University Institute of Engineering

Aerospace Engineering

LAB MANUAL
SUBJECT: STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

B.E II Year – IIIrd Semester

(Branch: Aerospace)
23-ASH-201

Chandigarh University
Gharuan, Mohali
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Particular Page No.

1 University-Vision and Mission 1

2 Department-Vision and Mission 2
3 PEO 3
4 PO 4
5 PSO & SO 5
7 Course Objectives 6
8 Course Outcomes 6
9 Mapping of COs/POs/PSOs 6-7
10 Code of Ethics: AIAA 8
11 Course Syllabus 9-12
12 List of Experiments (Mapped with Cos) 13
Experiment 1…10
Aim
Objective
Input/Apparatus Used
13
Procedure/Algorithm/Code 14-41
Observations/Outcome
Discussion
Question: Viva Voce

Prepared by: Approved by:

 University Vision and Mission

Vision

To be globally recognized as a Centre of Excellence for Research, Innovation, Entrepreneurship

and disseminating knowledge by providing inspirational learning to produce professional leaders
for serving the society.

Mission

M1: Providing world class infrastructure, renowned academicians and ideal environment for
Research, Innovation, Consultancy and Entrepreneurship relevant to the society.

M2: Offering programs & courses in consonance with National policies for nation building and
meeting global challenges.

M3: Designing Curriculum to match International standards, needs of Industry, civil society and
for inculcation of traits of Creative Thinking and Critical Analysis as well as Human and Ethical
values.

M4: Ensuring students delight by meeting their aspirations through blended learning, corporate
mentoring, professional grooming, flexible curriculum and healthy atmosphere based on co-
curricular and extra-curricular activities.

M5: Creating a scientific, transparent and objective examination/evaluation system to ensure an

ideal certification.

M6: Establishing strategic relationships with leading National and International corporates and
universities for academic as well as research collaborations.

M7: Contributing for creation of healthy, vibrant and sustainable society by involving in
Institutional Social Responsibility (ISR) activities like rural development, welfare of senior
citizens, women empowerment, community service, health and hygiene awareness and
environmental protection
 Department Vision and Mission

Vision
To create conducive environment for academic, research & development focusing on
entrepreneurship and innovations in the field of Aerospace Engineering blended with values and
ethics producing graduates adaptive to changing technologies.

Mission

MD1: To provide state of art infrastructure and curriculum for excellent teaching and learning as
par with the requirements of industry.

MD2: To inculcate ethical standards and values with wisdom of professionalism, leadership and
social responsibility.

MD3: To impart the technical skills in tune with the contemporary requirements through
collaboration with industries and research organizations.

MD4: To inculcate social level research by joining hands with industry for improving technical
based solutions.

2
PROGRAM EDUCATION OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1: Graduates will have sound knowledge of all emerging areas of Aerospace engineering
such as aircraft structure, propulsion, aerodynamics, avionics, aircraft maintenance, aircraft design
for their employability, higher studies, research, and product development.

PEO2: Graduates will be equipped with effective communication skills for the exchange of ideas
about technical plans, strategies and implementation; strong knowledge of English and other
languages for communication and technical documentation.

PEO3: Graduates will be well prepared with academic excellence, managerial skills, and
leadership qualities and understand the need for lifelong learning for a successful professional
career.

PEO4: Graduates will have innovative ideas and potential to contribute to the society

3
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

PO1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, science and engineering

fundamentals and Production and Industrial Engineering specialization to the solution of complex
Production and Industrial Engineering problems.

PO2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature and analyze complex Production
and Industrial Engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.

PO3. Design/ Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex Engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet specified needs with appropriate
consideration for public health and safety, cultural, societal and environmental considerations.

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex Engineering problems: Use research-based

knowledge and research methods including analysis, interpretation of data and synthesis of
information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5. Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6. The Engineer and Society: Apply contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety,
legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to professional engineering
practice.

PO7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of engineering practice.

PO9. Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams and in multi-disciplinary settings.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex Engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations and give and receive
clear instructions.

PO11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of

Engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12. Life Long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

4
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO-1: Able to utilize the knowledge of Aerospace Engineering in innovative, dynamic and
challenging environment for design and analysis of an aircraft.

PSO-2: Able to use simulation skills and software analysis packages to simulate and to analyse
multi-disciplinary systems and subsystems related to Aerospace Engineering.

STUDENT OUTCOMES (SOs)

SO1 An ability to identify, formulates, and solves complex engineering problems by applying
principles of engineering, science, and mathematics.

SO 2 An ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet specified needs with
consideration of public health, safety, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social,
environmental, and economic factors.

SO3 An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences.

SO4 An ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations and
make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global,
economic, environmental, and societal contexts.

SO5 An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership,
create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives.

SO6 An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret data,
and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions.

SO7 An ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using appropriate learning
strategies.

5
 COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To understand the structural behaviour of different types of beams and columns subjected to

various loading conditions with particular emphasis on aircraft structural components.

2. To provide the knowledge of strain energy and designing of Thin-Thick Pressure vessels.

3. To Provide the Basics of Statically determinate and indeterminate beams

COURSE OUTCOMES

On the completion of Experiments the student will be able to:

CO1 Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties of
standardized specimens.

CO2 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines.

CO3 Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety, legal
and environmental aspects.

CO4 Interpret the data and apply the appropriate tool/technique for the selection and design of
different machine component such as shaft, spring, beam and column.

CO5 Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners.

Mapping of COs with Pos and PSOs

CO vs
PO/PS PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PS PS
PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8
O 1 2 3 4 9 10 11 12 O1 O2

CO1 2 2 2 2 - 2 - 3 - 2 - 3 3 -

CO2 3 3 3 3 - 3 - 2 - 3 - 2 2 -

CO3 2 2 2 2 - 2 - - - 2 - 2 2 -

CO4 3 2 2 3 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 2 -

CO5 2 2 2 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 3 2 -

Target 2.4 2.2 2.2 2.4 - 2.2 - 2.25 - 2.2 - 2.4 2.2 -

6
 Mapping of CO & SO

SO-

SO-

SO-

SO-

SO-

SO-
SO-
COs/SOs

7
4
Apply the basics concepts of material testing to
evaluate the mechanical properties of - √ √ √ √ - -
standardized specimens
Determine the Mechanical properties of
components of different materials on UTM,
Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue - √ - √ √ √ -
testing machines.
Conduct the experiment individual/team
ethically considering social, health, safety, legal - - - √ √ √ -
and environmental aspects.
Interpret the data and apply the appropriate
tool/technique for the selection and design of
different machine component such as shaft, - - √ - - √ -
spring, beam and column
Conclude the experimental results and present
the same effectively in oral and written - - - - - √ √
manners.

7
8
 Syllabus

Course Syllabus-
S.NO. Course TITLE L T P S C CH Program
Code: Core
23-
1 ASH- Strength of Materials Lab 0 0 2 0 PC
201

PRE- Engineering Mechanics, Mathematics

REQUISITE

CO- Differential equations

REQUISITE

ANTI- None
REQUISITE

a. Course Description
Course covers the relationship between stress and strain on deformable solids. Applies
analysis to members subjected to axial, bending, and torsional loads. Covers combined
stresses and properties of structural materials.

b. Course Objectives
1. To understand the structural behaviour of different types of beams and columns subjected

to various loading conditions with particular emphasis on aircraft structural components.

2. To provide the knowledge of strain energy and designing of Thin-Thick Pressure vessels.

3. To Provide the Basics of Statically determinate and indeterminate beams.

c. Course Outcomes

On the completion of Experiments the student will be able to:

CO1 Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties of
standardized specimens.

CO2 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines.
CO3 Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety, legal
and environmental aspects.

9
CO4 Interpret the data and apply the appropriate tool/technique for the selection and design of
different machine component such as shaft, spring, beam and column.

CO5 Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners.

d. Syllabus

Unit-1 Contact Hours:15

EXPERIMENT -1 To perform tensile test for ductile and brittle materials and to draw stress-strain curve.
(CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-2 To perform Shear test on UTM. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-3 To perform compression test on UTM. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
Unit-2 Contact Hours:15
EXPERIMENT-4 To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell hardness number of the given
specimen. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-5 To determine the impact strength of the given material using Charpy impact test and
Izod test Machine. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-6 To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring. (CO1, CO2, CO4, CO5)

EXPERIMENT-7 To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)

Unit-3 Contact Hours:15

EXPERIMENT-8 Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with different end conditions. (CO1,
CO2, CO4, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-9 To perform Fatigue test on circular test piece. (CO1, CO2, CO3, CO5)
EXPERIMENT-10 Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem. (CO1, CO3, CO4, CO5)

e. Textbooks / Reference Books

1. Dr. Sadhu Singh, Strength of Materials, Khanna Publishers, 8th Edition
2. S. Rama Mrutham, Strength of Materials, Dhanpat Rai& Sons, 3rd Edition
3. Dr .R.K. Bansal, Strength of Material(Laxmi Publishers),5thEdition
4. D.H Shames, Introduction to Solid Mechanics, Prentice Hall Inc.,1st Edition

f. Assessment Pattern- Internal and External

The performance of students is evaluated as follows:

Theory
Components Continuous Internal Semester End
Assessment (CAE) Examination (SEE)
Marks 60 40
Total Marks 100

10
 S. No. Type of Assessment Weightage of Frequency of Task Final Weightage Remarks
actual in Internal
conduct Assessment
1 Practical Worksheet Practical Practical Worksheet Practical Practical
Worksheet Worksheet Worksheet
2 Mid-Term Test Mid-Term Mid-Term Test Mid-Term Test Mid-Term
Test Test
3 Discussion 4 marks for 4 marks for each 4 marks for each
Forum/Short Digital each

Assignment/
Assignment with
Rubrics to submit
design/Portfolio

4 Presentation Non Graded:

Engagement
Task

5 Attendance and BB NA 4 marks 4 marks

Engagement Score

STUDENT OUTCOMES (SOs)

SO1 An ability to identify, formulates, and solves complex engineering problems by applying
principles of engineering, science, and mathematics.

SO 2 An ability to apply engineering design to produce solutions that meet specified needs with
consideration of public health, safety, and welfare, as well as global, cultural, social,
environmental, and economic factors.

SO3 An ability to communicate effectively with a range of audiences.

SO4 An ability to recognize ethical and professional responsibilities in engineering situations and
make informed judgments, which must consider the impact of engineering solutions in global,
economic, environmental, and societal contexts.

11
SO5 An ability to function effectively on a team whose members together provide leadership,
create a collaborative and inclusive environment, establish goals, plan tasks, and meet objectives.

SO6 An ability to develop and conduct appropriate experimentation, analyze and interpret data,
and use engineering judgment to draw conclusions.

SO7 An ability to acquire and apply new knowledge as needed, using appropriate learning
strategies.

SO-1

SO-2

SO-3

SO-4

SO-5

SO-6

SO-7
COs/SOs

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to

evaluate the mechanical properties of - √ √ √ √ - -
standardized specimens
Determine the Mechanical properties of
components of different materials on UTM,
Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue - √ - √ √ √ -
testing machines.
Conduct the experiment individual/team
ethically considering social, health, safety, legal - - - √ √ √ -
and environmental aspects.
Interpret the data and apply the appropriate
tool/technique for the selection and design of
different machine component such as shaft, - - √ - - √ -
spring, beam and column
Conclude the experimental results and present
the same effectively in oral and written - - - - - √ √
manners.

12
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

UNIT-1
S. Experiments Relevance Page No.
No. to CO
1 To perform tensile test for ductile and brittle materials and to draw stress- CO1, CO2, 1-4
CO3, CO5
strain curve.

2 To perform compression test on UTM CO1, CO2, 5-7

CO3, CO5
3 To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell hardness CO1, CO2, 8-11
number of the given specimen. CO3, CO5

UNIT-2

4 To determine the Rockwell hardness number and Brinell hardness CO1, CO2, 12-16
CO3, CO5
number of the given specimen.

5 To determine the impact strength of the given material using Charpy CO1, CO2, 17-22
CO3, CO5
impact test and IZOD test Machine

6 To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring CO1, CO3, 23-26

CO4, CO5
7 To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen CO1, CO2,
CO3, CO5

UNIT-3

8 Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with different end CO1, CO3, 27-31
CO4, CO5
conditions.

9 To perform Fatigue test on circular test piece CO1, CO2, 32-36

CO3, CO5
10 Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem CO1, CO3, 37-39
CO4, CO5

Prepared by: Approved by:

13
 Experiment-1

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-1 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To perform tensile test on Mild Steel specimen using Universal Testing Machine and to draw
stress-strain curve.

OBJECTIVE
To conduct a tensile test on a mild steel specimen and determine the following:
i. Limit of proportionality
ii. Elastic limit
iii. Yield strength
iv. Ultimate strength
v. Young’s modulus of elasticity
vi. Percentage elongation
vii. Percentage reduction in area.

APPARATUS USED universal testing machine, vernier caliper

PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the specimen as explained above and draw the figure.
2. Measure the diameter of lest specimen by means of a micrometer at least at three places
and determine the mean value. Also mark the gauge length with the help of a center punch.
3. Insert suitable jaws in the grips.
4. Insert the test specimen in the grip.
5. Take the initial reading on vernier scale provided in the machine.
6. Note the initial zero error in the dial of the machine.
7. Start the machine. Apply the load at the slowest speed.
8. Take the reading on vernier scale at the various load stages and record.
9. Continue applying the load till the specimen breaks and then stop the machine.
10. Take out the fractured specimen from the grips. Measure the final length in between the
punch marks.

14
 11. Record the probable yield point during test by observing the point at which pointer of load
dial is stationary for some time and move backward slightly.

Fig 1. Tensile Test Apparatus

OBSERVATIONS TO BE TAKEN BY THE STUDENTS

Initial diameter of specimen do =

Diameter of test specimen after fracture du =

Gauge length, Lo =

Final length after fracture, Luc =

Initial area of cross section Ao = π / 4 d 2o =

Final area of cross section, Au =π / 4 d2u =

15
Probable yield point =

Type of fracture =

CALCULATIONS:
Stress = P/Ao Strain = δ / Lo

Where (L - Lo) = δ

Draw the graph taking stress on Y- axis and strain on X- axis.

Ultimate Load
Ultimate Stress = Ao

Lu − Lo
x100 =
% elongation = Lo

% reduction in area =
Ao − Au
x100 =
Ao

OBSERVATION: Initial Vernier reading =

Sr. Load P Elongation Stress Strain

Vernier reading
No.
2.
1. 3. 4. 5.

01

02

03

04

16
05

17
 06

07

08

09

10

For calculation of value of modulus of elasticity take any point 'x': on stress-strain curve within
elastic range. Find the corresponding stress and strain i.e..x and x°
E = x / x

RESULTS:

Ultimate Stress =
Yield stress =
Proportional Limit =
Modulus of elasticity =
Percentage elongation =
Percentage reduction of area =

DISCUSSION

1. Discuss the stress-strain diagram.

2. Discuss the type of fracture obtained.
3. Compare the results with standard values.

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1. What is yield strength?
Q2. Define stress and strain.
Q3. Differentiate between Engineering Stress and True stress.
Q4. What is Hook’s Law
Q5. Define modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio

18
 Experiment-2

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-2 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To perform the shear test on UTM.

OBJECTIVE To calculate the shear strength of the specimen

APPARATUS USED A UTM, Specimen, shearing attachment, vernier caliper etc

PROCEURE
1. Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the upper portion and one
end in the lower position
2. Switch on the UTM
3. Bring the drag indicator in contact with the main indicator.
4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the Pendulum and
balance it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights.
5. Operate (push) the button for driving the motor to drive the pump.
6. Gradually move the head control ever in left hand direction till the specimen shears.
7. Note down the load at which the specimen shears.
8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen.
9. Repeat the experiment with other specimens.

OBSERVATION
Applied compressive force (F) =——– kgf.
Diameter of specimen =——— mm.
The shear strength shall be calculated from the following formulae:

19
τs = (F/2) / (πd2/4) = 2F / πd2
where ‘d’ is the actual diameter of the specimen

RESULT: Shear stress

DISCUSSION
Q1 Discuss the shear failure in the case of soils.

VIVA-QUESTIONS:
Q1 Does the shear failure in wood occur along the 45° shear plane?
Q2 What is bulging? Why does it occur?
Q3 What is single & double shear?
Q4 What is unit of shear strength?

20
 Experiment-3

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-3 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To Perform Compression test on UTM.

OBJECTIVE To calculate the compressive strength along and across the grain of the test
specimen.

APPARATUS USED universal testing machine, Vernier caliper, Attachments plates

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of the test pieces.
2. Clean the bottom and top plates of the machine.
3. Position the specimen centrally on the bottom plate and screw down the top plate into contact.
Positioning of the specimen centrally is important to ensure correct application of the load.
4. Open the stop valve of the pressure gauge, to be used. close other pressure gauge valves.
5. Open the control valve fully and start the pump running.
6. Set the loose pointer on the gauge back to zero and apply load slowly closing the control
valve.
7. When the specimen fails, the loose pointer on the gauge will indicate the maximum load
reached. At this point the pump motor should be stopped.

OBSERVATIONS
Test Dimensions of Cross sectional area Load at failure Compressive
specimen (cm2) (kg) strength
Along the grain
Across the grain

RESULTS
1. The compressive strength, of wood specimen along the grain ………………………..
2. The compressive strength of wood specimen across the grain ………………………..

21
DISCUSSION
Q1 Discuss the type of failure for each case.

VIVA QUESTION
Q1 What is the compressive strength?
Q2 What is the factor of safety?
Q3 What are bi-modulus materials? Give examples.
Q4 Compression tests are generally performed on brittles materials-why?

22
 Experiment-4

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-4 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To determine the Rockwell Hardness of given materials using Hardness Testing Machine.

OBJECTIVE To determine the

a) Rockwell hardness number for the test specimen
b) Brinell harness number for the test specimen

APPARATUS USED Rockwell hardness tester, vernier caliper, Diamond Indenter

PROCEDURE
1. Select proper scale, load and penetrator. Insert the penetrator in the holder and attach the
required proportional weights to the suspension rod.
2. Clean the specimen and position it on the clean worktable of the machine.
3. Turn the hand wheel to elevate the specimen into contact with the penetrator. Continue carefully
rotating the hand wheel until the small indicating hand on the dial indicates "Set" and the main
indicating hand is approx. vertical, then, if necessary rotate the dial itself until the "set" (i.e. CO
and B 30) position coincides with it. In setting up the specimen in this manner, the minor load of
3 kg is automatically applied.
4. The major load is applied by pushing hand lever away from the operator.
5. As the penetrator is impressed into the specimen, the indicating hands will revolve, and when
this movement ceases the impression is complete. The period of contact between penetrator and
specimen after the major load has been applied is important and may vary from 10 to 20 seconds,
i.e. until the pointer ceases fast movement and continues to creep slightly.
6. As soon as the impression is complete the major load must be removed by pulling the hand
lever towards the operator.
7. Read the hardness number on the appropriate scale after the pointer comes to rest. It is necessary
to specify the scale along with the hardness number.

OBSERVATION:

23
 S.No Material of Thickness of Penetrator Net Scale Rockwell Mean
test specimen load symbol Hardness Value
specimen (mm) number
1 Mild Steel 1
2
3
2 H.S.S 1
2
3

RESULTS

Average Rockwell hardness number of mild steel test specimen is found to be-

1. Mild Steel………………………………..
2. C.I………………………………………..
3. Brass…………………………………….
4. Copper…………………………………..
5. Aluminum……………………………….

For Brinell Hardness test

PROCEDURE
1. Select proper scale, load and penetrator. Insert the penetrator in the holder and attach the required
proportional weights to the suspension rod.
2. Clean the specimen and position it on the clean worktable of the machine.
3. Turn the hand wheel to elevate the specimen into contact with the penetrator. Continue carefully
rotating the hand wheel until the small indicating hand on the dial indicates "Set" and the main
indicating hand is approx. vertical, then, if necessary rotate the dial itself until the "set" (i.e. CO
and B 30) position coincides with it. In setting up the specimen in this manner, the minor load of
3 kg is automatically applied.
4. The major load is applied by pushing hand lever away from the operator.
5. As the penetrator is impressed into the specimen, the indicating hands will revolve, and when
this movement ceases the impression is complete. The period of contact between penetrator and
specimen after the major load has been applied is important and may vary from 10 to 20 seconds,
i.e. until the pointer ceases fast movement and continues to creep slightly.
6. As soon as the impression is complete the major load must be removed by pulling the hand lever
towards the operator.
7. Take out the specimen and measure the diameter of indentation by brinell microscope.

24
 OBSERVATION

Time of Mean
Dimensions of Load Ball dia. Load Dia. of
Material application of BHN value
specimen stage (mm.) (Kg.) impression
load of BHN

RESULT The hardness no. of given specimen

DISCUSSION
Q1 Which factors affect the selecting of the appropriate Rockwell hardness scale?
Q2 For what type of materials are the following Rockwell scales best suited?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Define hardness of a material.
Ans. Material hardness is the ability of a material to withstand force without deformation,
scratching, penetration, and indentation.
Q2 What is the necessity of hardness testing?
Ans. The application of hardness testing enables to evaluate a material's properties, such as strength,
ductility and wear resistance, and so helps you determine whether a material or material
treatment is suitable for the purpose you require.
Q3 What measurement is made in Rockwell test?
Ans. The Rockwell test infers the hardness from the depth of penetration and thus enables a direct
reading of hardness to be obtained from the instrument. Hard materials are measured on the
Rockwell C scale using a diamond rounded tip cone indenter and a load of 1.5 kN.
Q4 Write the Brinell hardness formula and give its unit?
2𝑃
Ans. 𝐵𝐻𝑁 = ,
3.142𝐷(√(𝐷2− 𝑑2))

where:

BHN = Brinell Hardness Number (kgf/mm2)

P = applied load in kilogram-force (kgf)
D = diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)

25
 Experiment-5

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties of
standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-5 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To determine impact strength for given specimens using (i) IZOD TEST (ii) CHARPY TEST
on Universal impact Testing Machine (Pendulum type)

OBJECTIVE To calculate the Impact strength energy in the specimen using IZOD and Charpy
Test.

APPARATUS USED Impact testing machine, vernier caliper

PROCEDURE
(a) IZOD-TEST
1) Place the Izod Vice-in the machine base the bolts placed in the bed T-slots passing through
the vice holes.
2) Fit the Izod hammer to the Pendulum. Also check that the Izod scale is on [the side of the
pointer.
3) Set the measuring device as described before, after roughly estimating the energy required
to smash the test piece and choosing the height of drop of Pendulum accordingly.
4) Adjust the position of vice such that the center line of the test piece lies in the center of
slot in the weight of the Pendulum.
5) Tighten the Vice to the base.
6) Now engage the hook of the Pendulum in the arrester.
7) Place the test piece in the dies of the Vice with the V-notch facing towards the falling
hammer.
8) Place the Izod setting gauge over the Vice and gently push the taper edge of the gauge into
the V-notch of the test piece, the flat face sliding over the vice. This way the center of the
notch is correctly brought in level with the top of holding dies.
9) Taking necessary precautions, release the Pendulum by pulling the release handle.
10) Read the scale which. indicates the energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece, calculate
the energy absorbed per square mm by dividing the scale reading by the minimum area of
cross section i.e., the area at notch in mm2.

(b) CHARPY TEST

26
 1) Replace the Izod vice by Charpy Anvil Blocks and the Izod hammer by the Charpy
Hammer.
2) Also fix the scale so that the pointer is on the side of scale for Charpy Test.
3) Choose the height of drop of the Hammer after roughly estimating the energy required to
smash the test piece and set the scale as already described.
4) Place the test piece against the anvil blocks and adjust their position such that the V-notch
in the test piece lies in the plane of swing of the edge of the striker.
5) Clamp the anvil blocks taking care that the ends of test piece lie in the cavities of anvil
blocks covering the cavities fully.
6) Place the pendulum on the arrester and test piece in position such that the V-notch is on the
side of anvil blocks, opposite to the striking side of the hammer.
7) Pull the release handle and note the energy absorbed in fracturing the test piece.
8) Now calculate the energy absorbed per square mm. cross sectional area of the test piece at
V-notch.

OBSERVATIONS
IZOD TEST

Impact strength
Minimum cross-
Final Mean or Energy
S.No Initial reading sectional area at
reading energy absorbed per
notch. square mm

CHARPY TEST

Impact strength
Minimum cross-
Final Mean or Energy
S.No Initial reading sectional area at
reading energy absorbed per
notch. square mm

RESULT
1. Impact strength of given specimen performing Izod Test is =

27
 2. Impact strength of given specimen performing Charpy Test is =

DISCUSSION
Q1 Does a Charpy or an Izod Impact Test Replicate any Real-Life Scenarios?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 What property is determined by notched - bar impact test?
Q2 Define the property toughness of a material.
Q3 Explain: (a) Notch sensitivity. (b) Modulus of resilience.
Q4 What is the difference between Izod a Charpy test?

28
 Experiment-6

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-6 Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
mapped with legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Interpret the data and apply the appropriate tool/technique for the selection and
design of different machine component such as shaft, spring, beam and column.
(CO4)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To find stiffness of Open Coil Helical Spring

OBJECTIVE To determine the stiffness of the spring and modulus of rigidity of the spring

APPARATUS USED spring testing machine, micrometer, Vernier caliper, scale, spring

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the dimensions of the springs such as the section of the wire, diameter of the spring,
number of turns etc.
2. Fix the spring in between the fixed head and movable head of the machine. Start the machine.
3. Load the spring in suitable steps by controlling Control Valve of machine and measure the
deflection. Take readings both while loading and unloading.

OBSERVATIONS
a) Closed-coiled helical spring
Mean Radius of spring coil, R = .................... mm
Diameter of spring wire, d = ..................... mm
No of turns n=

S.No Load Deflection Rigidity Stiffness

(mm) Modulus (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
1
2
3
4
5

29
b) Open-coiled helical spring
Mean Radius of spring coil, R = .................... mm
Diameter of spring wire, d = ..................... mm
No of turns n=
Angle of spring, =

S.No Load Deflection Rigidity Stiffness

(mm) Modulus (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
1
2
3
4
5

CALCULATIONS

For closed coiled helical spring of circular section, subjected to axial load, deflection is given by:

Where, G = modulus of rigidity.

For open coiled Helical Spring of circular section, subjected to axial load, deflection is given by:

Stiffness of spring, K = w/d

Where, w= load applied in Newton
d = deflection in mm
RESULTS

1. For closed coil helical spring material G= ………….

2. For open coiled helical spring material G = ……….

30
DISCUSSION

Q1 After calculating the values of E and G compare them with generally accepted values.
Q2 Discuss why the experiments will not normally give the expected results.

VIVA QUESTIONS

Q1 Differentiate between Open & Close Coiled Helical Spring.

Q2 What is helix angle?
Q3 Define Spring Stiffness.
Q4 Define Modulus of Rigidity.

31
 Experiment-7
Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-7 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To perform torsion test on Mild steel specimen.

OBJECTIVE To conduct torsion test on mild steel specimen to find modulus of rigidity or to find
angle of twist of the materials

APPARATUS USED Torsion testing machine, vernier calliper, permanent marker

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of the test piece.

2. Measure the gauge length of test piece. Adjust the initial torque and angle of twist reading to
zero position.
3. Insert the test piece in the grip of the machine.
4. Apply the torque initially by hand up to 100 angle of twist and note the corresponding torque.
And angle of twist (Initially the reading may be taken at 2-degree interval.)
5. After the machine is operated electrically, the reading of torque may be noted at an interval of
5 to 10 degree.
6. Continue until the specimen breaks.

Note: - Initially mark a line parallel to the length of test piece to visualize the helix formation.
OBSERVATION
Diameter of Ganges length of specimen d = …………….
Gauge length of specimen L = ………….
Initial Angle of twist = 0(Zero)
Initial Torque applied = 0 (Zero)

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Angle of twist () in degrees Torque Kg-cm (T)

32
 𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑟
= =
𝐽 𝐿 𝑟

𝑇𝑟
𝑟=
𝐽
𝑟
𝛾=
𝐺

2.

S. No. Shear Stress (N/mm2) Shear Strain

GRAPH

Plot graph between

T-

33
 
-

RESULT

From graph (T-)

Tel =
Tultimate =
Tfracture =

Standard value of G = --------------------

Error =

DISCUSSION

Q1 How can we calculate modulus of rigidity using Shear stress vs. Shear strain diagram?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1 Define the following –

a. Shear Stress b. Shear Strain c. Modulus of Rigidity

Q2 Write the relation between three Elastic constants.

Q3 What do you mean by torque?
Q4 What is the unit of polar moment of inertia?

34
 Experiment-8
Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-8 Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
mapped with legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Interpret the data and apply the appropriate tool/technique for the selection and
design of different machine component such as shaft, spring, beam and column.
(CO4)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM Determination of Bucking loads of long columns with different end conditions.

OBJECTIVE To determine the deflection of the column both experimentally and theoretically
for all the four end conditions.

APPARATUS USED Scale, Weights, Columns Apparatus

PROCEDURE

1. Make the lever horizontal with the help of loads at either end.
2. Fix the beam with proper support so that there is no load on beam and beam is perfectly
vertical.
3. Apply the load on beam by applying load on lever on one side.
4. Now by the screw mechanism is help again make the lever horizontal.
5. Check the beam for critical load.
6. Note down the deflection at various parts of the beam.
7. Repeat the above step for different loads.

OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Load P Length of Distance Deflection of Deflection of % error

(kg) column le from one respective points the same
end x measured point
experimentally Ye theoretically
Yth

35
RESULT
The percentage error is given in above table

DISCUSSION
1. Describe the four end conditions for column. Write the value of equivalent length of a
column in each of four cases.

VIVA QUESTIONS

Q1 Distinguish between a beam and a column.

Q2 Define (a) slenderness ratio (b) Critical load.
Q3 What is equivalent length of a column?
Q4 What are the limitations of Euler’s formula

36
 Experiment-9

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-9 Determine the Mechanical properties of components of different materials on UTM,

mapped with Hardness tester, Impact, Torsion and fatigue testing machines. (CO2)
Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM To perform fatigue test on a given mild steel specimen.

APPARATUS USED Fatigue testing machine, Vernier caliper

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of gauge length of specimen
2. Fix one end of the specimen between the gripping vice on the motor end and secure it tightly
with spanner
3. Fix the other end of the specimen in gripping vice on the other end and secure it tight with
spanner.
4. Set the Electronic counter to read 00000.
5. Switch ON the machine by pressing the push Button. With this the specimen starts rotating.
6. Gradually add weights on the suspended lever,
7. When the sample breaks, the machine automatically stops.
8. Note the number of revolutions registered by the counter and the corresponding weights placed
on the lever.

OBSERVATIONS
Weights placed (W) = ...................... Kg.
Diameter of specimen d = ...................... cm.
No. of revolution n =… ................. ,

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. Stress Kg/cm2 No of revolution N rpm

37
RESULT
The endurance limit of the material of given specimen is:

DISCUSSION
Q1 What is the necessity of fatigue testing of metals?
Q2 What are the factors that affect Fatigue?

VIVA QUESTIONS

Q1 Define (a) fatigue (b) endurance limit

Q2 Differentiate between fluctuating and reverse loading?
Q3 How does the fatigue crack initiate?

38
 Experiment-10

Apply the basics concepts of material testing to evaluate the mechanical properties
of standardized specimens. (CO1)

Experiment-10 Conduct the experiment individual/team ethically considering social, health, safety,
mapped with legal and environmental aspects. (CO3)
Interpret the data and apply the appropriate tool/technique for the selection and
design of different machine component such as shaft, spring, beam and column.
(CO4)
Conclude the experimental results and present the same effectively in oral and written
manners. (CO5)

AIM Verification of MAXWELL Reciprocal theorem

OBJECTIVE To calculate the deflection using experimental and theoretical technique and find
the percentage error.

APPARATUS USED Dial gauge, Weights (100 gm – 500 gm)

PROCEDURE
1. Fix the beam in simply supported condition.
2. Set the dial gauge at the mid span showing zero deflection with hanger.
3. Apply the concentrated load mid-point.
4. Note down the dial gauge reading. This will give the required deflection.
5.Measure the deflection at several points for the same load.
6.Change the load and repeat steps 3,4,5.

OBSERVATIONS

1. Length of the beam (l) = ----------------------- m.

2. Distance of load from one end (a) = -------------------- m
3. Distance of load from other end (b) = ---------------------- m.
4. Moment of Inertia (I) = bh3/12 = ------------------------------------- m4

Where

b = width of the beam

h = height of the beam

39
 Where
b = width of the beam
h = height of the beam

1. Modulus of Elasticity (E) = --------------------- Kg/m2

RESULTS
δ1 =
δ2 =
δ3 =
δ4 =
δ5 =
δ6 =
δ7 =
δ8 =
δ9 =
δ10 =

DISCUSSION
Q1 How is the deflection of beam related with the bending moment?

VIVA QUESTIONS
Q1What is a beam?
Q2 What are different types of beam?
Q3What is statically indeterminate beam? Give examples.

40