SQL(Structured Query Language ) is a standard language for accessing and manipulating

databases.

SQL commands are used to create ,retreivw and manipulate database from RDBMS

(Relational Database Management System)

Features of SQL

1. It can retrieve data from a database through query processing.

2. It can insert records in a database.
3. It can update records in a database.
4. It can create new records in a database and modify the existing ones.
5. It can create new tables in a database.
6. It can create views in a database.
7. It can allow modifying security settings for the system.

Advantages of SQL

1. Ease of Use
2. No coding required
3. Portable
4. SQL is not case sensitive
5. Large volume of database can be handled quite easily
6. Powerful language
7. Reliable

Classification of SQLStatements are divided into four parts

DDL(Data Definition Language) To create database and table structure-commands like

CREATE(DB) , CREATE(TABLE,),USE,(open )ALTER , DROP etc.

DML (Data Manipulation Language) Record/rows related operations.commands like SELECT....,

INSERT..., DELETE..., UPDATE.... etc.

DCL (Data Control Language) Used to control the transactions.commands like COMMIT,
ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT etc.

Transactional control Language. used to manipulate permissions or access rights to the

tables.commands like GRANT , REVOKE etc

SQL Datatypes

It is classified into 3 types

1. Numeric
2. Non-Numeric
3. Date-time

Numeric types are

 a. Interger (int)
b. Decimal(x,y) where x is the size of the number and y is the precision of the digit

Ex Salary DECIMAL(5,2) salary 500.45

Non-Numeric Types

c. Character (char)

Ex: Name CHAR( 10)

d. Variable character( Varchar(x) )

Ex Name varchar(10)

e. Date Date

Ex: yyyy/mm/dd format we have to follow

2005/09/30

f. Time Time

Ex: hh:mm:ss

12:30:25

What is constraints?
A constraint is a condition or check applicable on a field or a set of fields

Creating Table with Constraints

The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

NOT NULL -It Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value
UNIQUE - It Ensures that all values in a column are different
PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely identifies each row in
a table
FOREIGN KEY - It Uniquely identifies a row/record in another table
CHECK - It Ensures that all values in a column satisfies a specific condition
DEFAULT - It Sets a default value for a column when no value is specified

SQL Statements
A statement or command is a combination of two or more clauses.
Sql statements are not case sensitive
Sql statements ends with a semicolon

DDL statements

1. Show Database: checking whether database exists or not

 Syntax
mysql> show databases;

2. Create Database: creating a database

Syntax
mysql> create database <database name>;
Ex: create school;

3. Open Database:opening a database

Syntax
mysql>USE <databasename>;
Ex: USE school;

4. Removing Database :
Syntax
mysql>Drop database <databasename>;
Ex: Drop database school;

5. CREATE TABLE
Syntax
mysql>CREATE TABLE<tablename> (Colname<data type>(size),
column<datatype>(size)...);

6. Show Table
mysql> show tables;

7. Show Table structure

mysql>Describe <table name> ;
mysql>desc tablename;

CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS TABLENAME(COL, DATATYPE(SIZE),.......)

1. Drop Table: delete table from database

Syntax: DROP TABLENAME;

Syntax DROP TABLE IF EXIST TABLENAME;

Eg: drop student;

2. Alter Table: This command is used to add,delete,modify column,datatype and

constraints
A) Add column:

Syntax: Alter table tablename ADD COLUMN-NAME datatype;

Eg: ALTER TABLE STUDENT ADD SECTION CHAR(1);

B) Drop column:

Syntax: Alter table tablename DROP column COLUMN-NAME;

EG: ALTER TABLE STUDENT DROP COLUMN SECTION ;

C) Modify column datatype:

Syntax: Alter table tablename MODIFY COLUMN-NAME datatype;

Eg: ALTER TABLE STUDENT MODIFY MARK (89.5);

D) Delete a constraint:

Syntax: Alter table table_name DROP COLUMN-NAME <CONSTRAINT>

ALTER TABLE STUDENT DROP ROLL NO PRIMARY KEY;

E) ALTER TABLE table_name(parent) ADD CONSTRAINT

column_name FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES
child_tablename (child_column_name );
Ex:

RENAME COLUMN NAME

ALTER TABLE TABLENAME CHANGE OLD COLUMNNAME NEW COLUMNNAME DATATYPE

(SIZE);

ALTER TABLE STIUDENT CHANGE COLUMN GENDER AGE INT;

7. Rename Table: used to rename a table

Syntax: RENAME OLD TABLE-NAME TO NEW TABLE-NAME;

Eg: Rename student to stud;

8. VIEWING TABLE

SYNTAX: DESCRIBE TABLENAME; or

DESC TABLENAME;

Eg: desc student; or

Describe student;

9. Shows the table structure

SYNTAX: SHOW tables;

10*. CREATE TABLE FROM EXISTING TABLE

CREATE TABLE TABLENAME AS

(SELECT COLUMN name ,

COLUMN name FROM TABLE-NAME WHERE COLUMN-NAME[CONSTRAINT]) ;

DML(Data manipulation Language): Data to be changed in the table

1. Inserting Data into Table

Syntax: INSERT INTO TABLENAME[COLUMN-LIST] VALUES(VALUE1,VALUE2….);

Eg: INSERT INTO Employee (ecode,ename,sex,grade,sal)

VALUES (101,’Ravi’,’M’ ,”E4’, 4670.00)

OR

INSERT INTO tablename values(val1,val2……);

2. Selected columns

Syntax: INSERT INTO tablename [COLUMN-LIST]

VALUES(val1,val2…..)

3. INSERTING NULL VALUES

4. INSERTING dates ‘yyyy/mm/dd’

5. UPDATE data in table

Syntax : UPDATE table-name SET columnname=value,column-name=value

WHERE <column-name=existing value or expression>;

Eg: UPDATE items SET ROL=400, QOH=700

WHERE ROL=300

Eg: UPDATE employee SET gross= gross*2

Where (grade =’E3’ Or grade=’E4’);

APPY COMMIT after making changes to your table

6. Delete the Rows

Syntax : DELETE FROM table-name WHERE Column-name=EXPRESSION OR VALUE;

Eg: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE GROSS <220;

Delete the whole contents DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE;

7. SELECT: items can be viewed/selected from the table

Syntax: SELECT column-name1 ,columnname2….. FROM table-name;

7.1 Selecting all columns

 Select * from table-name;

7.2 Select the column name in any order and the display will be also like that

7.3 Remove the duplicate data using DISTINCT keyword with SELECT statement.

SELECT DISTINCT (NAME ) FROM EMPLOYEE;

7.4 Selecting specific rows using WHERE clause

Syntax: SELECT column-name1 ,columnname2….. FROM table-name

WHERE condition;

7.5 Selecting specific rows using WHERE clause

Syntax: SELECT column-name1 ,columnname2….. FROM table-name

WHERE condition;

7.6 Using relational Operator AND Logical operator

SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DEPT=’IT’ AND EMPNO<> 005;

7.7 CONDITION based on range BETWEEN……... AND

Select rollNo from student where mark between 50 and 60;

7.8 Condition Based on pattern ---WILD CHARACTERS(% character matches any

substring)

(_) (UNDERSCORE) MATCHES ANY ONE CHARACTER

Select rollNo from student where NAME LIKE ‘%S’;

7.9 Condition based on a List _____IN & NOT-IN

IN finds rows that match in the list for the columns from the table

& NOT IN that does not match

Select * from students where STREAM IN (‘SCIENCE’, ‘COMMERCE’,’HUMANITIES’)

Select * from students where STREAM NOT IN (‘SCIENCE’,

‘COMMERCE’,’HUMANITIES’)

Searching for NULL

Select empno,ename from employee where deptno is null;

SQL provides a large collection of in-built function also called as library function that can be
used directly with SQL statements for performing calculations on data known as
 Relational operator
=,>,<,>=,<= <>
Logical operator
OR -|| ,AND (&&) ,NOT(!)

AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS

Aggregate functions

Aggregate functions returns a single value calculated from

a group of values for the query.

AVG(colname):

1. SELECT AVG(colname) FROM tablename where condition;

Ex: SELECT AVG(MARK) FROM STUD WHERE STREAM=’SCIENCE’;

SELECT ,AVG(MARK) as Average FROM STUD ;

2. MIN(colname): SELECT MIN(colname/Distinct colname) FROM

tablename where condition(optional);
3. MAX(colname): SELECT MAX(colname/Distinct colname) FROM
tablename where condition(optional);
4. COUNT(colname): SELECT COUNT(colname/Distinct colname) FROM
tablename where condition(optional);

I. count(*)- All

ii. count(distinct colname)- duplicate values read as one

Difference between Count(*) and Count(Column_name)

 Count(*): It counts all the rows, including those where all the
column values are null. It essentially counts the number of
records in the table.
Ex: SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name;

Count(col_name): This counts the number of non-null values

in the specified column. It does not count rows where the
value of the specified column is null.
Ex: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;

5. SUM(colname): SELECT SUM(colname/Distinct colname )

FROM tablename where condition(optional);

8. ORDER BY column_name[Ascending or descending order]

where condition(optional);
Select colname /colnames from tablename where
<condition> ORDER BY colname /colnames;

Ex: Select * From Employee Order By Grade Desc, Ename

Asc;
Select * From Employee where sal >5000

Order By Ecode ;

Performing Simple Calculation

Select 10*2;

Select empname,Sal*10;

CONSTRAINTS
Syntax
 1. FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINTS

CREATE TABLE TABLENAME(column datatype PRIMARY KEY,column

datatype,column datatype,FOREIGN KEY(colname) REFERENCES
CHILD_TABLENAME (COLNAME),column datatype );
OPTIONAL [ON DELETE CASCADE ON UPDATE CASCADE ]

2. CHECK CONSTRAINT
CREATE TABLE<tablename> (Column name<data type>(size), column name
<datatype>(size)...CHECK(COLUMNNAME<condition>);

3. DEFAULT CONSTRAINT
CREATE TABLE<tablename> (Column name<data type>(size), column name
<datatype>(size)..DEFAULT ‘DEFAULT NAME’);

MY SQL FUNCTIONS

1.STRING FUNCTIONS

Functions Descriptions ex:

CHAR() Returns the character for

each integer passed

CONCAT() Returns concatenated string

LOWER() Returns the argument in

lower case

UPPER() Returns to uppercase

TRIM() Removes the leading and

Trailing spaces

LENGTH() Returns the length of the

string

2. NUMERIC FUNCTIONS

MOD() Returns the remainder

POW() Returns the power to a value

ROUND() Returns the numeric expression

Rounded to an integer
 SQRT() Returns the square -root of
numeric expression

TRUNCATE() Returns the truncated value

3. DATE & TIME FUNCTION

DATE()

NOW()

YEAR()