Week 1: Theoretical Foundations of Research

This introductory week will provide an in-depth exploration of the philosophical

underpinnings of research. The objective is to sharpen students' understanding of how
epistemological and ontological perspectives, paradigms, and theoretical frameworks shape
research design, data interpretation, and knowledge production.

Extensive Notes

1. Epistemological and Ontological Perspectives

Epistemology: The theory of knowledge that addresses questions like "What is knowledge?"
and "How do we know what we know?". It refers to the study of knowledge—how do we
know what we know? What are the sources of that knowledge? and what are the methods by
which we acquire it?. In research, epistemology shapes how a researcher understands and
approaches the investigation of reality.

 Key Epistemological Stances:

o Positivism: Asserts that knowledge is derived from observable phenomena
and measurable facts. It supports objective truths and relies heavily on
scientific methods.
o Interpretivism: Emphasizes subjective understanding and argues that
knowledge is constructed through human interpretation of experiences.
o Critical Realism: Combines positivism and interpretivism by acknowledging
that while there is an objective reality, our understanding of it is always
socially and historically mediated.
o Pragmatism: Focuses on the practical application of knowledge, believing
that knowledge is valid if it helps solve practical problems.

Practical Example:

Imagine you are conducting research on how social media influences political opinions. You
could approach this study from different epistemological perspectives:
1. Positivist Epistemology (Objective Knowledge): You believe that knowledge is
objective and can be measured. You might collect quantitative data, such as surveys
with a large sample size, and use statistical methods to analyze patterns in how
frequently certain political opinions are expressed on social media.
2. Interpretivist Epistemology (Subjective Knowledge): Here, you believe that
knowledge is subjective and shaped by individual experiences. Instead of just relying
on numbers, you might conduct qualitative interviews to understand how people
interpret and feel about the political content they see on social media, acknowledging
that their experiences are shaped by personal and social contexts.
3. In the context of pragmatism, the focus is on practical outcomes and the usefulness
of the research in addressing real-world problems. Pragmatism does not commit to
one particular method or epistemological stance (like positivism or interpretivism).
Instead, it adopts methods that are most effective for the specific research question.

If you adopt a pragmatic epistemology, you are concerned with understanding the
influence of social media in a way that has practical implications, such as informing
policymakers, campaigners, or educators on the effects of social media on political
behavior.

Flexible Methods: You might start with qualitative interviews to gain insights into
how people experience political content, then use those insights to design a
quantitative survey that can test hypotheses on a larger scale.

Outcome-Oriented: Rather than focusing on just theoretical knowledge, your

research aims to solve a problem. For instance, the research could be geared toward
developing strategies for political campaigns or improving public media literacy
regarding the interpretation of political content on social platforms.

Your epistemological stance influences how you choose to study the phenomenon and
the type of data you consider valid. If you are a positivist, you'll likely trust numbers
and observable facts; if you're an interpretivist, you'll prioritize people's lived
experiences and perspectives
Ontology: The study of the nature of reality, addressing the question, "What exists?" (what
entities or phenomena can be said to exist and how are these entities related within the
research context?)

Ontology helps define what you believe to be "real" in your study, guiding how you approach
research design and data collection.

 Key Ontological Positions:

o Realism: Reality exists independently of human perception (objective reality).
o Constructivism suggests that reality is socially constructed through human
interaction, culture, and experiences. It challenges the notion of an objective
reality, proposing that what we consider "reality" is shaped by our perceptions
and social context
o Critical Realism: Accepts an objective reality but believes our access to it is
filtered through subjective experience.

Practical Example:

Suppose you are conducting research on social media influence. Your ontological stance
would determine how you perceive the nature of that influence.

 If you take a realist ontology, you believe that social media influence is a concrete
and measurable phenomenon that exists independently of people’s perceptions. You
might look for quantifiable metrics, like the number of likes or shares, to objectively
measure this influence.
 On the other hand, if you adopt a constructivist ontology, you view social media
influence as something that is socially constructed, depending on individuals’
perceptions and interactions. In this case, you might focus on how users interpret
social media influence and how their beliefs shape its existence.
Understanding how epistemology and ontology interconnect is vital, as these assumptions
dictate the choice of research paradigms, methodologies, and methods.

What is the difference between a philosophical orientation and a research paradigm?

Philosophical foundations of research and research paradigms are closely related but
distinct concepts that both shape how research is conducted.

Philosophical foundations refer to the underlying assumptions about knowledge and reality
that guide research.

Research paradigms are frameworks that provide guidance on how research should be
conducted, based on specific philosophical assumptions. A paradigm includes not only
philosophical assumptions but also the methodological aspects of research.

2. Research Paradigms

Research paradigms are philosophical models that guide how researchers approach the study
of phenomena. These paradigms reflect different combinations of epistemological and
ontological perspectives.

 Positivism:
o Ontology: Naive realism (objective reality exists).
o Epistemology: Empirical verification and falsification through observable,
measurable phenomena.
o Methodology: Typically quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys).
o Criticism: Often criticized for its exclusion of human subjectivity and
complexity.
 Constructivism/Interpretivism:
o Ontology: Relativism (multiple constructed realities).
o Epistemology: Knowledge is co-constructed between researcher and
participant.
 o Methodology: Qualitative (e.g., ethnography, phenomenology, grounded
theory).
o Criticism: Critiqued for subjectivity and lack of generalizability.
 Critical Theory:
o Ontology: Critical realism (an objective reality exists, but it’s shaped by
social, economic, and political forces).
o Epistemology: Knowledge is influenced by power dynamics and social
structures.
o Methodology: Both qualitative and quantitative, often focusing on issues of
oppression, justice, and emancipation.
o Criticism: Sometimes critiqued for ideological bias or focus on normative
outcomes.
 Pragmatism:
o Ontology: Rejects metaphysical questions about reality and focuses on the
practical outcomes of research.
o Epistemology: Knowledge is validated by its usefulness in solving problems.
o Methodology: Mixed methods (combining qualitative and quantitative
approaches based on research goals).
o Criticism: Considered eclectic or unfocused by purists of other paradigms.

3. Theoretical Frameworks in Research

A theoretical framework serves as the blueprint for a research project, outlining the lens
through which the research is conducted.

 Functions of a Theoretical Framework:

o Guides Research Questions: Helps shape the focus of the study by
identifying key concepts and variables.
o Informs Methodology: Determines whether quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed methods are most suitable.
o Provides Analytical Tools: Enables the researcher to interpret findings based
on a specific theoretical lens.
 Types of Theoretical Frameworks:
 o Grand Theories: Broad frameworks such as Structuralism, Postmodernism,
Marxism, or Feminism, which provide comprehensive models of social and
cultural analysis.
o Middle-range Theories: More focused on specific aspects of reality, such as
Social Identity Theory or Rational Choice Theory.
o Context-Specific Theories: Developed in response to specific empirical
observations and contextualized within a particular field.
 Selection and Application:
o Selecting an appropriate theoretical framework depends on the nature of the
research question and the discipline.
o PhD students should critically engage with multiple frameworks, evaluating
which provides the best fit for their study.

Week 1 Task

Identifying the Research Paradigm in an Academic Extract

Instructions for Students:

 Read the following extract carefully.

 Identify the research paradigm used by the author(s) of the study.
 Provide a rationale for your answer by analyzing the ontological, epistemological, and
methodological assumptions present in the text.
 Support your answer with specific references to the key features of the identified
paradigm (e.g., Positivism, Interpretivism, Critical Theory, Pragmatism).

Academic Extract

Title: Exploring the Lived Experiences of Immigrant Women in the Workforce: A

Phenomenological Study

Abstract:
This study aims to explore the lived experiences of immigrant women working in low-wage
jobs within urban centers. By utilizing a phenomenological approach, the research seeks to
understand how these women navigate cultural and economic barriers in the workplace. Data
were collected through in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 20 participants from diverse
cultural backgrounds. The interviews were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis
to uncover recurring patterns of experience. The researcher remained reflexive throughout the
process, acknowledging the potential impact of their own positionality on the interpretation
of the data.

The findings highlight the challenges these women face, including language barriers,
discrimination, and limited access to opportunities for career advancement. The participants’
narratives reveal a shared sense of marginalization but also resilience and resourcefulness in
navigating their working environments. By focusing on the subjective meanings that the
women attach to their experiences, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of how
systemic inequalities are reproduced in labor markets. The conclusions draw attention to the
need for policy reforms that address both gender and racial inequities.

Guiding Questions for Analysis:

1. Ontology:
o What assumptions does the study make about the nature of reality? Is reality
considered objective, or is it socially constructed based on the participants'
experiences?
2. Epistemology:
o How does the researcher approach the concept of knowledge? Does the study
seek objective truths, or does it prioritize subjective understandings of the
women’s experiences?
3. Methodology:
o What research methods are employed, and how do they reflect the chosen
research paradigm? Why do you think phenomenology was chosen as a
method, and what does this say about the researcher’s epistemological stance?
4. Paradigm Identification:
o Based on your analysis of the ontological, epistemological, and
methodological aspects of the study, which research paradigm does this study
align with? Provide a detailed justification for your answer.
Expected Student Responses:

 Ontology: The study assumes a constructivist ontology, meaning that reality is

socially constructed by the participants' individual experiences rather than existing as
an objective fact.
 Epistemology: The researcher adopts an interpretivist epistemology by seeking to
understand the subjective meanings that the participants attach to their lived
experiences. Knowledge is co-constructed between the researcher and the
participants.
 Methodology: The use of phenomenology, in-depth interviews, and thematic analysis
aligns with an interpretivist paradigm. These methods prioritize understanding
subjective experience and are reflexive about the researcher's role in shaping
interpretations.
 Paradigm Identification: The study employs an Interpretivist paradigm, as it
focuses on understanding the meanings constructed by individuals in specific social
and cultural contexts, rejecting the notion of a single, objective reality.

This task should effectively gauge the students' understanding of research paradigms by
challenging them to critically assess the epistemological, ontological, and methodological
dimensions of the provided academic extract.