SQL Notes

Q. What is a Database?
- A Database is an Organised Collection of Data in a Format that Can Be Easily
Accessed or stored in a Computer System.
- A Software Application used to manage our Database is Called Database
Management System
- Users Use Database Management System(DBMS) to access Database.
- Databases are of 2 Types:
1. Relational Databases(SQL) - Data Stored in Tabular Format
2. Non-Relational Databases(NoSQL) - Data Stored in Non-Tabular Format

Q. What is SQL?
- Stands for Structured Query Language.
- SQL is a Programming Language used to interact with relational databases.
- SQL is a Case Insensitive Language.
- SQL is Used to perform CRUD operations: Create, Read, Update, and Delete.

Database Structure

- Here a Table is a Collection of Rows and Columns.

- Columns represent Schema/Attribute.
- Rows Represent Records.

Creating and Deleting Database

Syntax: CREATE DATABASE db_name;
Example: CREATE DATABASE university;

Syntax: DROP DATABASE db_name;

Example: DROP DATABASE university;
Creating Table
Syntax: USE db_name;
Example: USE university;

Syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name(

column_name1 datatype constraint,
column_name2 datatype constraint,
column_name3 datatype constraint,
);

Example: CREATE TABLE student(

Id INT PRIMARY KEY,
Name VARCHAR(50),
Age INT NOT NULL,
);

Insert Data Into Tables

Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name VALUES(x,”y”,z)
Example: INSERT INTO student VALUES (1,”Piush Das”,20)
INSERT INTO student VALUES (2,”Sibayan Banik”,22)
INSERT INTO student VALUES (3,”Raman Paul”,23)

SQL Datatypes
- In SQL, data types define the kind of data that can be stored in a column or
Variable.
Types of SQL Commands

- DDL(Data Definition Language): create, alter, rename, truncate and drop

- DQL(Data Query Language): select
- DML(Data Manipulation Language): insert, update, and delete
- DCL(Data Control Language): grant and revoke permissions to users
- TCL(Transaction Control Language): start transaction, commit, rollback

View Tables and Databases

Syntax: SHOW DATABASES;

Syntax: SHOW TABLES;

Table Related Queries

Syntax: SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example: SELECT * FROM students;
-It Will output all the rows of the student table in tabular format

Keys in Databases

Primary Key:
- It is a Column(or set of columns) in a table that uniquely identifies each row.
- Primary Key is Unique and Not Null.
- There is Only 1 Primary Key in a Table.

Foreign Key:
- It is a Column(or set of columns) in a table that refers to the primary key of
another table.
- Foreign Keys can have Duplicate and Null Values.
- There can be Multiple Foreign Key in a Table.

Constraints
SQL constraints are used to specify rules for data in a table.

- NOT NULL: Columns Cannot Have Null Values.

Constraints
Syntax: column_name datatype NOT NULL
Example: name varchar(50) NOT NULL;
 - UNIQUE: All Values in Columns Should be Different.
Syntax: column_name datatype UNIQUE;
Example: name varchar(50) UNIQUE;

- PRIMARY KEY: Makes a Column Not Null and Unique but used only for one
column which would uniquely identify a row
Syntax: column_name datatype PRIMARY KEY;
Example: ID int Primary Key;

- FOREIGN KEY: Used to create links between two tables.

- Example: CREATE TABLE emp(
emp_id int,
FOREIGN KEY(emp_id) references manager(id)
):

- DEFAULT: Sets the default Value of a Column.

Syntax: column_name datatype DEFAULT value;
Example: salary int DEFAULT 25000;

- CHECK: It can limit all the values allowed in a column.

Example: CREATE TABLE temp(
age INT CHECK (age >= 18
);

Where Clause
To Define Some Condition

Syntax:
SELECT column FROM table_name
WHERE conditions;

Example:
SELECT * FROM students
WHERE marks > 80 ;
Using Operators in WHERE

- Arithmetic Operators : +(addition) , -(subtraction), *(multiplication), /(division),

%(modulus)

- Comparison Operators : = (equal to), != (not equal to), > , >= , <, <=

- Logical Operators: AND, OR, NOT, IN, BETWEEN, ALL, LIKE, ANY

- Bitwise Operators : & (Bitwise AND), | (Bitwise OR)

Limit Clause
Sets an upper limit on the number of (tuples)rows to be returned

Syntax:
SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name
LIMIT number;

Example:
SELECT * FROM student
LIMIT 3;

Order By Clause
To sort in ascending (ASC) or descending order (DESC)

Syntax:
SELECT col1, col2 FROM table_name
ORDER BY col_name(s) ASC;

Example:
SELECT * FROM student
ORDER BY city ASC;

Aggregate Functions
Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single value.

COUNT( ) , MAX( ) , MIN( ) , SUM( ) , AVG( )

Group By Clause
- Groups rows that have the same values into summary rows.
- It collects data from multiple records and groups the result by one or more
columns.
- Generally, we use group by with some aggregation function.

Example: Count the number of students in each city

SELECT count(name), city;
FROM student
GROUP BY city;

Having Clause
Similar to Where i.e. applies some condition on rows.
Used when we want to apply any condition after grouping.

Example: Count the number of students in each city where max marks cross 90.
SELECT count(name), city;
FROM student
GROUP BY city
HAVING max(marks)>90;

General Order

SELECT column(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column(s)
HAVING condition
ORDER BY column(s) ASC;

Table related Queries

UPDATE: to update existing rows

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET col1 = val1, col2 = val2
WHERE condition;
Example:
UPDATE student
SET grade = ‘S’
WHERE grade = ‘A’ ;

DELETE: to delete existing rows

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example:
DELETE FROM student
WHERE marks < 33 ;

ALTER TABLE table_name;

ADD Column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD COLUMN column_name datatype constraint;

DROP Column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;

RENAME Table
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME TO new_table_name;

CHANGE Column (rename)

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
CHANGE COLUMN old_name new_name new_datatype new_constraint;

MODIFY Column (Modify Datatype, Constraint)

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY col_name new_datatype new_constraint ;
TRUNCATE - Delete Table‘s Data
Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name ;

Cascading for FK

On Delete Cascade
- When we create a foreign key using this option, it deletes the referencing rows in
the child table.
- When the referenced row is deleted in the parent table which has a primary key.

On Update Cascade
- When we create a foreign key using UPDATE CASCADE the referencing rows
are updated in the child table.
- When the referenced row is updated in the parent table which has a primary key.

Example:
CREATE TABLE student(
Id INT PRIMARY KEY,
courseID INT,
FOREIGN KEY(courseID) REFERENCES course(id)
ON DELETE CASCADE
ON UPDATE CASCADE
);

Joins in SQL
Join is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on a related column
between them.

Inner Join
Returns records that have matching values in both tables
Syntax:
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA INNER JOIN tableB
On tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

LEFT JOIN
Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records from
the right table

Syntax:
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA LEFT JOIN tableB
On tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

RIGHT JOIN
Returns all records from the right table, and the matched records from
the left table

Syntax:
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA RIGHT JOIN tableB
On tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

FULL JOIN
Returns all records when there is a match in either the left or right table
Syntax:
SELECT column(s)
FROM tableA FULL JOIN tableB
On tableA.col_name = tableB.col_name;

SQL Sub Queries

A Subquery or Inner query or a Nested query is a query within another SQL query.
It Involves Two Select Statements.

Syntax for Subquery in Where Clause:

SELECT column(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE col_name operator
(subquery);

Syntax for Subquery in From Clause:

SELECT column(s)
FROM (subquery) ;

Views in SQL
A view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW viewname AS
SELECT column(s) FROM table_name ;

● A View always shoes up-to-date data. The database engine recreates the view,
everytime a user queries it.