Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page46

3-4)Scattering and Absorption

What is the physical basis for the frequency dependence of n? The answer to that question can be found by examining
the interaction of an incident electromagnetic wave with the array of atoms constituting a dielectric material. An atom
can react to incoming light in two different ways, depending on the incident frequency or equivalently on the incoming
photon energy ( ℰ = ℎ𝜐). Generally, the atom will “scatter” the light, redirecting it without otherwise altering it. On the
other hand, if the photon’s energy matches that of one of the excited states, the atom will absorb the light, making a
quantum jump to that higher energy level. In the dense atomic landscape of ordinary gases (at pressures of about 102 Pa
and up), solids, and liquids, it’s very likely that this excitation energy will rapidly be transferred, via collisions, to random
atomic motion, thermal energy, before a photon can be emitted. This commonplace process (the taking up of a photon
and its conversion into thermal energy) was at one time widely known as “absorption,” but nowadays that word is more
often used to refer just to the “taking up” aspect, regardless of what then happens to the energy. Consequently, it’s now
better referred to as dissipative absorption. All material media partake in dissipative absorption to some extent, at one
frequency or another.
In contrast to this excitation process, ground-state or nonresonant scattering occurs with incoming radiant energy of
other frequencies—that is, lower than the resonance frequencies. Imagine an atom in its lowest state and suppose that
it interacts with a photon whose energy is too small to cause a transition to any of the higher, excited states. Despite
that, the electromagnetic field of the light can be supposed to drive the electron cloud into oscillation. There is no
resulting atomic transition; the atom remains in its ground state while the cloud vibrates ever so slightly at the frequency
of the incident light. Once the electron cloud starts to vibrate with respect to the positive nucleus, the system
constitutes an oscillating dipole and so presumably will immediately begin to radiate at that same frequency.
The resulting scattered light consists of a photon that sails off in some direction carrying the same amount of energy as
did the incident photon—the scattering is elastic. In effect, the atom resembles a little dipole oscillator, a model
employed by Lorentz (1878) in order to extend Maxwell’s Theory, in a classical way, to the atomic domain. If the incident
light is unpolarized, the atomic oscillators scatter in random directions.
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page47

When an atom is irradiated with light, the process of excitation and spontaneous emission is rapidly repeated. In fact, with
an emission lifetime of 10-8 s, an atom could emit upward of 108 photons per second in a situation in which there was
enough energy to keep reexciting it. Atoms have a very strong tendency to interact with resonant light (they have a large
absorption cross section). This means that the saturation condition, in which the atoms of a low-pressure gas are
constantly emitting and being reexcited, occurs at a modest value of irradiance (≈ 102 𝑊/𝑚2 ). So it’s not very difficult to
get atoms firing out photons at a rate of 100 million per second.
Generally, we can imagine that in a medium illuminated by an ordinary beam of light, each atom behaves as though it was
a “source” of a tremendous number of photons (scattered either elastically or resonantly) that fly off in all directions. A
stream of energy like this resembles a classical spherical wave. Thus we imagine an atom (even though it is simplistic to
do so) as a point source of spherical electromagnetic waves—provided we keep in mind Einstein’s admonition that
“outgoing radiation in the form of spherical waves does not exist.” When a material with no resonances in the visible is
bathed in light, nonresonant scattering occurs, and it gives each participating atom the appearance of being a tiny
source of spherical wavelets. As a rule, the closer the frequency of the incident beam is to an atomic resonance, the more
strongly will the interaction occur and, in dense materials, the more energy will be dissipatively absorbed. It is precisely
this mechanism of selective absorption that creates much of the visual appearance of things. It is primarily responsible for
the color of your hair, skin, and clothing, the color of leaves and apples and paint.
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page48

3-5)Dispersion
Dispersion corresponds to the phenomenon whereby the index of refraction of a medium is frequency dependent. All
material media are dispersive; only vacuum is nondispersive. Maxwell’s Theory treats substantial matter as continuous,
representing its electric and magnetic responses to applied 𝐸- and 𝐵-fields in terms of constants, 𝑘𝐸 and 𝑘𝑚 . Consequently,
𝑘𝐸 and 𝑘𝑚 are also constant, and n is therefore unrealistically independent of frequency. To deal theoretically with
dispersion, it’s necessary to incorporate the atomic nature of matter and to exploit some frequency-dependent aspect of
that nature.
When a dielectric is subjected to an applied electric field, the internal charge distribution is distorted. This corresponds to
the generation of electric dipole moments, which in turn contribute to the total internal field. More simply stated, the
external field separates positive and negative charges in the medium (each pair of which is a dipole), and these charges
then contribute an additional field component. The resultant dipole moment per unit volume is called the electric
polarization, 𝑃. For most materials 𝑃 and 𝐸 are proportional and can satisfactorily be related by

𝜀 − 𝜀0 𝐸 = 𝑃 (57)
Electric polarization is a measure of the difference between the electric fields with and without the medium in place. When
𝜀 = 𝜀0 , 𝑃 = 0. The unit of 𝑃 is the same as 𝐷 (C/m2)
Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page49

(58)
Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page50

Note: 𝜖𝑟 = 𝑘𝐸

(59)

(60)
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page51

The redistribution of charge and the consequent polarization can

occur via the following mechanisms. There are molecules
that have a permanent dipole moment as a result of unequal sharing
of valence electrons. These are known as polar molecules; the
nonlinear water molecule is a fairly typical example (Adjacent figure).
Each hydrogen–oxygen bond is polar covalent, with the H-end
positive with respect to the O-end. Thermal agitation keeps the
molecular dipoles randomly oriented. With the introduction of an
electric field, the dipoles align themselves, and the dielectric takes
on an orientational polarization. In the case of nonpolar molecules
and atoms, the applied field distorts the electron cloud, shifting it
relative to the nucleus, thereby producing a dipole moment. In
addition to this electronic polarization, there is another process
that’s applicable specifically to molecules, for example, the ionic
crystal NaCl. In the presence of an electric field, the positive and
negative ions undergo a shift with respect to each other. Dipole
moments are therefore induced, resulting in what is called ionic or
atomic polarization.
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If the dielectric is subjected to an incident harmonic electromagnetic wave, its internal charge structure will experience
time-varying forces and /or torques. These will be proportional to the electric field component of the wave. For fluids that
are polar dielectrics, the molecules actually undergo rapid rotations, aligning themselves with the 𝐸(𝑡)-field. But these
molecules are relatively large and have appreciable moments of inertia. At high driving frequencies 𝑤, polar molecules
will be unable to follow the field alternations. Their contributions to 𝑃 will decrease, and 𝑘𝐸 will drop markedly. The
relative permittivity of water is fairly constant at approximately 80, up to about 1010 Hz, after which it falls off quite
rapidly.

𝑃
From (59) we can write 𝑃 = 𝜀0 𝐸(𝑘𝐸 − 1) then 𝑘𝐸 = + 1 and if
𝜀0 𝐸
P decreases, then 𝐾𝐸 decreases and then n decreases.
𝑃
Also we can write 𝜀 = + 𝜀0 that decreases if P decreases.
𝐸
Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page53

In contrast, electrons have little inertia and can continue to follow the field, contributing to 𝑘𝐸 (𝑤) even at optical
frequencies (of about 5x1014 Hz). Thus the dependence of n on 𝑤 is governed by the interplay of the various electric
polarization mechanisms contributing at the particular frequency. With this in mind, it is possible to derive an analytical
expression for n(𝑤) in terms of what’s happening within the medium on an atomic level.
The electron cloud of the atom is bound to the positive nucleus by an attractive electric force that sustains it in some
sort of equilibrium configuration. Without knowing much more about the details of all the internal atomic interactions,
we can anticipate that, like other stable mechanical systems, which are not totally disrupted by small perturbations, a
net force, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 , must exist that returns the system to equilibrium. Moreover, we can reasonably expect that for very
small displacements, x, from equilibrium (where F = 0), the force will be linear in x. In other words, a plot of F(x) versus x
will cross the x-axis at the equilibrium point (x = 0) and will be a straight line very close on either side. Thus for small
displacements it can be supposed that the restoring force has the form 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑟 = −𝑘𝑒 𝑥𝑖 , where 𝑘𝑒 is a kind of elastic
constant much like a spring constant.
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page54

Once somehow momentarily disturbed, an electron bound in this way will oscillate about its equilibrium position with a
𝑘𝑒
natural or resonant frequency given by 𝑤0 = , where me is its mass. This is the oscillatory frequency of the undriven
𝑚𝑒
system and so F = −𝑘𝑒 𝑥 = −𝑚𝑒 𝑤0 2 𝑥 .
A material medium is envisioned as an assemblage, in vacuum, of a very great many polarizable atoms, each of which is
small (by comparison to the wavelength of light) and close to its neighbors. When a lightwave impinges on such a medium,
each atom can be thought of as a classical forced oscillator being driven by the time-varying electric field E(t) of the wave,
which is assumed here to be applied in the x-direction. The figure below is a mechanical representation of just such an
oscillator in an isotropic medium where the negatively charged shell is fastened to a stationary positive nucleus by identical
springs. Even under the illumination of bright sunlight, the amplitude of the oscillations will be no greater than about 10−17
m. The force 𝐹𝑒 exerted on an electron of charge 𝑞𝑒 by the E(t) field of a harmonic wave of frequency 𝑤 is of the form:
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑞𝑒 𝐸 𝑡 = 𝑞𝑒 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 (61)
Notice that if the driving force is in one direction the restoring force is in the opposite direction, which is why it has a minus
sign
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page55

Newton’s Second Law provides the equation of motion; that is, the sum of the forces equals the mass times the
acceleration:

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑞𝑒 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑤0 2 𝑥 = 𝑚𝑒 (62)
𝑑𝑡 2

The first term on the left is the driving force, and the second is the opposing restoring force. To satisfy this expression, x
will have to be a function whose second derivative isn’t very much different from x itself. Furthermore, we can anticipate
that the electron will oscillate at the same frequency as E(t), so we “guess” at the solution 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡
and substitute it in the equation to evaluate the amplitude x0. In this way we find that
𝑞𝑒
𝑞𝑒 /𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑤𝑡 = 𝐸(𝑡) (63)
(𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2 ) 𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2

This is the relative displacement between the negative cloud and the positive nucleus. It’s traditional to leave 𝑞𝑒 positive
and speak about the displacement of the oscillator. Without a driving force (no incident wave), the oscillator will vibrate at
its resonance frequency 𝑤0 . In the presence of a field whose frequency is less than 𝑤0 , E(t) and x(t) have the same sign,
which means that the oscillator can follow the applied force (i.e., is in-phase with it). However, when 𝑤 > 𝑤0 , the
displacement x(t) is in a direction opposite to that of the instantaneous force qeE(t) and therefore 180 out-of-phase with it.
Remember that we are talking about oscillating dipoles where for 𝑤0 > 𝑤, the relative motion of the positive charge is a
vibration in the direction of the field. Above resonance the positive charge is 180 out-of-phase with the field, and the
dipole is said to lag by 𝜋 rad.
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page56

The dipole moment is equal to the charge qe times its displacement, and if there are N contributing electrons per unit
volume, the electric polarization, or density of dipole moments, is

𝑃 = 𝑞𝑒 𝑥𝑁 (64)

Hence from Eq. (63)

𝑞𝑒 2
𝑚𝑒
𝑃=𝑁 𝐸(𝑡) (65)
𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2

𝑃
And from 𝜀 = + 𝜀0 we can write
𝐸

𝑞𝑒 2
𝑚𝑒
𝜀 = 𝜀0 + 𝑁 (66)
𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2

𝜀
Using the fact that 𝑛2 = 𝐾𝐸 = , we can arrive at an expression for n as a function of v, which is known as a dispersion
𝜀0
equation:

𝑁𝑞𝑒 2
𝑛2 𝑤 = 1 + (67)
𝜀0 𝑚𝑒 𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2
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At frequencies increasingly above resonance, 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 < 0, and the oscillator undergoes displacements that are
approximately 180 out-of-phase with the driving force. The resulting electric polarization will therefore be similarly out-of-
phase with the applied electric field. Hence the dielectric constant and therefore the index of refraction will both be less
than 1. At frequencies increasingly below resonance, 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 > 0, the electric polarization will be nearly in-phase with
the applied electric field. The dielectric constant and the corresponding index of refraction will then both be greater than 1.
As a rule, any given substance will actually undergo several transitions from n >1 to n < 1 as the illuminating frequency is
made to increase.

The implication is that instead of a single frequency 𝑤0 at which the system resonates, there apparently are several such
frequencies. It would seem reasonable to generalize matters by supposing that there are N molecules per unit volume, each
with 𝑓𝑗 oscillators having natural frequencies 𝑤0𝑗 , where j = 1, 2, 3, . . . . In that case:

2
𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝑓𝑗
𝑛 𝑤 =1+ ( ) (68)
𝜀0 𝑚𝑒 𝑤0𝑗 2 − 𝑤 2
𝑗
Case of damping oscillation

In solids, liquids, and gases at high pressure (≈103 atm), the interatomic distances are roughly 10 times less than those of a
gas at standard temperature and pressure. Atoms and molecules in this relatively close proximity experience strong
interactions and a resulting “frictional” force. The effect is a damping of the oscillators and a dissipation of their energy
within the substance in the form of “heat” (random molecular motion).
To obtain the dispersion equation in the case of damping oscillations we use the complex notation:
Then
𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝑡 (69) and (70)
 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page58

The damping force is proportional to the speed and is of the form

𝑓𝑟 = −𝑚𝑒 𝛾𝑥 𝑖 (70)

Newton’s second law gives

𝑓𝑟 + 𝐹𝑟 + 𝐹𝑒 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑖 (71)
The differential equation becomes
−𝑚𝑒 𝛾𝑥 𝑖 − 𝑚𝑒 𝑤0 2 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑞𝑒 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖𝑤𝑡 𝑖 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑥 𝑖 (72)

Then we get
𝑞𝑒
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐸(𝑡) (73)
𝑚𝑒 [ 𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2 +𝑖𝛾𝑤]

𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝐸
𝑃 = 𝑁𝑞𝑒 𝑥 = (74)
𝑚𝑒 [ 𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2 +𝑖𝛾𝑤]

𝑃
And from 𝜀 = + 𝜀0 we can write
𝐸
𝜀 𝑁𝑞𝑒 2
𝑛2 𝑤 = 𝐾𝐸 = 1 + 𝜒 = =1+ (75)
𝜀0 𝜀0 𝑚𝑒 [ 𝑤0 2 −𝑤 2 +𝑖𝛾𝑤]

The Eq. (68) becomes

𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝑓𝑗
𝑛2 𝑤 = 1 + 𝑗([ 𝑤 2 −𝑤 2 +𝑖𝛾𝑤]) (76)
𝜀0 𝑚𝑒 0𝑗
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3-6) The Electromagnetic-Photon Spectrum

 Electromagnetic Theory and Photons / Chapter 1 P2205/2023/page60

Application
Show that for 𝜒 ≪ 1, the index of refraction is given by:
𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 − 𝑖𝛾𝑤 𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 −𝑁𝑞𝑒 2 𝛾𝑤
𝑛 =1+ = 1 + + 𝑖
2𝑚𝑒 𝜀0 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 2 + (𝛾𝑤)2 2𝑚𝑒 𝜀0 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 2 + (𝛾𝑤)2 2𝑚𝑒 𝜀0 𝑤0 2 − 𝑤 2 2 + (𝛾𝑤)2
′
= 𝑛 + 𝑖𝑛′′