9 Energy 9 Energy

Energy may be the

most familiar concept
in science, yet it is one
of the most difficult to
define. We observe the
effects of energy when
Energy can change from one something is
form to another without a net happening—only
loss or gain. when energy is being
transferred from one
place to another or
transformed from one
form to another.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

Work is the product of the force on an object and the
distance through which the object is moved: the quantity
force × distance
We do work when we lift a load against Earth’s gravity.
Work is done when a net force acts on an The heavier the load or the higher we lift it, the more work
object and the object moves in the direction we do.
of the net force.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

If the force is constant and the motion takes place in a If we lift two loads, we do twice as much work as lifting
straight line in the direction of the force, the work done on one load the same distance, because the force needed is
an object by a net force is the product of the force and the twice as great.
distance through which the object is moved. If we lift one load twice as far, we do twice as much work
work = net force × distance because the distance is twice as great.
W = Fd

1
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

Work is done in lifting the While the weight lifter is holding a
barbell. If the barbell could be barbell over his head, he may get
lifted twice as high, the weight really tired, but he does no work on
lifter would have to do twice as the barbell.
much work. Work may be done on the muscles
by stretching and squeezing them,
but this work is not done on the
barbell.
When the weight lifter raises the
barbell, he is doing work on it.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

Some work is done against another force. Some work is done to change the
• An archer stretches her bowstring, doing work speed of an object.
against the elastic forces of the bow. • Bringing an automobile up to
• When the ram of a pile driver is raised, work is speed or in slowing it down
required to raise the ram against the force of gravity. involves work.
• When youo do p push-ups,
sh ps you o do work
ork against your
o r • In both categories
categories, work
own weight. involves a transfer of energy
between something and its
surroundings.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

The unit of measurement for work combines a unit of Larger units are required to describe greater work.
force, N, with a unit of distance, m. • Kilojoules (kJ) are thousands of joules. The weight
• The unit of work is the newton-meter (N•m), also lifter does work on the order of kilojoules.
called the joule. • Megajoules (MJ) are millions of joules. To stop a
• One joule (J) of work is done when a force of 1 N is loaded truck going at 100 km/h takes megajoules of
exerted over a distance of 1 m (lifting an apple over work
work.
your head).

2
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.1 Work

think! think!
Suppose that you apply a 60-N horizontal force to a 32-kg Suppose that you apply a 60-N horizontal force to a 32-kg
package, which pushes it 4 meters across a mailroom floor. package, which pushes it 4 meters across a mailroom floor.
How much work do you do on the package? How much work do you do on the package?

Answer:
W = Fd = 60 N × 4 m = 240 J

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.1 Work 9.2 Power

Power equals the amount of work done divided by

When is work done on an object? the time interval during which the work is done.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.2 Power 9.2 Power

When carrying a load up some stairs, you do the same A high-power engine does work rapidly.
amount of work whether you walk or run up the stairs. • An engine that delivers twice the power of another
Power is the rate at which work is done. engine does not necessarily produce twice as much
work or go twice as fast.
• Twice the power means the engine can do twice the
work in the same amount of time or the same
amount of work in half the time.
• A powerful engine can get an automobile up to a
given speed in less time than a less powerful engine
can.

3
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.2 Power 9.2 Power

The unit of power is the joule per second, also known as The three main engines of the
the watt. space shuttle can develop
• One watt (W) of power is expended when one joule 33,000 MW of power when
of work is done in one second. fuel is burned at the
• One kilowatt (kW) equals 1000 watts. enormous rate of 3400 kg/s.
• One mega
megawatt
att (MW) equals
eq als one million watts.
atts

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.2 Power 9.2 Power

In the United States, we customarily rate engines in units think!
of horsepower and electricity in kilowatts, but either may If a forklift is replaced with a new forklift that has twice the
be used. power, how much greater a load can it lift in the same amount
In the metric system of units, automobiles are rated in of time? If it lifts the same load, how much faster can it
kilowatts. One horsepower (hp) is the same as 0.75 kW, operate?
so an engine rated at 134 hp is a 100-kW
100 kW engine.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.2 Power 9.2 Power

think!
If a forklift is replaced with a new forklift that has twice the
power, how much greater a load can it lift in the same amount
of time? If it lifts the same load, how much faster can it
operate?
How can you calculate power?
Answer:
The forklift that delivers twice the power will lift twice the load
in the same time, or the same load in half the time.

4
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.3 Mechanical Energy 9.3 Mechanical Energy

When work is done by an archer in drawing back a
bowstring, the bent bow acquires the ability to do work on
the arrow.
When work is done to raise the heavy ram of a pile driver,
The two forms of mechanical energy are kinetic the ram acquires the ability to do work on the object it hits
energy and potential energy. when it falls.
When work is done to wind a spring mechanism, the
spring acquires the ability to do work on various gears to
run a clock, ring a bell, or sound an alarm.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.3 Mechanical Energy 9.3 Mechanical Energy

Something has been acquired that enables the object to The property of an object or system that enables it to do
do work. work is energy. Like work, energy is measured in joules.
It may be in the form of a compression of atoms in the Mechanical energy is the energy due to the position of
material of an object; a physical separation of attracting something or the movement of something.
bodies; or a rearrangement of electric charges in the
molecules of a substance.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.3 Mechanical Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

Three examples of potential energy are elastic

potential energy, chemical energy, and
What are the two forms of mechanical energy?
gravitational potential energy.

5
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

An object may store energy by virtue of its position. Elastic Potential Energy
Energy that is stored and held in readiness is called A stretched or compressed spring has a potential for doing
potential energy (PE) because in the stored state it has work.
the potential for doing work.
When a bow is drawn back, energy is stored in the bow. The
bow can do work on the arrow.
A stretched rubber band has potential energy because of its
position.
These types of potential energy are elastic potential energy.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

Chemical Energy Gravitational Potential Energy
The chemical energy in fuels is also potential energy. Work is required to elevate objects against Earth’s gravity.
It is energy of position at the submicroscopic level. This The potential energy due to elevated positions is gravitational
energy is available when the positions of electric charges potential energy.
within and between molecules are altered and a chemical Water in an elevated reservoir and the raised ram of a pile
change takes place. driver have gravitational potential energy.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

The amount of gravitational potential energy possessed by Note that the height is the distance above some chosen
an elevated object is equal to the work done against gravity reference level, such as the ground or the floor of a
to lift it. building.
The upward force required while moving at constant The gravitational potential energy, mgh, is relative to that
velocity is equal to the weight, mg, of the object, so the level and depends only on mg and h.
work done in lifting it through a height h is the product mgh.
gravitational potential energy = weight × height
PE = mgh

6
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

The potential energy of the 100-N boulder with respect to the ground below The potential energy of the 100-N boulder with respect to the ground below
is 200 J in each case. is 200 J in each case.
a. The boulder is lifted with 100 N of force. a. The boulder is lifted with 100 N of force.
b. The boulder is pushed up the 4-m incline with 50 N of force.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

The potential energy of the 100-N boulder with respect to the ground below Hydroelectric power stations use gravitational potential
is 200 J in each case. energy.
a. The boulder is lifted with 100 N of force.
• Water from an upper reservoir flows through a long
b. The boulder is pushed up the 4-m incline with 50 N of force.
tunnel to an electric generator.
c. The boulder is lifted with 100 N of force up each 0.5-m stair.
• Gravitational potential energy of the water is converted
to electrical energy
energy.
• Power stations buy electricity at night, when there is
much less demand, and pump water from a lower
reservoir back up to the upper reservoir. This process is
called pumped storage.
• The pumped storage system helps to smooth out
differences between energy demand and supply.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.4 Potential Energy

think! think!
You lift a 100-N boulder 1 m. You lift a 100-N boulder 1 m.
a. How much work is done on the boulder? a. How much work is done on the boulder?
b. What power is expended if you lift the boulder in a time of 2 s? b. What power is expended if you lift the boulder in a time of 2 s?
c. What is the gravitational potential energy of the boulder in the lifted c. What is the gravitational potential energy of the boulder in the lifted
position?
p position?
p
Answer:
a. W = Fd = 100 N·m = 100 J
b. Power = 100 J / 2 s = 50 W
c. Relative to its starting position, the boulder’s PE is 100 J. Relative to
some other reference level, its PE would be some other value.

7
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.4 Potential Energy 9.5 Kinetic Energy

The kinetic energy of a moving object is equal to

the work required to bring it to its speed from
Name three examples of
rest or the work the object can do while being
rest,
potential energy.
brought to rest.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.5 Kinetic Energy 9.5 Kinetic Energy

If an object is moving, then it is capable of doing work. It When you throw a ball, you do work on it to give it speed as
has energy of motion, or kinetic energy (KE). it leaves your hand. The moving ball can then hit something
• The kinetic energy of an object depends on the mass and push it, doing work on what it hits.
of the object as well as its speed.
• It is equal to half the mass multiplied by the square of
the speed
speed.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.5 Kinetic Energy 9.5 Kinetic Energy

Note that the speed is squared, so if the speed of an object is
doubled, its kinetic energy is quadrupled (22 = 4).
• It takes four times the work to double the speed.
• An object moving twice as fast takes four times as much
work to stop.
How are work and the kinetic energy
of a moving object related?

8
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

To increase the kinetic energy of an object, work must be
done on the object.
If an object is moving, work is required to bring it to rest.
The change in kinetic energy is equal to the net work done.
The work-energy theorem states that whenever The work-energy theorem describes the relationship
work is done, energy changes. bet een work
between ork and energy.
energ

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

We abbreviate “change in” with the delta symbol, ∆ If there is no change in an object’s kinetic energy, then no net
Work = ∆KE work was done on it.
Work equals the change in kinetic energy. Push against a box on a floor.
The work in this equation is the net work—that is, the work • If it doesn’t slide, then you are not doing work on the
based on the net force. box.
• On a very
er slipper
slippery floor,
floor if there is no friction at all
all, the
work of your push times the distance of your push
appears as kinetic energy of the box.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

• If there is some friction, it is the net force of your push The work-energy theorem applies to decreasing speed as
minus the frictional force that is multiplied by distance to well.
give the gain in kinetic energy. The more kinetic energy something has, the more work is
• If the box moves at a constant speed, you are pushing just required to stop it.
hard enough to overcome friction. The net force and net Twice as much kinetic energy means twice as much work.
work are zero, and, according to the work work-energy
energy theorem,
∆KE = 0. The kinetic energy doesn’t change.

9
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

Due to friction, energy is transferred both into the floor and Due to friction, energy is transferred both into the floor and
into the tire when the bicycle skids to a stop. into the tire when the bicycle skids to a stop.
a. An infrared camera reveals the heated tire track on the a. An infrared camera reveals the heated tire track on the
floor. floor.
b. The warmth of the tire is also revealed.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

When a car brakes, the work is the friction force supplied by Typical stopping distances for cars equipped with
the brakes multiplied by the distance over which the friction antilock brakes traveling at various speeds. The work
force acts.
done to stop the car is friction force × distance of
A car moving at twice the speed of another has four times as
slide.
much kinetic energy, and will require four times as much work
to stop.
The frictional force is nearly the same for both cars, so the
faster one takes four times as much distance to stop.
Kinetic energy depends on speed squared.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

Typical stopping distances for cars equipped with Typical stopping distances for cars equipped with
antilock brakes traveling at various speeds. The work antilock brakes traveling at various speeds. The work
done to stop the car is friction force × distance of done to stop the car is friction force × distance of
slide. slide.

10
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

Kinetic energy often appears hidden in different forms of think!
energy, such as heat, sound, light, and electricity. A friend says that if you do 100 J of work on a moving cart,
• Random molecular motion is sensed as heat. the cart will gain 100 J of KE. Another friend says this
• Sound consists of molecules vibrating in rhythmic depends on whether or not there is friction. What is your
patterns. opinion of these statements?
• Light energy
energ originates in the motion of electrons within
ithin
atoms.
Electrons in motion make electric currents.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

think! think!
A friend says that if you do 100 J of work on a moving cart, When the brakes of a car are locked, the car skids to a stop.
the cart will gain 100 J of KE. Another friend says this How much farther will the car skid if it’s moving 3 times as
depends on whether or not there is friction. What is your fast?
opinion of these statements?

Answer:
Careful. Although you do 100 J of work on the cart, this may
not mean the cart gains 100 J of KE. How much KE the cart
gains depends on the net work done on it.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.6 Work-Energy Theorem 9.6 Work-Energy Theorem

think!
When the brakes of a car are locked, the car skids to a stop.
How much farther will the car skid if it’s moving 3 times as
fast?

Answer: What is the work-energy

work energy theorem?
Nine times farther. The car has nine times as much kinetic
energy when it travels three times as fast:

11
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

More important than knowing what energy is, is understanding
how it behaves—how it transforms.
We can understand nearly every process that occurs in nature
The law of conservation of energy states that energy if we analyze it in terms of a transformation of energy from
cannot be created or destroyed. It can be one form to another.
transformed from one form into another
another, but the
total amount of energy never changes.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

Potential energy will As you draw back the arrow in a bow, you do work stretching
become the kinetic the bow.
energy of the arrow. • The bow then has potential energy.
• When released, the arrow has kinetic energy equal to
this potential energy.
• It deli
delivers
ers this energy
energ to its target.
target

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

The small distance the arrow moves multiplied by the average The study of the forms of energy and the transformations from
force of impact doesn’t quite match the kinetic energy of the one form into another is the law of conservation of energy.
target. For any system in its entirety—as simple as a swinging
However, the arrow and target are a bit warmer by the energy pendulum or as complex as an exploding galaxy—there is one
difference. quantity that does not change: energy.
Energy changes from one form to another without a net loss Energy may change form
form, but the total energy stays the same
same.
or a net gain.

12
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

Part of the PE of the wound spring changes into KE. The Everywhere along the path of the pendulum bob, the sum of
remaining PE goes into heating the machinery and the PE and KE is the same. Because of the work done against
surroundings due to friction. No energy is lost. friction, this energy will eventually be transformed into heat.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

When the woman leaps from the Each atom that makes up matter is a concentrated bundle of
burning building, the sum of her PE energy.
and KE remains constant at each When the nuclei of atoms rearrange themselves, enormous
successive position all the way down amounts of energy can be released.
to the ground. The sun shines because some of its nuclear energy is
transformed into radiant energy
energy.
In nuclear reactors, nuclear energy is transformed into heat.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

Enormous compression due to gravity in the deep, hot interior • Another part supports life in the food chain that begins with
of the sun causes hydrogen nuclei to fuse and become helium microscopic marine animals and plants, and later gets
nuclei. stored in oil.
• This high-temperature welding of atomic nuclei is called • Part of the sun’s energy is used to evaporate water from the
thermonuclear fusion. ocean.
• This process releases radiant energy
energy, some of which • Some water returns to Earth as rain that is trapped behind a
reaches Earth. dam.
• Part of this energy falls on plants, and some of the plants
later become coal.

13
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.7 Conservation of Energy 9.7 Conservation of Energy

The water behind a dam has potential energy that is used to
power a generating plant below the dam.
• The generating plant transforms the energy of falling
water into electrical energy.
• Electrical energy travels through wires to homes where it
What does the law of conservation of
is used for lighting
lighting, heating
heating, cooking
cooking, and operating
energy state?
electric toothbrushes.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

A machine is a device used to multiply forces or simply to
change the direction of forces.
The concept that underlies every machine is the conservation
of energy. A machine cannot put out more energy than is put
A machine transfers energy from one into it.
place to another or transforms it from
one form to another.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

Levers The pivot point, or fulcrum, of the lever can be relatively close
to the load.
A lever is a simple machine made of a bar that turns about a
fixed point. If the heat from friction is small enough to neglect, • Then a small input force exerted through a large
the work input will be equal to the work output. distance will produce a large output force over a short
distance.
work input = work output
• In this way
way, a lever can multiply forces.
forces
• However, no machine can multiply work or energy.
Since work equals force times distance, we can say
(force × distance)input = (force × distance)output

14
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

In the lever, the work (force × distance) done at one end is The output force is eight times the input force.
equal to the work done on the load at the other end. The output distance is one eighth of the input distance.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

The child pushes down 10 N and lifts an 80-N load. There are three common ways to set up a lever:
The ratio of output force to input force for a machine is called • A type 1 lever has the fulcrum between the force and the
the mechanical advantage. load, or between input and output.
The mechanical advantage is (80 N)/(10 N), or 8. • A type 2 lever has the load between the fulcrum and the
Neglecting friction, the mechanical advantage can also be input force.
determined b by the ratio of inp
inputt distance to o
output
tp t distance
distance. • A type
t pe 3 le
lever
er has the ffulcrum
lcr m at one end and the load at
the other.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

The three basic types of levers are shown here. The three basic types of levers are shown here.

15
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

The three basic types of levers are shown here. • For a type 1 lever, push down on one end and you lift a load
at the other. The directions of input and output are opposite.
• For a type 2 lever, you lift the end of the lever. Since the
input and output forces are on the same side of the fulcrum,
the forces have the same direction.
• For a type 3 lever
lever, the input force is applied between the
fulcrum and the load. The input and output forces are on the
same side of the fulcrum and have the same direction.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

Pulleys a. A pulley can change the direction of a force.
A pulley is basically a kind of lever that can be used to
change the direction of a force.
Properly used, a pulley or system of pulleys can multiply
forces.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

a. A pulley can change the direction of a force. a. A pulley can change the direction of a force.
b. A pulley multiplies force. b. A pulley multiplies force.
c. Two pulleys can change the direction and multiply force.

16
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

This single pulley behaves like a type 1 lever. This single pulley acts as a type 2 lever.
• The axis of the pulley acts as the fulcrum. • The fulcrum is at the left end of the “lever” where the supporting
rope makes contact with the pulley.
• Both lever distances (the radius of the pulley) are equal • The load is halfway between the fulcrum and the input.
so the pulley does not multiply force. • 1 N of input will support a 2-N load, so the mechanical advantage is
• It changes the direction of the applied force. 2.
• The mechanical advantage equals 1. • The
Th load
l d iis now supported
t db
by ttwo strands
t d off rope, each h supporting
ti
half the load.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.8 Machines

The mechanical advantage for simple pulley systems is the same as the When the rope is pulled 5 m
number of strands of rope that actually support the load. with a force of 100 N, a 500-N
• The mechanical advantage of this simple system is 2. load is lifted 1 m.
• Although three strands of rope are shown, only two strands actually
support the load. The mechanical advantage is
• The upper pulley serves only to change the direction of the force. (500 N)/(100 N), or 5.
Force is multiplied at the
expense of distance.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.8 Machines 9.9 Efficiency

In any machine, some energy is transformed into

atomic or molecular kinetic energy—making the
How does a machine use energy?
machine warmer.

17
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

The previous examples of The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of useful energy
machines were considered to output to total energy input—the percentage of the work
be ideal because all the work input that is converted to work output.
input was transferred to work
output.
In a real machine, when a
simple lever rocks about its
fulcrum, or a pulley turns
about its axis, a small fraction To convert efficiency to percent, you multiply by 100%. An
of input energy is converted ideal machine would have 100% efficiency. No real
into thermal energy. machine can be 100% efficient. Wasted energy is
dissipated as heat.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

If we put in 100 J of work on a lever and get out 98 J of work, Inclined Planes
the lever is 98% efficient. We lose 2 J of work input as heat.
An inclined plane is a machine.
In a pulley system, a larger fraction of input energy is lost as
Sliding a load up an incline requires less force than lifting it
heat. For example, if we do 100 J of work, the friction on the
vertically.
pulleys as they turn and rub on their axle can dissipate 40 J of
heat energy. This pulley system has an efficiency of 60%.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

Pushing the block of ice 5 times farther up the incline than the An icy plank used to slide a block of ice up to some height
vertical distance it’s lifted requires a force of only one fifth its might have an efficiency of almost 100%.
weight. If friction is negligible, we need apply only one fifth of When the load is a wooden crate sliding on a wooden plank,
the force. The inclined plane shown has a theoretical both the actual mechanical advantage and the efficiency will
mechanical advantage of 5. be considerably less.
Friction will require you to exert more force (a greater work
input) without any increase in work output.

18
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

Efficiency can be expressed as the ratio of actual mechanical Complex Machines
advantage to theoretical mechanical advantage.
This auto jack shown is
an inclined plane
wrapped around a
cylinder.
Efficiency will always be a fraction less than 1. A single turn off the
handle raises the load a
relatively small
distance.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

If the circular distance the handle is moved is 500 times An automobile engine is a machine that transforms chemical
greater than the distance between ridges, then the theoretical energy stored in fuel into mechanical energy.
mechanical advantage of the jack is 500. • The molecules of the gasoline break up as the fuel burns.
There is a great deal of friction in the jack, so the efficiency • Carbon atoms from the gasoline combine with oxygen
might be about 20%. atoms to form carbon dioxide. Hydrogen atoms combine
This means the jack actually multiplies force by about 100 with oxygen
oxygen, and energy is released
released.
times, so the actual mechanical advantage is about 100. • The converted energy is used to run the engine.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

Transforming 100% of thermal energy into mechanical energy think!
is not possible. A child on a sled (total weight 500 N) is pulled up a 10-m
• Some heat must flow from the engine. slope that elevates her a vertical distance of 1 m. What is the
• Friction adds more to the energy loss. theoretical mechanical advantage of the slope?
• Even the best-designed gasoline-powered automobile
engines are unlikely
nlikel to be more than 35% efficient
efficient.

19
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.9 Efficiency 9.9 Efficiency

think!
A child on a sled (total weight 500 N) is pulled up a 10-m
slope that elevates her a vertical distance of 1 m. What is the
theoretical mechanical advantage of the slope?
Why can’t a machine be
Answer: The ideal, or theoretical, mechanical advantage is 100% efficient?

input distance / output distance = 10 m / 1 m = 10

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.10 Energy for Life 9.10 Energy for Life

Every living cell in every
organism is a machine. Like
any machine, living cells need
There is more energy stored in the an energy supply.
molecules in food than there is in the In metabolism, carbon
reaction products after the food is combines with oxygen to form
metabolized. This energy difference carbon dioxide.
sustains life.
During metabolism, the
reaction rate is much slower
than combustion and energy is
released as it is needed by the
body.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.10 Energy for Life 9.10 Energy for Life

Only green plants and certain one-celled organisms can make
carbon dioxide combine with water to produce hydrocarbon
compounds such as sugar.
This process—photosynthesis—requires an energy input,
which normally comes from sunlight.
What role does energy play in
Green plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to make
sustaining life?
food that gives us and all other organisms energy.

20
9 Energy 9 Energy

9.11 Sources of Energy 9.11 Sources of Energy

Solar Power
Sunlight is directly transformed into electricity by
photovoltaic cells.
We use the energy in sunlight to generate electricity
The sun is the source of practically all indirectly as well: sunlight evaporates water, which later
our energy on Earth.
Earth f
falls as rain; rainwater flows
f into rivers and into generator
turbines as it returns to the sea.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.11 Sources of Energy 9.11 Sources of Energy

Solar shingles look like traditional asphalt shingles but they are Wind, caused by unequal warming of Earth’s surface, is
hooked into a home’s electrical system. another form of solar power.
The energy of wind can be used to turn generator turbines
within specially equipped windmills.
Harnessing the wind is very practical when the energy it
produces is stored for future use
use, such as in the form of
hydrogen.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.11 Sources of Energy 9.11 Sources of Energy

Fuel Cells An electric current can break water down into hydrogen and
oxygen, a process called electrolysis.
Hydrogen is the least polluting of all fuels.
Because it takes energy to make hydrogen—to
extract it from water and carbon compounds—it
is not a source of energy.

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9 Energy 9 Energy

9.11 Sources of Energy 9.11 Sources of Energy

If you make the electrolysis Nuclear and Geothermal Energy
process run backward, you
The most concentrated form of usable energy is
have a fuel cell.
stored in uranium and plutonium, which are
In a fuel cell, hydrogen and nuclear fuels.
oxygen gas are compressed
Earth’s interior is kept hot by producing a
at electrodes to produce water
form of nuclear power, radioactivity, which
and electric current.
has been with us since the Earth was formed.

9 Energy 9 Energy

9.11 Sources of Energy 9.11 Sources of Energy

A byproduct of radioactivity in Earth’s interior is
geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy is held in underground reservoirs of
hot water.
In these places, heated water near Earth’s surface is
What is the source of practically all
tapped to provide steam for running turbogenerators.
turbogenerators
of our energy on Earth?

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

1. Raising an auto in a service station requires work. Raising it twice 1. Raising an auto in a service station requires work. Raising it twice
as high requires as high requires
a. half as much work. a. half as much work.
b. the same work. b. the same work.
c. twice the work. c. twice the work.
d. four times the work. d. four times the work.

Answer: C

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9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

2. Raising an auto in a service station requires work. Raising it in half the 2. Raising an auto in a service station requires work. Raising it in half the
time requires time requires
a. half the power. a. half the power.
b. the same power. b. the same power.
c. twice the power. c. twice the power.
d. four times the power. d. four times the power.

Answer: C

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

3. The energy due to the position of something or the energy due to 3. The energy due to the position of something or the energy due to
motion is called motion is called
a. potential energy. a. potential energy.
b. kinetic energy. b. kinetic energy.
c. mechanical energy. c. mechanical energy.
d. conservation of energy. d. conservation of energy.

Answer: C

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

4. After you place a book on a high shelf, we say the book has 4. After you place a book on a high shelf, we say the book has
increased increased
a. elastic potential energy. a. elastic potential energy.
b. chemical energy. b. chemical energy.
c. kinetic energy. c. kinetic energy.
d. gravitational potential energy. d. gravitational potential energy.

Answer: D

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9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

5. An empty truck traveling at 10 km/h has kinetic energy. How much 5. An empty truck traveling at 10 km/h has kinetic energy. How much
kinetic energy does it have when it is loaded so its mass is twice, and kinetic energy does it have when it is loaded so its mass is twice, and
its speed is increased to twice? its speed is increased to twice?
a. the same KE a. the same KE
b. twice the KE b. twice the KE
c. four times the KE c. four times the KE
d more than
d. th four
f times
ti the
th KE d more than
d. th four
f times
ti the
th KE

Answer: D

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

6. Which of the following equations is most useful for solving a problem 6. Which of the following equations is most useful for solving a problem
that asks for the distance a fast-moving crate slides across a factory that asks for the distance a fast-moving crate slides across a factory
floor in coming to a stop? floor in coming to a stop?
a. F = ma a. F = ma
b. Ft = ∆mv b. Ft = ∆mv
c. KE = 1/2mv2 c. KE = 1/2mv2
d. Fd = ∆1/2mv2 d. Fd = ∆1/2mv2

Answer: D

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

7. A boulder at the top of a vertical cliff has a potential 7. A boulder at the top of a vertical cliff has a potential
energy of 100 MJ relative to the ground below. It rolls off energy of 100 MJ relative to the ground below. It rolls off
the cliff. When it is halfway to the ground its kinetic the cliff. When it is halfway to the ground its kinetic
energy is energy is
a. the same as its potential energy at that point. a. the same as its potential energy at that point.
b. negligible. b. negligible.
c about 60 MJ
c. MJ. c about 60 MJ
c. MJ.
d. more than 60 MJ. d. more than 60 MJ.

Answer: A

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9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

8. In an ideal pulley system, a woman lifts a 100-N crate by pulling a 8. In an ideal pulley system, a woman lifts a 100-N crate by pulling a
rope downward with a force of 25 N. For every 1-meter length of rope rope downward with a force of 25 N. For every 1-meter length of rope
she pulls downward, the crate rises she pulls downward, the crate rises
a. 25 centimeters. a. 25 centimeters.
b. 45 centimeters. b. 45 centimeters.
c. 50 centimeters. c. 50 centimeters.
d 100 centimeters.
d. ti t d 100 centimeters.
d. ti t

Answer: A

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

9. When 100 J are put into a device that puts out 40 J, the efficiency of 9. When 100 J are put into a device that puts out 40 J, the efficiency of
the device is the device is
a. 40%. a. 40%.
b. 50%. b. 50%.
c. 60%. c. 60%.
d. 140%. d. 140%.

Answer: A

9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

10. An energy supply is needed for the operation of a(n) 10. An energy supply is needed for the operation of a(n)
a. automobile. a. automobile.
b. living cell. b. living cell.
c. machine. c. machine.
d. all of these d. all of these

Answer: D

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9 Energy 9 Energy

Assessment Questions Assessment Questions

11. The main sources of energy on Earth are 11. The main sources of energy on Earth are
a. solar and nuclear. a. solar and nuclear.
b. gasoline and fuel cells. b. gasoline and fuel cells.
c. wind and tidal. c. wind and tidal.
d. potential energy and kinetic energy. d. potential energy and kinetic energy.

Answer: A

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