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SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

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Module 11: Advanced SQL

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Partha Pratim Das
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

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[email protected]

Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
Slides marked with ‘PPD’ are new or edited
 PPD

Week 02 Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Module 06: Introduction to SQL/1  Module 09: Intermediate SQL/1
 History of SQL  Join Expressions

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 Data Definition Language (DDL)  Views
 Basic Query Structure (DML)  Transactions
 Module 07: Introduction to SQL/2  Module 10: Intermediate SQL/2

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 Additional Basic Operations  Integrity Constraints
 Set Operations  SQL Data Types and Schemas

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 Null Values  Authorization
 Aggregate Functions

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 Module 08: Introduction to SQL/3
 Nested Subqueries
 Modification of the Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To understand how to use SQL from a programming language
 To familiarize with functions and procedures in SQL

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 To understand the triggers

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Accessing SQL From a Programming Language
 Functions and Procedural Constructs

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 Triggers

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Accessing SQL From a

Programming Language
Functions and Procedural
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Constructs
Triggers

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ACCESSING SQL FROM A
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Native Language Query Language

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

C Program SQL Query

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T
Functions Table Names
Variables Attributes Datadase
Schema
Tables

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Connection
Library

P Query
Processor

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Accessing SQL From a Programming Language
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 API (application-program interface) for a program to interact with a
database server

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 Application makes calls to
 Connect with the database server

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 Send SQL commands to the database server
 Fetch tuples of result one-by-one into program variables

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 Various tools:
 JDBC (Java Database Connectivity) works with Java

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 ODBC (Open Database Connectivity) works with C, C++, C#,
Visual Basic, and Python
 Other API’s such as ADO.NET sit on top of ODBC
 Embedded SQL

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 JDBC
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 JDBC is a Java API for communicating with database systems
supporting SQL

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 JDBC supports a variety of features for querying and updating data,
and for retrieving query results.

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 JDBC also supports metadata retrieval, such as querying about
relations present in the database and the names and types of
relation attributes

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 Model for communicating with the database:
 Open a connection

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 Create a “statement” object
 Execute queries using the Statement object to send queries and
fetch results
 Exception mechanism to handle errors

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ODBC
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Open DataBase Connectivity (ODBC) standard
 standard for application program to communicate with a

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database server
 application program interface (API) to

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 open a connection with a database,
 send queries and updates,

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 get back results
 Applications such as GUI, spreadsheets, etc. can use ODBC

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

ODBC – Python Example

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The code uses a
data source
named “SQLS”

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from the odbc.ini
file to connect and

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issue a query.
 It creates a table,

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inserts data using
literal and
parameterized

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statements and
fetches the data

Source: https://dzone.com/articles/tutorial-connecting-to-odbc-data-sources-with-pyth

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Native Language Query Language

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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C Program
Functions

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Variables

SQL Query

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Table Names Datadase
Attributes Schema
Tables

N P Query
Processor

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The SQL standard defines embeddings of SQL in a variety of
programming languages such as C, C++, Java, Fortran, and PL/1

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 A language to which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as a
host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host

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language comprise embedded SQL
 The basic form of these languages follows that of the System R

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embedding of SQL into PL/1
 EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request to
the preprocessor

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EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement >;
Note: this varies by language:
 In some languages, like COBOL, the semicolon is replaced with
END-EXEC
 In Java embedding uses # SQL { …. };

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Before executing any SQL statements, the program must first connect
to the database. This is done using:

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EXEC-SQL connect to server user user-name using password;
Here, server identifies the server to which a connection is to be

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established
 Variables of the host language can be used within embedded SQL

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statements. They are preceded by a colon (:) to distinguish from
SQL variables (e.g., :credit_amount )
 Variables used as above must be declared within DECLARE section,

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as illustrated below. The syntax for declaring the variables, however,
follows the usual host language syntax
EXEC-SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION
int credit-amount ;
EXEC-SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To write an embedded SQL query, we use the
declare c cursor for <SQL query>

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statement. The variable c is used to identify the query
 Example:

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 From within a host language, find the ID and name of
students who have completed more than the number of

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credits stored in variable credit_amount in the host langue
 Specify the query in SQL as follows:

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EXEC SQL
declare c cursor for
select ID, name
from student
where tot_cred > :credit_amount
END_EXEC

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Example:
 From within a host language, find the ID and name of

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students who have completed more than the number of
credits stored in variable credit_amount in the host langue

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 Specify the query in SQL as follows:
EXEC SQL

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declare c cursor for
select ID, name

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from student
where tot_cred > :credit_amount
END_EXEC
 The variable c (used in the cursor declaration) is used to
identify the query

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The open statement for our example is as follows:
EXEC SQL open c ;

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This statement causes the database system to execute the query
and to save the results within a temporary relation. The query uses

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the value of the host-language variable credit-amount at the time the
open statement is executed.

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 The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the query
result to be placed on host language variables.

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EXEC SQL fetch c into :si, :sn END_EXEC

Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Embedded SQL (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A variable called SQLSTATE in the SQL communication area
(SQLCA) gets set to ‘02000’ to indicate no more data is available

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 The close statement causes the database system to delete the
temporary relation that holds the result of the query.

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EXEC SQL close c ;
Note: above details vary with language. For example, the Java

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embedding defines Java iterators to step through result tuples.

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Embedded SQL – C Example

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The program prompts the user for an order number, retrieves the
customer number, salesperson, and status of the order, and displays
the retrieved information on the screen

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 The statement used to return the data is a singleton SELECT
statement; that is, it returns only a single row of data. Therefore, the
code example does not declare or use cursors
Source: https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/odbc/reference/embedded-sql-example

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updates Through Embedded SQL
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Embedded SQL expressions for database modification (update, insert,
and delete)

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 Can update tuples fetched by cursor by declaring that the cursor is for
update

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EXEC SQL
declare c cursor for

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select *
from instructor
where dept_name = ‘Music’

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for update
 We then iterate through the tuples by performing fetch operations on
the cursor (as illustrated earlier), and after fetching each tuple we
execute the following code:
update instructor
set salary = salary + 1000
where current of c

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Accessing SQL From a

Programming Language
Functions and Procedural
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Constructs
Triggers

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FUNCTIONS AND PROCEDURAL
CONSTRUCTS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Native Language Query Language

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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C Program SQL Query
Functions Tables
Attributes Datadase
Variables
Function

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Schema
Procedure
Tables
CL QP

C Program
Functions, Variables

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N
SQL Query
Table Names
Attributes Datadase
Function Schema
Procedure Tables

QP

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Functions and Procedures
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 SQL:1999 supports functions and procedures
 Functions/procedures can be written in SQL itself, or in an external

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programming language (e.g., C, Java)
 Functions written in an external languages are particularly useful

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with specialized data types such as images and geometric objects.
 Example: functions to check if polygons overlap, or to compare

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images for similarity
 Some database systems support table-valued functions, which
can return a relation as a result

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 SQL:1999 also supports a rich set of imperative constructs, including
 Loops, if-then-else, assignment
 Many databases have proprietary procedural extensions to SQL that
differ from SQL:1999

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL Functions
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Define a function that, given the name of a department, returns the
count of the number of instructors in that department.

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create function dept_count (dept_name varchar(20))
returns integer
begin

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declare d_count integer;
select count (* ) into d_count

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from instructor
where instructor.dept_name = dept_name
return d_count;

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end
 The function dept_count can be used to find the department names
and budget of all departments with more that 12 instructors.
select dept_name, budget
from department
where dept_count (dept_name ) > 12

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL functions (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Compound statement: begin … end
 May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and

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end.
 returns – indicates the variable-type that is returned (e.g.,

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integer)
 return – specifies the values that are to be returned as result

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of invoking the function
 SQL function are in fact parameterized views that generalize

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the regular notion of views by allowing parameters

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Table Functions
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 SQL:2003 added functions that return a relation as a result
 Example: Return all instructors in a given department

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create function instructor_of (dept_name char(20))
returns table (

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ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20),

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dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))

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return table
(select ID, name, dept_name, salary
from instructor
where instructor.dept_name = instructor_of.dept_name)
 Usage
select *
from table (instructor_of (‘Music’))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL Procedures
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The dept_count function could instead be written as procedure:
create procedure dept_count_proc (

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in dept_name varchar(20),
out d_count integer)

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begin
select count(*) into d_count

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from instructor
where instructor.dept_name = dept_count_proc.dept_name
end

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 Procedures can be invoked either from an SQL procedure or from
embedded SQL, using the call statement.
declare d_count integer;
call dept_count_proc( ‘Physics’, d_count);
 Procedures and functions can be invoked also from dynamic SQL
 SQL:1999 allows more than one function/procedure of the same name
(called name overloading), as long as the number of
arguments differ, or at least the types of the arguments differ
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Language Constructs for Procedures & Functions
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 SQL supports constructs that gives it almost all the power of a general-
purpose programming language.
Warning: most database systems implement their own variant of the

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
standard syntax below.
Compound statement: begin … end,

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
 May contain multiple SQL statements between begin and end.

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 Local variables can be declared within a compound statements
 While and repeat statements:

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while boolean expression do
sequence of statements ;
end while

repeat
sequence of statements ;
until boolean expression
end repeat

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Language Constructs (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 For loop
 Permits iteration over all results of a query

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 Example: Find the budget of all departments

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declare n integer default 0;
for r as
select budget from department

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do
set n = n + r.budget
end for

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Language Constructs (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Conditional statements (if-then-else)
SQL:1999 also supports a case statement similar to C case statement

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 Example procedure: registers student after ensuring classroom capacity
is not exceeded

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 Returns 0 on success and -1 if capacity is exceeded
 See book (page 177) for details

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 Signaling of exception conditions, and declaring handlers for exceptions
declare out_of_classroom_seats condition

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declare exit handler for out_of_classroom_seats
begin
…
.. signal out_of_classroom_seats
end
 The handler here is exit -- causes enclosing begin..end to be exited
 Other actions possible on exception

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Language Routines*
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 SQL:1999 permits the use of functions and procedures written in other

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languages such as C or C++
 Declaring external language procedures and functions

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create procedure dept_count_proc(in dept_name varchar(20),

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out count integer)
language C
external name ’ /usr/avi/bin/dept_count_proc’

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create function dept_count(dept_name varchar(20))
returns integer
language C
external name ‘/usr/avi/bin/dept_count’

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Language Routines (Contd.)*
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 SQL:1999 allows the definition of procedures in an imperative programming
language, (Java, C#, C or C++) which can be invoked from SQL queries.

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 Functions defined in this fashion can be more efficient than functions defined
in SQL, and computations that cannot be carried out in SQL can be

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executed by these functions.
 Declaring external language procedures and functions

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create procedure dept_count_proc(in dept_name varchar(20),
out count integer)

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language C
external name ’ /usr/avi/bin/dept_count_proc’

create function dept_count(dept_name varchar(20))

returns integer
language C
external name ‘/usr/avi/bin/dept_count’

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 External Language Routines (Cont.)*
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Benefits of external language functions/procedures:
 more efficient for many operations, and more expressive power

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 Drawbacks
 Code to implement function may need to be loaded into database

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system and executed in the database system’s address space.
 risk of accidental corruption of database structures

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 security risk, allowing users access to unauthorized data
 There are alternatives, which give good security at the cost of

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potentially worse performance
 Direct execution in the database system’s space is used when
efficiency is more important than security

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Security with External Language Routines*
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To deal with security problems, we can do on of the following:
 Use sandbox techniques

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 That is, use a safe language like Java, which cannot be used
to access/damage other parts of the database code.

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 Run external language functions/procedures in a separate
process, with no access to the database process’ memory.

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 Parameters and results communicated via inter-process
communication

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 Both have performance overheads
 Many database systems support both above approaches as well as
direct executing in database system address space.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Accessing SQL From a

Programming Language
Functions and Procedural
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Constructs
Triggers

T E
TRIGGERS
NP
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Triggers
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A trigger is a statement that is executed automatically by the
system as a side effect of a modification to the database

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 To design a trigger mechanism, we must:
 Specify the conditions under which the trigger is to be

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executed.
 Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes.

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 Triggers introduced to SQL standard in SQL:1999, but
supported even earlier using non-standard syntax by most
databases.

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 Syntax illustrated here may not work exactly on your
database system; check the system manuals

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Triggering Events and Actions in SQL
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Triggering event can be insert, delete or update
 Triggers on update can be restricted to specific attributes

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 For example, after update of takes on grade
 Values of attributes before and after an update can be referenced

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 referencing old row as : for deletes and updates
 referencing new row as : for inserts and updates

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 Triggers can be activated before an event, which can serve as
extra constraints. For example, convert blank grades to null.

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create trigger setnull_trigger before update of takes
referencing new row as nrow
for each row
when (nrow.grade = ‘ ‘)
begin atomic
set nrow.grade = null;
end;

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Trigger to Maintain credits_earned value
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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create trigger credits_earned after update of takes on (grade)
referencing new row as nrow
referencing old row as orow

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for each row
when nrow.grade <> ’F’ and nrow.grade is not null

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and (orow.grade = ’F’ or orow.grade is null)
begin atomic

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update student
set tot_cred= tot_cred +
(select credits

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from course
where course.course_id= nrow.course_id)
where student.id = nrow.id;
end;

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Statement Level Triggers
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Instead of executing a separate action for each affected row, a
single action can be executed for all rows affected by a transaction

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 Use for each statement instead of for each row
 Use referencing old table or referencing new table to

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refer to temporary tables (called transition tables) containing
the affected rows

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 Can be more efficient when dealing with SQL statements that
update a large number of rows

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 When Not To Use Triggers
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Triggers were used earlier for tasks such as
 Maintaining summary data (e.g., total salary of each
department)

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 Replicating databases by recording changes to special
relations (called change or delta relations) and having a

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separate process that applies the changes over to a replica
 There are better ways of doing these now:

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 Databases today provide built in materialized view facilities
to maintain summary data
 Databases provide built-in support for replication

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 Encapsulation facilities can be used instead of triggers in many
cases
 Define methods to update fields
 Carry out actions as part of the update methods instead of
through a trigger

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 When Not To Use Triggers (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Risk of unintended execution of triggers, for example, when
 Loading data from a backup copy

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 Replicating updates at a remote site
 Trigger execution can be disabled before such actions.

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 Other risks with triggers:
 Error leading to failure of critical transactions that set off
the trigger

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 Cascading execution

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Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Introduced the use of SQL from a programming language
 Familiarized with functions and procedures in SQL

E
 Understood the triggers

P T
N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Instructor and TAs

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Name Mail Mobile
Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880

E
Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655

T
Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638

N P
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.

Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 11.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 L
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

E
Module 12: Formal Relational Query Languages

P T
Partha Pratim Das
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

N
[email protected]

Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
 PPD

Module Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Accessing SQL From a Programming Language
 Functions and Procedural Constructs

E
 Triggers

P T
N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 To understand formal query language through relational algebra

T E
N P
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Relational Algebra
 Tuple Relational Calculus (Overview only)

E
 Domain Relational Calculus (Overview only)
 Equivalence of Algebra and Calculus

P T
N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Relational Query Language
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Relational Algebra
 Procedural and Algebra based

E
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 Non-Procedural and Predicate Calculus based

T
 Domain Relational Calculus
 Non-Procedural and Predicate Calculus based

N P
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational
Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Domain Relational
Calculus

E
Equivalence of Algebra
and Calculus

P T
N
RELATIONAL ALGEBRA

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Relational Algebra
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Created by Edgar F Codd at IBM in 1970
 Procedural language

E
 Six basic operators

 select: 

T
 project: 
union: 

P


 set difference: –

N
 Cartesian product: x
 rename: 
 The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new
relation as a result

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Select Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Notation:  p(r)

L

 p is called the selection predicate
 Defined as:

E
p(r) = {t | t  r and p(t)}

T
where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms
connected by :  (and),  (or),  (not)

P
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>

N
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 

 Example of selection:

 dept_name=“Physics”(instructor)
A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Project Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Notation:
 A1 , A2 ,, Ak (r )

E
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name
 The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing

T
the columns that are not listed
 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets

P
 Example: To eliminate the dept_name attribute of instructor

N
ID, name, salary (instructor)

A,C (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Union Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:

E
r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}
 For r  s to be valid.

T
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column

P
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)

N
 Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in the
Spring 2010 semester, or in both

course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) 

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section))

rs

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Set Difference Operation

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Notation r – s
 Defined as:
r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}

T E
 Set differences must be taken between compatible relations
 r and s must have the same arity

P
 attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
 Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but

N
not in the Spring 2010 semester
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) −
course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section)) r –s

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:

E
r  s = { t | t  r and t  s }
 Assume:

T
 r, s have the same arity
 attributes of r and s are compatible

P
 Note: r  s = r – (r – s)

N rs

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Cartesian-Product Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Notation r x s
 Defined as:

E
r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}

T
 Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are
disjoint. (That is, R  S = )

P
 If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used

N rxs

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Rename Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-
algebra expressions.
Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.

E

 Example:

T
 x (E)

P
returns the expression E under the name X
 If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

N
 x ( A1 , A 2 ,..., A n ) ( E )
returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , …., An .

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Division Operation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 The division operation is applied to two relations
 R(Z) ÷ S(X), where X subset Z. Let Y = Z – X (and hence Z = X  Y);
that is, let Y be the set of attributes of R that are not attributes of S

E
 The result of DIVISION is a relation T(Y) that includes a tuple t if tuples

T
tR appear in R with tR [Y] = t, and with
 tR [X] = ts for every tuple ts in S.

P
 For a tuple t to appear in the result T of the DIVISION, the values in t
must appear in R in combination with every tuple in S
 Division is a derived operation and can be expressed in terms of other

N
oeprations

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Division Operation – Example

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Relations r, s:
A B B

E
 1 1
 2
 2

T
3
 1 s
 1

P
 1
 3
 4

N
 6 e.g.
 1
A is customer name
 2
 r  s: A r
B is branch-name
1 and 2 here show two specific branch-names
 (Find customers who have an account in all branches of the
bank)

Source: db.fcngroup.nl/silberslides/Divsion%20-%20Slides%20-%20relational%20algebra.pptx
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Another Division Example
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Relations r, s:
A B C D E D E

E
 a  a 1 a 1
 a  a 1 b 1

T
 a  b 1 s
 a  a 1
 

P
a b 3
 a  a 1
 a  b 1

N
 a  b 1
r
e.g.
 r  s: Students who have taken both "a” and
A B C “b” courses, with instructor “1”

 a  (Find students who have taken all courses

given by instructor 1)
 a 

Source: db.fcngroup.nl/silberslides/Divsion%20-%20Slides%20-%20relational%20algebra.pptx
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the
following:

E
 A relation in the database
 A constant relation

T
 Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are all
relational-algebra expressions:

P
 E1  E2

N
 E1 – E2

 E1 x E2

 p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1

 s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1

  x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational
Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Domain Relational
Calculus

E
Equivalence of Algebra
and Calculus

P T
N
TUPLE RELATIONAL CALCULUS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Relational Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form
{t | P (t ) }

E
 It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t
 t is a tuple variable, t [A ] denotes the value of tuple t on attribute A

T
 t  r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

P


N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Predicate Calculus Formula
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
1. Set of attributes and constants
2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., , , , , , )

E
3. Set of connectives: and (), or (v)‚ not ()
4. Implication (): x  y, if x if true, then y is true

T
x  y x v y
5. Set of quantifiers:

P
 t r (Q (t )) ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r
such that predicate Q (t ) is true

N
 t r (Q (t )) Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Safety of Expressions
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 It is possible to write tuple calculus expressions that generate infinite relations
 For example, { t |  t r } results in an infinite relation if the domain of any attribute of

E
relation r is infinite
 To guard against the problem, we restrict the set of allowable expressions to safe

T
expressions
 An expression {t | P (t )} in the tuple relational calculus is safe if every component of t

P
appears in one of the relations, tuples, or constants that appear in P
 NOTE: this is more than just a syntax condition

N
 E.g. { t | t [A] = 5  true } is not safe --- it defines an infinite set with attribute values
that do not appear in any relation or tuples or constants in P

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational
Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Domain Relational
Calculus

E
Equivalence of Algebra
and Calculus

P T
N
DOMAIN RELATIONAL CALCULUS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Relational Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 A nonprocedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple
relational calculus

E
 Each query is an expression of the form:

T
{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P (x1, x2, …, xn)}

P
 x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables
 P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Relational Algebra
Tuple Relational
Calculus
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Domain Relational
Calculus

E
Equivalence of Algebra
and Calculus

P T
N
EQUIVALENCE OF ALGEBRA AND
CALCULUS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Equivalence of RA, TRC and DRC

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
Source: http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CourseCentral/354/louie/Equiv_Notations.pdf
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Discussed relational algebra with examples
 Introduced tuple relational and domain relational calculus

E
 Illustrated equivalence of algebra and calculus

P T
N
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Instructor and TAs

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
Name Mail Mobile
Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880

E
Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655

T
Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638

N P
Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.

Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 12.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 L
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

E
Module 13: Entity-Relationship Model/1

P T
Partha Pratim Das
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

N
[email protected]

Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
 PPD

Module Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Relational Algebra
 Tuple Relational Calculus (Overview only)

E
 Domain Relational Calculus (Overview only)
 Equivalence of Algebra and Calculus

P T
N
Database System Concepts 13.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 To understand the Design Process for Database Systems
 To study the E-R Model for real world representation

T E
N P
Database System Concepts 13.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Design Process
 E-R Model

E
 Entity and Entity Set
 Relationship

T
 Cardinality

P
 Attributes
 Weak Entity Sets

N
Database System Concepts 13.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Design Process
E-R Model
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
P T
N
DESIGN PROCESS

Database System Concepts 13.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Design Phases
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 The initial phase of database design is to characterize fully the
data needs of the prospective database users

E
 Next, the designer chooses a data model and, by applying the
concepts of the chosen data model, translates these

T
requirements into a conceptual schema of the database
 A fully developed conceptual schema also indicates the

P
functional requirements of the enterprise. In a “specification of
functional requirements”, users describe the kinds of operations
(or transactions) that will be performed on the data

N
Database System Concepts 13.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Phases (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
The process of moving from an abstract data model to the
implementation of the database proceeds in two final design

E
phases.

 Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.

T
Database design requires that we find a “good” collection
of relation schemas.

P
 Business decision – What attributes should we record
in the database?
 Computer Science decision – What relation schemas

N
should we have and how should the attributes be
distributed among the various relation schemas?
 Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the
database

Database System Concepts 13.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Design Approaches
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

L
 Entity Relationship Model (covered in this chapter)
 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships

E
 Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other objects
 Described by a set of attributes

T
 Relationship: an association among several entities
 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

P
 Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
 Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them

N
Database System Concepts 13.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Design Process
E-R Model
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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E-R MODEL
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Database System Concepts 13.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ER model – Database Modeling
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The ER data model was developed to facilitate database design by
allowing specification of an enterprise schema that represents the

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overall logical structure of a database
 The ER model is very useful in mapping the meanings and

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interactions of real-world enterprises onto a conceptual schema.
Because of this usefulness, many database-design tools draw on
concepts from the ER model

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 The ER data model employs three basic concepts:
 entity sets

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 relationship sets
 attributes
 The ER model also has an associated diagrammatic
representation, the ER diagram, which can express the overall
logical structure of a database graphically

Database System Concepts 13.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Entity Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from
other objects.

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 Example: specific person, company, event, plant
 An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share

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the same properties.
 Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays

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 An entity is represented by a set of attributes; i.e., descriptive
properties possessed by all members of an entity set.

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 Example:
instructor = (ID, name, street, city, salary )
course= (course_id, title, credits)
 A subset of the attributes form a primary key of the entity
set; i.e., uniquely identifying each member of the set.

Database System Concepts 13.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Entity Sets – instructor and student
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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instructor_ID instructor_name student-ID student_name

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Database System Concepts 13.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A relationship is an association among several entities
Example:

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44553 (Peltier) advisor 22222 (Einstein)
student entity relationship set instructor entity

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 A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n  2 entities, each
taken from entity sets

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{(e1, e2, … en) | e1  E1, e2  E2, …, en  En}

where (e1, e2, …, en) is a relationship

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 Example:
(44553,22222)  advisor

Database System Concepts 13.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Relationship Set advisor
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 13.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 An attribute can also be associated with a relationship set.
 For instance, the advisor relationship set between entity sets
instructor and student may have the attribute date which tracks

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when the student started being associated with the advisor

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Database System Concepts 13.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Degree of a Relationship Set
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Binary relationship
 involve two entity sets (or degree two).

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 most relationship sets in a database system are binary.
 Relationships between more than two entity sets are rare. Most

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relationships are binary. (More on this later.)
 Example: students work on research projects under the

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guidance of an instructor.
 relationship proj_guide is a ternary relationship between

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instructor, student, and project

Database System Concepts 13.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Mapping Cardinality Constraints
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Express the number of entities to which another entity can be
associated via a relationship set.

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 Most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
 For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be one of

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the following types:
 One to one

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 One to many
 Many to one

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 Many to many

Database System Concepts 13.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Mapping Cardinalities
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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One to one One to many

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any

elements in the other set

Database System Concepts 13.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Mapping Cardinalities
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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one
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Many to Many to many

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any

elements in the other set

Database System Concepts 13.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Complex Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Attribute types:
 Simple and composite attributes.

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 Single-valued and multivalued attributes

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 Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers
 Derived attributes

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 Can be computed from other attributes
 Example: age, given date_of_birth

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 Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute

Database System Concepts 13.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Composite Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 13.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundant Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Suppose we have entity sets:
 instructor, with attributes: ID, name, dept_name, salary

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 department, with attributes: dept_name, building, budget
 We model the fact that each instructor has an associated

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department using a relationship set inst_dept
 The attribute dept_name appears in both entity sets. Since

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it is the primary key for the entity set department, it
replicates information present in the relationship and is
therefore redundant in the entity set instructor and needs to

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be removed
 BUT: when converting back to tables, in some cases the
attribute gets reintroduced, as we will see later

Database System Concepts 13.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Weak Entity Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Consider a section entity, which is uniquely
identified by a course_id, semester, year,

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and sec_id.
 Clearly, section entities are related to course

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entities. Suppose we create a relationship
set sec_course between entity sets section
and course.

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 Note that the information in sec_course is
redundant, since section already has an

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attribute course_id, which identifies the
course with which the section is related.
 One option to deal with this redundancy is to
get rid of the relationship sec_course;
however, by doing so the relationship
between section and course becomes
implicit in an attribute, which is not desirable.

Database System Concepts 13.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Weak Entity Sets (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 An alternative way to deal with this redundancy is to not store the
attribute course_id in the section entity and to only store the

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remaining attributes section_id, year, and semester. However, the
entity set section then does not have enough attributes to identify a

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particular section entity uniquely; although each section entity is
distinct, sections for different courses may share the same
section_id, year, and semester.

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 To deal with this problem, we treat the relationship sec_course as a
special relationship that provides extra information, in this case, the

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course_id, required to identify section entities uniquely.
 The notion of weak entity set formalizes the above intuition. A weak
entity set is one whose existence is dependent on another entity,
called its identifying entity; instead of associating a primary key
with a weak entity, we use the identifying entity, along with extra
attributes called discriminator to uniquely identify a weak entity. An
entity set that is not a weak entity set is termed a strong entity set.

Database System Concepts 13.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Weak Entity Sets (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Every weak entity must be associated with an identifying
entity; that is, the weak entity set is said to be existence

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dependent on the identifying entity set. The identifying entity
set is said to own the weak entity set that it identifies. The

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relationship associating the weak entity set with the
identifying entity set is called the identifying relationship.
 Note that the relational schema we eventually create from the

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entity set section does have the attribute course_id, for
reasons that will become clear later, even though we have

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dropped the attribute course_id from the entity set section.

Database System Concepts 13.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Introduced the Design Process for Database Systems
 Elucidated the E-R Model for real world representation with

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entities, entity sets, relationships, etc.

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Database System Concepts 13.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Instructor and TAs

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Name Mail Mobile
Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880

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Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655

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Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638

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Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.

Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database System Concepts 13.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 L
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

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Module 14: Entity-Relationship Model/2

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Partha Pratim Das
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

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[email protected]

Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
 PPD

Module Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Design Process
 E-R Model

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 Entity and Entity Set
 Relationship

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 Cardinality

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 Attributes
 Weak Entity Sets

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Database System Concepts 14.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To illustrate E-R Diagram notation for E-R Models
 To explore translation of E-R Models to Relational Schemas

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Database System Concepts 14.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 E-R Diagram
 E-R Model to Relational Schema

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Database System Concepts 14.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

E-R Diagram
E-R Model to Relational
Schema
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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E-R DIAGRAM

Database System Concepts 14.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Entity Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Entities can be represented graphically as follows:
• Rectangles represent entity sets.

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• Attributes listed inside entity rectangle
• Underline indicates primary key attributes

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Database System Concepts 14.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Diamonds represent relationship sets.

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Database System Concepts 14.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets with Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 14.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Roles
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Entity sets of a relationship need not be distinct
 Each occurrence of an entity set plays a “role” in the relationship

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 The labels “course_id” and “prereq_id” are called roles.

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Database System Concepts 14.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cardinality Constraints
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed line
(), signifying “one,” or an undirected line (—), signifying “many,”

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between the relationship set and the entity set.

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 One-to-one relationship between an instructor and a student :
 A student is associated with at most one instructor via the
relationship advisor

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 A student is associated with at most one department via
stud_dept

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Database System Concepts 14.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 One-to-Many Relationship
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 one-to-many relationship between an instructor and a student
 an instructor is associated with several (including 0) students

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via advisor
 a student is associated with at most one instructor via advisor,

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Database System Concepts 14.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Many-to-One Relationships
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 many-to-one relationship between a student and a instructor,
 an instructor is associated with at most one student via

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advisor,
 and a student is associated with several (including 0)

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instructors via advisor

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Database System Concepts 14.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Many-to-Many Relationship
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 An instructor is associated with several (possibly 0) students via
advisor

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 A student is associated with several (possibly 0) instructors via
advisor

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Database System Concepts 14.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Total and Partial Participation
 Total participation (indicated by double line): every entity in the
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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entity set participates in at least one relationship in the relationship
set

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 participation of student in advisor relation is total

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 every student must have an associated instructor
 Partial participation: some entities may not participate in any
relationship in the relationship set
 Example: participation of instructor in advisor is partial

Database System Concepts 14.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Notation for Expressing More Complex Constraints
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A line may have an associated minimum and maximum cardinality,
shown in the form l..h, where l is the minimum and h the maximum
cardinality

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 A minimum value of 1 indicates total participation.

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 A maximum value of 1 indicates that the entity participates in
at most one relationship

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 A maximum value of * indicates no limit.

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Instructor can advise 0 or more students. A student must have
1 advisor; cannot have multiple advisors

Database System Concepts 14.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Notation to Express Entity with Complex Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 14.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Expressing Weak Entity Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 In E-R diagrams, a weak entity set is depicted via a double rectangle
 We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed

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line
 The relationship set connecting the weak entity set to the identifying

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strong entity set is depicted by a double diamond
 Primary key for section – (course_id, sec_id, semester, year)

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Database System Concepts 14.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 E-R Diagram for a University Enterprise
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 14.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

E-R Diagram
E-R Model to Relational
Schema
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
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E-R MODEL TO RELATIONAL SCHEMA

Database System Concepts 14.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Reduction to Relation Schemas
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Entity sets and relationship sets can be expressed uniformly as
relation schemas that represent the contents of the database

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 A database which conforms to an E-R diagram can be represented by
a collection of schemas

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 For each entity set and relationship set there is a unique schema that
is assigned the name of the corresponding entity set or relationship
set

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 Each schema has a number of columns (generally corresponding to
attributes), which have unique names

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Database System Concepts 14.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Entity Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A strong entity set reduces to a schema with the same attributes

student(ID, name, tot_cred)

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 A weak entity set becomes a table that includes a column for the
primary key of the identifying strong entity set

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section ( course_id, sec_id, sem, year )

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Database System Concepts 14.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Relationship Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A many-to-many relationship set is represented as a schema with
attributes for the primary keys of the two participating entity sets,

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and any descriptive attributes of the relationship set.
 Example: schema for relationship set advisor

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advisor = (s_id, i_id)

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Database System Concepts 14.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representation of Entity Sets with Composite Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Composite attributes are flattened out by creating a
separate attribute for each component attribute

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 Example: given entity set instructor with
composite attribute name with component
attributes first_name and last_name the schema

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corresponding to the entity set has two attributes
name_first_name and name_last_name

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 Prefix omitted if there is no ambiguity
(name_first_name could be first_name)

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 Ignoring multivalued attributes, extended instructor
schema is
 instructor(ID,
first_name, middle_initial, last_name,
street_number, street_name,
apt_number, city, state, zip_code,
date_of_birth)

Database System Concepts 14.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Representation of Entity Sets with Multivalued Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A multivalued attribute M of an entity E is represented by a
separate schema EM

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 Schema EM has attributes corresponding to the primary key of E
and an attribute corresponding to multivalued attribute M

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 Example: Multivalued attribute phone_number of instructor is
represented by a schema:

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inst_phone= ( ID, phone_number)
 Each value of the multivalued attribute maps to a separate tuple of
the relation on schema EM

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 For example, an instructor entity with primary key 22222 and
phone numbers 456-7890 and 123-4567 maps to two tuples:
(22222, 456-7890) and (22222, 123-4567)

Database System Concepts 14.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Redundancy of Schemas
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Many-to-one and one-to-many relationship sets that are total on the
many-side can be represented by adding an extra attribute to the
“many” side, containing the primary key of the “one” side

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 Example: Instead of creating a schema for relationship set inst_dept,
add an attribute dept_name to the schema arising from entity set

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instructor

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Database System Concepts 14.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundancy of Schemas (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 For one-to-one relationship sets, either side can be chosen
to act as the “many” side

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 That is, an extra attribute can be added to either of the
tables corresponding to the two entity sets

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 If participation is partial on the “many” side, replacing a
schema by an extra attribute in the schema corresponding
to the “many” side could result in null values

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Database System Concepts 14.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundancy of Schemas (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The schema corresponding to a relationship set linking a weak
entity set to its identifying strong entity set is redundant.

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 Example: The section schema already contains the attributes that

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would appear in the sec_course schema

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Database System Concepts 14.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Illustrated E-R Diagram notation for E-R Models
 Discussed translation of E-R Models to Relational Schemas

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Database System Concepts 14.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Instructor and TAs

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Name Mail Mobile
Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880

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Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655

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Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638

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Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.

Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database System Concepts 14.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 L
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

Database Management Systems

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Module 15: Entity-Relationship Model/3

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Partha Pratim Das
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

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[email protected]

Srijoni Majumdar
Himadri B G S Bhuyan
Gurunath Reddy M

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
www.db-book.com
 PPD

Module Recap
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 E-R Diagram
 E-R Model to Relational Schema

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Database System Concepts 15.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Objectives
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To understand extended features of E-R Model
 To discuss various design issues

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Database System Concepts 15.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Module Outline
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Extended E-R Features
 Design Issues

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Database System Concepts 15.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Extended E-R Features

Design Issues
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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EXTENDED E-R FEATURES

Database System Concepts 15.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Non-binary Relationship Sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Most relationship sets are binary
 There are occasions when it is more convenient to

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represent relationships as non-binary.
 E-R Diagram with a Ternary Relationship

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Database System Concepts 15.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cardinality Constraints on Ternary Relationship
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 We allow at most one arrow out of a ternary (or greater degree)
relationship to indicate a cardinality constraint

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 For example, an arrow from proj_guide to instructor indicates
each student has at most one guide for a project

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 If there is more than one arrow, there are two ways of defining the
meaning.

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 For example, a ternary relationship R between A, B and C
with arrows to B and C could mean
Each A entity is associated with a unique entity from B

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1.
and C or
2. Each pair of entities from (A, B) is associated with a
unique C entity, and each pair (A, C) is associated with a
unique B
 Each alternative has been used in different formalisms
 To avoid confusion we outlaw more than one arrow

Database System Concepts 15.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Specialization
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Top-down design process; we designate sub-groupings within
an entity set that are distinctive from other entities in the set

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 These sub-groupings become lower-level entity sets that have
attributes or participate in relationships that do not apply to the

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higher-level entity set
 Depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA (e.g., instructor

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“is a” person)
 Attribute inheritance – a lower-level entity set inherits all the
attributes and relationship participation of the higher-level

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entity set to which it is linked

Database System Concepts 15.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Specialization Example
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

 Overlapping – employee and student

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 Disjoint – instructor and secretary

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 Total and partial

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Database System Concepts 15.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Specialization via Schemas
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Method 1:
 Form a schema for the higher-level entity

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 Form a schema for each lower-level entity set, include primary
key of higher-level entity set and local attributes

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schema attributes

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person ID, name, street, city
student ID, tot_cred
employee ID, salary

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 Drawback: Getting information about, an employee requires
accessing two relations, the one corresponding to the low-level
schema and the one corresponding to the high-level schema

Database System Concepts 15.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Representing Specialization as Schemas (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Method 2:
 Form a schema for each entity set with all local and inherited

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attributes

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schema attributes
person ID, name, street, city
student ID, name, street, city, tot_cred

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employee ID, name, street, city, salary

 Drawback: name, street and city may be stored redundantly

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for people who are both students and employees

Database System Concepts 15.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Generalization
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 A bottom-up design process – combine a number of entity
sets that share the same features into a higher-level entity set.

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 Specialization and generalization are simple inversions of each
other; they are represented in an E-R diagram in the same way

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 The terms specialization and generalization are used
interchangeably

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Database System Concepts 15.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Constraints on a Specialization/Generalization
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Completeness constraint -- specifies whether or not an entity in
the higher-level entity set must belong to at least one of the lower-

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level entity sets within a generalization
 total: an entity must belong to one of the lower-level entity

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sets
 partial: an entity need not belong to one of the lower-level

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entity sets
 Partial generalization is the default. We can specify total generalization in
an ER diagram by adding the keyword total in the diagram and drawing a

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dashed line from the keyword to the corresponding hollow arrow-head to
which it applies (for a total generalization), or to the set of hollow arrow-
heads to which it applies (for an overlapping generalization).
 The student generalization is total: All student entities must be either
graduate or undergraduate. Because the higher-level entity set arrived at
through generalization is generally composed of only those entities in the
lower-level entity sets, the completeness constraint for a generalized
higher-level entity set is usually total

Database System Concepts 15.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Aggregation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Consider the ternary relationship proj_guide, which we saw earlier
 Suppose we want to record evaluations of a student by a guide

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on a project

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Database System Concepts 15.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregation (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Relationship sets eval_for and proj_guide represent overlapping
information

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 Every eval_for relationship corresponds to a proj_guide
relationship

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 However, some proj_guide relationships may not correspond
to any eval_for relationships

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 So we cannot discard the proj_guide relationship
 Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation

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 Treat relationship as an abstract entity
 Allows relationships between relationships
 Abstraction of relationship into new entity

Database System Concepts 15.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Aggregation (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Eliminate this redundancy via aggregation without introducing
redundancy, the following diagram represents:

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 A student is guided by a particular instructor on a particular
project

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 A student, instructor, project combination may have an
associated evaluation

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Database System Concepts 15.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Aggregation via Schemas
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 To represent aggregation, create a schema containing
 Primary key of the aggregated relationship,

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 The primary key of the associated entity set

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 Any descriptive attributes
 In our example:

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 The schema eval_for is:
eval_for (s_ID, project_id, i_ID, evaluation_id)

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 The schema proj_guide is redundant

Database System Concepts 15.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 PPD

Extended E-R Features

Design Issues
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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P T
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DESIGN ISSUES

Database System Concepts 15.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Entities vs. Attributes
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Use of entity sets vs. attributes

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

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Use of phone as an entity allows extra information about phone numbers
(plus multiple phone numbers)

Database System Concepts 15.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Entities vs. Relationship sets
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Use of entity sets vs. relationship sets
Possible guideline is to designate a relationship set to

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describe an action that occurs between entities

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

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Placement of relationship attributes

For example, attribute date as attribute of advisor or as

attribute of student

Database System Concepts 15.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Binary Vs. Non-Binary Relationships
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Although it is possible to replace any non-binary (n-ary, for n > 2)
relationship set by a number of distinct binary relationship sets, a

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n-ary relationship set shows more clearly that several entities
participate in a single relationship

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 Some relationships that appear to be non-binary may be better
represented using binary relationships

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 For example, a ternary relationship parents, relating a child to
his/her father and mother, is best replaced by two binary
relationships, father and mother

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 Using two binary relationships allows partial information
(e.g., only mother being known)
 But there are some relationships that are naturally non-binary
 Example: proj_guide

Database System Concepts 15.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Converting Non-Binary Relationships to Binary Form
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 In general, any non-binary relationship can be represented using binary
relationships by creating an artificial entity set.
 Replace R between entity sets A, B and C by an entity set E, and

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three relationship sets:
1. RA, relating E and A 2. RB, relating E and B

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3. RC, relating E and C
 Create an identifying attribute for E and add any attributes of R to E

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 For each relationship (ai , bi , ci) in R, create
1. a new entity ei in the entity set E 2. add (ei , ai ) to RA

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3. add (ei , bi ) to RB 4. add (ei , ci ) to RC

Database System Concepts 15.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Converting Non-Binary Relationships (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Also need to translate constraints
 Translating all constraints may not be possible

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 There may be instances in the translated schema that
cannot correspond to any instance of R

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 Exercise: add constraints to the relationships RA, RB and
RC to ensure that a newly created entity corresponds to

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exactly one entity in each of entity sets A, B and C
 We can avoid creating an identifying attribute by making E a

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weak entity set (described shortly) identified by the three
relationship sets

Database System Concepts 15.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 E-R Design Decisions
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 The use of an attribute or entity set to represent an object
 Whether a real-world concept is best expressed by an entity set or

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a relationship set
 The use of a ternary relationship versus a pair of binary

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relationships
 The use of a strong or weak entity set

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 The use of specialization/generalization – contributes to modularity
in the design

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 The use of aggregation – can treat the aggregate entity set as a
single unit without concern for the details of its internal structure

Database System Concepts 15.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan

 Summary of Symbols Used in E-R Notation
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Database System Concepts 15.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Symbols Used in E-R Notation (Cont.)
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

E L
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Database System Concepts 15.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Alternative ER Notations
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Chen, IDE1FX, …

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Database System Concepts 15.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Alternative ER Notations
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Chen IDE1FX (Crows feet notation)

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Database System Concepts 15.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Module Summary
SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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 Discussed the extended features of E-R Model
 Deliberated on various design issues

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Database System Concepts 15.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 PPD

Instructor and TAs

SWAYAM: NPTEL-NOC MOOCs Instructor: Prof. P P Das, IIT Kharagpur. Jan-Apr, 2018

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Name Mail Mobile
Partha Pratim Das, Instructor [email protected] 9830030880

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Srijoni Majumdar, TA [email protected] 9674474267
Himadri B G S Bhuyan, TA [email protected] 9438911655

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Gurunath Reddy M [email protected] 9434137638

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Slides used in this presentation are borrowed from http://db-book.com/
with kind permission of the authors.

Edited and new slides are marked with “PPD”.

Database System Concepts 15.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan