. Thus, moisture content after which effect of moisture content levels off
can be considered as Saturation point for moisture content effect. From the figure it is
evident that 21% moisture content represents saturation moisture content for given
coal samples. Correspondingly the expected change in minimum dimensions outlet
opening for silo is not significant after this moisture content.

6
FF at 7 Kpa

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
% moisture

Fig.3.7 Effect of Moisture content on flow function of coal at 7Kpa consolidation

level

3.3 Evaluation of Time Yield Locus and Time Flow Function:

In order to find out the gain in the strength acquired by the coal as a function
of storage time, shear tests are carried out by preshearing the corresponding coal
samples at all moisture content levels indicated in Table 1, followed by keeping them
for predefined times of 12,24,48 and 72 hours respectively under the preshear normal
loads. After the given time has elapsed samples are sheared in the similar way as
explained in earlier sections. In these cases since samples are presheared before
keeping for time consolidation there is only shear points in the yield locus. This
resulting yield locus is known as Time Yield Locus. Typical time yield locus for
moisture content level of 24% and for 24 hours storage time at three consolidation
levels is shown in Fig. 3.8, 3.9 and 3.10 respectively.

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 29

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.8: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 14Kpa for storage time of 24hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks:
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

12
24hrs,14Kpa
Shear Stress,(kpa)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 19.797Kpa
Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 30

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.9: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 10Kpa for storage time of 24hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks:
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

10
24hrs,10Kpa
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

8
6

4
2
0
0 5 10 15
Normal Stress,(kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.412 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 31

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.3.10: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 7Kpa for storage time of 24hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks:
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

6
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

5 24hrs,7Kpa
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 9.427Kpa
Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 32

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
Results for other time consolidation at 24% moisture levels are given in Appendix-2.
As can be observed from these figures shear stress is proportional to normal stress in
almost linear manner again. The time yield loci are observed to be shifting upwards
almost in parallel with respect to instantaneous yield locus indicating increase in
strength acquired by coal samples a result of time consolidation. How ever the
increase in upward shift decreases as a function of time. Here in this case also the
time yield locus are evaluated using least square analysis. After getting time yield
locus, the Mohr circle is drawn through origin such that it is tangent to time yield
locus. This gives unconfined yield strength of the corresponding samples. Flow
function of coal samples after time consolidation of 12, 24, 48 and 72 hours at
moisture content level of 24% is calculated for corresponding unconfined yield
strengths and are depicted in Fig.3.11.
Time flow function is then defined as the ratio of instantaneous Major
Consolidation Strength to time Unconfined Yield strength. In order to evaluate the
effect of storage time on time flow function, later is plotted as function of former for
coal sample having 24% moisture content and at 10 Kpa consolidation level shown in
Fig.3.12. Again in this case the effect of time on time flow function is found to be
leveling off after approximately 24hrs. There is hardly any increase in coal strength
after this time level indicating that for given samples maximum strength is gained in
24 hours.

25
Unconfined Yield Stress,(Kpa)

20

15

T:0
10
T:24
T:48
5
T:12
T:72
0
0 10 20 30 40
Major Consolidation Stress,(Kpa)

Fig.3.11: Time Flow functions of coal samples at various storage times

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 33

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 2

1.9

1.8

1.7

1.6
FF

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
10Kpa
1
0 20 40 60 80
Time(hrs)

Fig.3.12 Effect of time consolidation on flow function at moisture content of 24% and
at 10Kpa consolidation level.

Correspondingly minimum dimension of outlet for mass flow hopper is almost similar
after 24hrs. of storage. Similarly effect of time consolidation on the angle of wall
friction is evaluated by keeping presheared coal samples on the given wall materials
for time periods as indicated earlier. But the increase in wall friction angle was found
to be very less as compared to flow function.

3.4 Effect of moisture and time consolidation on wall friction angle:

Wall friction angles for wall material of Mild steel and stainless steel of type
SS409M are evaluated for all the moisture contents as explained above and
corresponding results are reported in Appendix-1. As can be observed from the results
any appreciable effect of the moisture content on angle of wall is not evident. The
wall friction thus is found to be varying around 310 and 230 in case of Mild steel and
stainless steel respectively. Also the effect of time consolidation on the angle of wall
friction was found to be in the range of 1-1.50 increase in angle of wall friction
causing changes in flow properties, which are not significant.

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 34

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
3.5 Design of proposed coal silo:
As is evident from above studies moisture content and time consolidation is
having a definite effect on the silo parameters. Hence proposed silo is designed by
evaluating critical stress of coal sample having 24% moisture content and after 72
hours of time consolidation. This sample is found to be having effective angle of
internal friction of 490. The critical stress for above conditions is found to be 3.789
Kpa for flow factor value of 1.3 using standard charts proposed by Jenike[1]. Further
using a safety factor, H(θ), of 2.3 the minimum outlet diameter of the proposed mass
flow silo is found to be 914mm
Governing Angle of wall friction in case of SS409M is found to be 250 as
compared to 31.50 for mild steel resulting in half cone angle for mass flow hopper of
170 and 80 respectively. Therefore in case of proposed silo it is recommended that the
half cone angle of 170 be employed to achieve mass flow from the hopper thus
necessitating hopper wall material to be Stainless Steel of grade SS409M/2B finish to
increase the volumetric efficiency of the silo. Cylindrical portion of the silo however
is to be constructed using mild steel as per IS2062. As per the guidelines provided by
NTPC, the silo diameter is decided to be 8500mm along with 27276mm of total
height. Hopper length is found out to be 12406mm as compared to cylindrical portion
length of 14870mm. Detailed configuration for proposed silo is given in the following
drawing.

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 35

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 8500 φ

14870

MS as per IS:2062
(Cylindrical Portion)

730

12406

914φ
All dimensions are in mm.

Powder Science & Technology Laboratory

Dept. of Chemical Engg.,
Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi
Project: Ramagundam Super Thermal Power project, stage III
Title: Proposed coal Bunker configuration
Ref.no.:01/PSTL/NTPC Date:30-12-2001

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 36

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 References

1. A. W. Jenike, Storage and flow of solids, Utah Univ. Eng. Exp. Stn. Bull. 123,
(1974)
2. A. W. Roberts, Bulk Solids Handling: recent developments and future
directions, Bulk Solids Handling, 11, March 1991, 17-35
3. O. Molerus, Theory of Cohesive Powders, Powder Technology, 12 (1975),
265-275
4. Ramanan, P., S. Rao, S.C. Babu, B.Pitchumani, The effect of size distribution
and fines on the flow properties of raw mix in a cement plant, Bulk Solids
Handling, 17, April 1997, 253-256
5. O. Molerus, Effect of particle size distributions on flow properties of powders,
Powder Technology, 20 (1978), 161-175
6. A. K. Sharma, B.Pitchumani, G.G. Enstad, A simplified procedure for flow
property testing using Jenike Shear Tester, 5th Int. Conf. On Bulk Materials,
Storage, Handling and Conveying, The institute of Engineers, Australia, 1995
7. G. G. Enstad, S.R. De Silva, B.Pitchumani, V.K.Srivastava, Short course
Storage and Transport of Particulate Solids, 1-3July 1986, I.I.T, Delhi

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 37

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Appendix-1

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 38

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.1: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 0.5% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks:
Powder: Deepka Mines 0.5% moisture, 0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 10-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

0
0 10 20
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 2.0818 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.879 Kpa
Delta= 41.2960o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 39

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.2: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 0.5% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 0.5% moisture, 0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa, Instantaneous
Time/Date: 10-12-01
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 4.5375 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 25.273 Kpa
Delta= 41.861o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 40

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.3: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 0.5% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 0.5% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M Wall Material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa, Instantaneous
Time/Date: 10-12-01

20

15
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

10

5
Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 15 30 45
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 4.4075 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 39.711 Kpa
Delta= 42.338o
Phi= 24.088o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 41

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.4: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 0.5% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 0.5% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS Wall Material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 10-12-01

20

15
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

10

5
Yield Locus
WallYield Locus
0
0 15 30 45
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 4.4075 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 39.711 Kpa
Delta= 42.338o
Phi= 31.547o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 42

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.5: Instantaneous yield locus for 5% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 5% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 9-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 3.0084 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.092 Kpa
Delta= 40.709o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 43

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.6: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 5% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 5% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 9-12-01

12
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 5.7492 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 24.785 Kpa
Delta= 41.97o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 44

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.7: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 5% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 5% moisture, 0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS wall Material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 9-12-01

20
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

15

10

5 Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 6.7355 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 38.045 Kpa
Delta= 41.927o
Phi= 31.021o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 45

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.8: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 5% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 5% moisture, 0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa, Instantaneous
Time/Date: 9-12-01

20
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

15

10

5 Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 15 30 45
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 6.7355 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 38.045 Kpa
Delta= 41.927o
Phi= 21.639o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 46

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.9: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 10% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 10% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 9-12-01

8
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 4.5349 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 14.463 Kpa
Delta= 39.35o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 47

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.10: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 10% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 10% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 19-12-01
12
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 7.2070 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.965 Kpa
Delta= 39.931o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 48

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.11: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 10% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 10% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 19-12-01

18
Shear Stress, (kpa)

12

6
Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 6.7249 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 38.825 Kpa
Delta= 42.417o
Phi= 31.748o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 49

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.12: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 10% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 10% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 19-12-01

18
Shear Stress, (kpa)

12

6
Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 6.7249 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 38.825 Kpa
Delta= 42.417o
Phi= 20.505o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 50

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.13: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 16% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 16% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

8
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 8 16
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 6.0317 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 13.773 Kpa
Delta= 40.008o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 51

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.14: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 16% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 16% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

12
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 7.111 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.445 Kpa
Delta= 40.72o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 52

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.15: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 16% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 16% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 13.054 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 33.797 Kpa
Delta= 41.609o
Phi= 30.635o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 53

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.16: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 16% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 16% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 13.054 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 33.797 Kpa
Delta= 41.609o
Phi= 22.281o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 54

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.17: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (Kpa)

Yield Locus

0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 7.8441 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= 45.949o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 55

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.18: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

12
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 11.266 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= 42.925o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 56

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.19: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam MS wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.430 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= 41.465o
Phi= 32.748o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 57

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.20: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 24% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus
0
0 10 20 30 40
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.430 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= 41.465o
Phi= 23.816o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 58

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.21: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 27% moisture at 7Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 27% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 6-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (kpa)

Yield Locus
0
0 8 16
Noraml Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 8.420 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 14.572 Kpa
Delta= 44.945o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 59

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.22: Instantaneous yield locus of coal for 27% moisture at 10Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 27% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

10
Shear Stress, (kpa)

8
6
4
2 Yield Locus
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal Stress, (Kpa)

Sigma_C= 13.464 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 18.955 Kpa
Delta= 45.330o
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 60

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A1.23: Instantaneous and wall yield locus of coal for 27% moisture at 14Kpa]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 16% moisture,0hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam SS409M wall material
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Instantaneous
Time/Date: 8-12-01

16
Shear Stress, (kpa)

8
Yield Locus
Wall Yield Locus

0
0 20 40
Normal Stress, (kpa)

Sigma_C= 15.866 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 34.587 Kpa
Delta= 43.616o
Phi= 23.699o

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 61

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Appendix-2

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 62

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.1: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 14Kpa for storage time of 12hrs.]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,12hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 18-12-01

12

10 12hrs,14Kpa
Shear stress,(Kpa)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 19.143 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 63

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.2: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 10Kpa for storage time of 12hrs.]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,12hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 18-12-01

10
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

8 12hrs,10Kpa

6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress,(kpa)

Sigma_C= 13.342 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 64

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.3: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 7Kpa for storage time of 12hrs.]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,12hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 18-12-01

6
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

5 12hrs,7Kpa

4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 8.412 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 65

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.4: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 14Kpa for storage time of 24hrs.]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

12
24hrs,14Kpa
Shear Stress,(kpa)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 19.797Kpa
Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 66

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.5: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 10Kpa for storage time of 24hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

10
24hrs,10Kpa
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

8
6

4
2
0
0 5 10 15
Normal Stress,(kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.412 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 67

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.6: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 7Kpa for storage time of 24hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,24hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 15-12-01

6
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

5 24hrs,7Kpa
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 9.427Kpa
Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 68

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.7: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 14Kpa for storage time of 48hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,48hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 17-12-01

12
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

10 48hrs,14Kpa

8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 20.451 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 69

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.8: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 10Kpa for storage time of 48hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,48hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 17-12-01

10
48hrs,10Kpa
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

8
6

4
2
0
0 5 10 15
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 14.871 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 21.314 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 70

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.9: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 7Kpa for storage time of 48hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,48hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 17-12-01

6
48hrs,7Kpa
Shear stress,(Kpa)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10
Normal Stress,(kpa)

Sigma_C= 9.392 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 71

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.10: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 14Kpa for storage time of 72hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,72hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 14Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 21-12-01

12
72hrs,14Kpa
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 20.722 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 32.371 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 72

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.11: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 10Kpa for storage time of 72hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,72hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 10Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 21-12-01

10
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

72 hrs,10Kpa
8
6
4
2
0
0 5 10 15 20
Normal Stress,(Kpa)

Sigma_C= 15.001 Kpa

Sigma_Y=
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 73

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi
 Jenike Powder Flow Analysis
[Fig.A2.12: Time Yield Locus of coal at 24% moisture & 7Kpa for storage time of 72hrs]
Sample: Coal Remarks
Powder: Deepka Mines 24% moisture,72hrs.
Company: NTPC,Ramagundam
Expt. Type: 7Kpa,Time consolidation
Time/Date: 21-12-01

6
72hrs,7Kpa
Shear Stress,(Kpa)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 5 10 15
Normal Stress,(kpa)

Sigma_C= 10.525 Kpa

Sigma_Y= 16.581 Kpa
Delta= -
Phi= -

Particle Science & Technology Laboratory, 74

Dept. of Chemical Engineering, I.I.T, Delhi