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THE EARTH AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

• The sky is filled with tiny objects which keep on shining. Some of these objects
are very bright while some are very dim.
• Apart from tiny shining objects, one can see the moon every night, however, in
different shapes and positions. Full moon can be seen once in a month and
this day is also called Poornima. On 15th day after Full moon, one cannot see
the moon. It is known as new moon or Amawasya.
• All these objects along with moon are visible only in the night time. This is
because in day time the light of the sun is very bright which does not allow us to
see the objects in daytime.
• The Sun, the moon and the other objects found in the sky are known as
celestial bodies.
✓ Some celestial bodies are very big and hot while some are small in size.
✓ They are made up of gases and have their own heat and light.
✓ The celestial bodies are called stars. The Sun is also a star.
✓ The numerous stars in the sky are also like sun which keeps on twinkling. They
look very small as they very far from us.
✓ Some celestial bodies do not have their own light and heat. They shine
because of the light of other. Such bodies are known as planets. The word
planet is derived from Greek word ‘Planetal’ which means wanderers.
✓ The Earth is also a planet and gets light from the Sun.
✓ The Moon is a satellite, and it moves round the Earth.
✓ Like Earth, there are other planets as well. Some of the planets have moons
also.
• In the night sky, one can also observe the patterns of stars. These are known
as constellations. For example: Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Saptarishi etc.
Saptarishi is one of the most visible patterns. It consists of seven stars and
is the part of Ursa Major Constellation.
• In the earlier times, people used to find out directions with the help of stars. The
North Star, also known as Pole star, indicates the north direction. This star
always remains in the same direction in the sky and can be located with the help of
Saptarishi.
The Solar System
• The Solar System consists of sun, eight planets, satellites and other
celestial bodies such as asteroids and meteoroids. This is called solar family.
• The Sun
✓ The Sun is the head of the solar family and lies in the center of the solar
system.
✓ It is very large and contains hot gases in large amount. It provides light and
heat to the entire solar system.
✓ The Sun has a pulling force which binds the solar system.
✓ The Sun is 150 million km away from the Earth; as a result, the people on
the earth cannot feel its heat.
• Planets
✓ There are eight planets in the solar system, namely, Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

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✓ All these planets move around the sun in a fixed elongated path which
is called orbits.
✓ Mercury is the nearest planets to the sun while Neptune is the farthest.
Mercury takes only 88 days to revolve around the Sun.
✓ The planet Venus is known as ‘Earth’s twin’ as its shape and size is very much
similar to the Earth.
✓ The planets Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus have rings around them which are made
up of debris. With the help of powerful telescope, one can easily see these rings.
✓ Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are known as inner planets while
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are known as outer planets. The inner
planets are made up of rocks.
✓ Till August 2006, Pluto was included in the list of planets but later it was
declared as dwarf planet by International Astronomical Union.
• The Earth
✓ The Earth is the third planet from the Sun and in terms of size, it is the
fifth largest planet.
✓ Its shape has been described as Geoid and it is flattened slightly at the poles.
✓ It is the unique and only planet where life exists as it is neither too cold nor
too hot. It also has air and water which is essential for the survival of human
beings.
✓ The Earth is also called blue planet, because from outer space, the color of
the Earth is blue as its three-fourth surface is covered with water.
• The Moon
✓ The Moon is the only natural satellite of the Earth.
✓ The moon appears big as it is very nearer to Earth and it 3, 84,400 km away
from us.
✓ The moon revolves around the Earth in 27 days. This time is same as the
time it takes to complete one spin. As a result, only one side of the moon is visible
to us.
✓ The Moon does not have favourable conditions that can support life but it has
mountains, depressions and plains. These usually cast shadows on the surface of
the moon.
• Asteroids
✓ Asteroids are tiny bodies which revolve around the Sun.
✓ They are found in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
✓ Scientists believe that asteroids are the part of planets only which exploded
many years ago.
• Meteoroids
✓ Meteoroids are small pieces of rocks which move around the sun.
✓ The meteoroids, at times, come near the Earth and fall upon it.
✓ When the meteoroids fall, they get heated up and burn due to the friction with
the air. This cause a flash of light.
✓ If the meteor does not burn completely while falling on the Earth, it
creates a hollow.
• The cluster of millions of stars and clouds of dust and gases is known as
galaxy. Our solar system is a part of the Milky Way Galaxy. It is also known
as Akash Ganga, as in earlier times, it was visualized like a river of light flowing in
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• The number of galaxies together constitutes the Universe. Scientists are still
researching about the size and origination of Universe.

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Globe
• Globe is a miniature form of the earth as proportional size of countries, continents and
oceans are shown on it
• The globe is not fixed, a needle is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner, which is
called its axis and it can be rotated like a top spin or a potter’s wheel
• Axis is an imaginary line
• Two points on the globe through which the needle (axis) passes are two poles – North
Pole and South Pole.
• The globe can be moved around this needle (axis) from west to east just as the earth
moves.
• Circle of Illumination- circle which divides day from night on the globe
Equator
• It is an imaginary circular line running on the globe which divides it into two equal parts
– Northern part and southern part
• The northern half of the earth is Northern Hemisphere
• The southern half of the earth is Southern Hemisphere.
• Equator is a very important reference point to locate places on the earth.
Latitudes
• Imaginary parallel and horizontal circular lines on the earth are called latitude.
• All latitudes are concentric circles
• They are measured in degrees.
• Equator represents the zero-degree latitude.
• All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitudes.
• Equator is the largest latitude on Earth
• As we move away from the equator, the size of the parallels of latitude
decreases.
• 90 degrees north latitude is North Pole
• 90 degrees south latitude marks the South Pole.
• All parallels which are in north of the equator are called ‘north latitudes’
• All parallels which are in south of the equator are called ‘south latitudes.’
Four important parallels of latitudes
1. Tropic of Cancer – It passes through 23½°N in the Northern Hemisphere. India
passes through it
2. Tropic of Capricorn - It passes through 23½°S in the Southern Hemisphere.
3. Arctic Circle – It is at 66½° north of the equator.
4. Antarctic Circle – It is at 66½° south of the equator.
Heat Zones of the Earth
1. Torrid Zone
• Area between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn which receives maximum
heat
• Once a year, the mid-day sun is exactly overhead on all latitudes in between the Tropic
of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
2. Temperate Zones
• Area between Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in Northern Hemisphere and
between Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic circle in the Southern Hemisphere.
• They have moderate temperature throughout the year
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles
3. Frigid Zone-
• Areas between Arctic Circle and North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and
Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere
• They have very cold temperature.

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• It is because here the sun does not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are
always slanting and provide less heat.
Longitude
• Lines of Longitude are imaginary lines extending from pole to pole. These lines are called
the meridians of longitude
• Longitude of a point is the marked value of the division where its meridian
meets the equator.
• Longitudes are semi-circles and distance between them decreases steadily
poleward until it becomes zero at the poles, where all the meridians meet
• All meridians are of same length
Prime meridian
• It is reference line to define relative East/West positions of a point on the globe.
• The prime meridian is at 0° longitude and is known as the Greenwich line as it passes
through Greenwich, in London
• The Prime Meridian and 180° meridian divide the Earth into Eastern and Western
hemisphere.
• The International Date Line, passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and roughly follows a
180 degrees longitude north-south line on the Earth
• There are 180° longitudes on both the sides (East and West of the prime meridian),
therefore total 360° longitudes.
• As we move from Eastern hemisphere to Western hemisphere, the size of the
longitude remains same.
• 180° East and 180° West meridians are on the same line.
• Places at same meridian denote same time
Longitude and Time
• When the Prime Meridian of Greenwich has sun at highest point in the sky, all the places
along this meridian will have mid-day or noon
• As earth rotates from west to east so the places which are in east of Greenwich will
be ahead of Greenwich time and which are in the west will be behind of Greenwich
time
• Rate of difference of time can be calculated as
❖ In 24 hours, Earth rotates 360 °
❖ So, in 1 hour, it will rotate 360/24 = 15°
❖ In 1 hour, 15° longitude changes
❖ 1° longitude change brings 4 minutes change in time
• So, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich, time
o at 15° east of Greenwich will be 15 × 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour ahead of Greenwich
time, which means 1 p.m.
o at 15° west of Greenwich, the time will be behind Greenwich time by one hour, i.e., it
will be 11.00 a.m.
• The earth has been divided into twenty-four time zones of one hour each.
• There are 11 Time Zones in Russia
Standard Time
• The places which are on different meridians have different local time of places
• For example- there will be a difference of about 1 hour and 45 minutes in the local times
of Dwarka (Gujarat) in west and Dibrugarh (Assam) in east.
• Standard Meridian of India (IST) - 82.5⁰E Meridian
• Indian Standard Time (IST) - 5.5 hours ahead of GMT, so IST is GMT+5.5
• 12 PM in London = 5:30 PM in India
Movements of Earth
Rotation
• It is movement of the Earth on its axis
• The Earth continuously rotates on its Axis from West to East
• Responsible for the cycle of day and night
• Earth takes approx. 24 hours to complete 1 rotation
• The period of rotation is called earth day

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Revolution
• It is the movement of earth around the sun in a fixed path or in an elliptical orbit
• Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one revolution around the sun
Leap Year
❖ As Earth takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve around the sun, So 6 hours saved
every year
❖ They are added to make one day (24 hours) over a span of four years.
❖ This surplus day is added to the month of February.
❖ So, every fourth year, February is of 29 days instead of 28 days which makes that
year a leap year with 366 days

• The Earth is 23½° tilted on its axis and axis of earth makes an angle of 66 ½°
with its orbital plane
Change in Season
• They are the result of revolution
• Throughout its orbit, earth is inclined in the same direction
• Season change is due to change in the position of the earth around the sun
21st June
• Sun shines perpendicularly over the tropic of cancer
• North pole is inclined towards the sun
• Summer in regions north of equator
• Longest day and smallest night here
• Place beyond arctic Circle have continuous daylight for 6 months
• Reversed conditions in southern hemisphere
• This position is called Summer Solstice
22nd December
• Sun shines directly over the tropic of Capricorn
• South pole is inclined towards the sun
• It is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights
• It is winter in Northern hemisphere (reverse conditions from Southern
Hemisphere)
• This position is Winter Solstice
Equinox
• On 21st March and 23rd September, sun shines directly overhead the equator
• At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the sun
• Due to this, Whole earth experience equal days and nights. This is known as equinox

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Structure and Formation of

Earth
The Formation of the Earth
• As a matter of fact, nobody has been able to give exact cause and time of the
origin of the earth, but one thing is certain that earth is a member of our solar
system.
• Large number of philosophers and scientists have stated different views
regarding the origin and evolution of the earth in early days, hence theories
propounded in these days known as early theories – include theories given by
Laplace, Prof, Immanuel Kant, Chamberlin and Moultan, Sir James Jeans
etc.
• Prof. Immanuel Kant – German Scholar – primordial matter was evenly
distributed in the shape of small and cold particles from which our earth and
other planets are formed.
• Laplace – French mathematician – primordial matter was in the form of hot
and rotating gaseous mass – known as nebula. With the time, gaseous mass
cooled, volume decreased and speed of rotation increased which increased
centrifugal force. As centrifugal force exceeded the gravitational force, a ring
moved away from nebula and broke away into smaller rings which on cooling
became planets and satellites.
• Modern theories – Big Bang Theory was given by Edwin Hubble in 1950-
60s and validated in 1972.
✓ This theory also known as expanding universe hypothesis
✓ This theory states universe emerged from point known as singularity.
✓ Galaxies moved apart as the space between them expanded.
✓ As universe expanded, the hot radiation in the original fireball also expanded
and cooled down.
✓ Misty clouds of matter already existed.
✓ As these clouds collapsed, they were pulled by their own gravity and formed
cluster of galaxies.
✓ Galaxies were breaking themselves into stars which have broken to form
planets.
• Hoyle gave the concept of steady state theory which considered being an
alternative to the Big Bang theory. This theory states that the Universe has
remained roughly the same at any point of time. As the larger evidences were in
favour with the expanding universe Hoyle’s concept could not stand for long.
Formation of Planets
There are three stages in formation of planets:
• In the first stage, planets are formed from the stars which are localized
lumps of gas within nebula. These lumps have great gravitational force which
forms core to the gas cloud. A large rotating disc of gas and dust develops
around the gas core.
• In the second stage, the gas cloud gets condensed and matter around the
core develops into small rounded objects which later develop into planetesimals
by the cohesion process. These planetesimals are attracted to one another by
gravitational force and large bodies are formed by collision and force of gravity.
• In the third stage, Planetesimals accreted to form large bodies known as the
planets.

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Light Year
• A light year is the distance travelled by the light in one year.
• Light travels at the speed of 300,000 kilometer per second.
• The Sun is about 149.6 million kilometer from the earth and light takes around
8.3 minutes to travel from the sun to the earth.
• The nearest star to the earth, Alpha Centauri, is 4.29 light years away from the
earth.
Structure of the Earth
• The earth is oblate spheroid and its internal structure comprises of concentric
layers lying one above the other. These are defined as crust (uppermost),
mantle and core (the innermost).
• The deepest mine of the world is Robinson Deep in South Africa from which
gold is mined. This is just 4 kilometer deep. In search of oil, the hole has been
drilled which is 6 kilometer deep.
• The crust is less than 1 percent of earth by mass, mantle is 68 percent of earth
while core forms 38 percent.
• The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer which consists of both the
crust and the upper mantle. It is the zone of earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain
building and continental drift.
Crust
• Crust is the outermost layer of the earth which is brittle and thinner. It has an
average thickness is about 33 kilometers. It is the solid layer of the earth which
is composed of rocks.
✓ It is divided into oceanic crust and continental crust.
✓ Oceanic crust – composed of magma that erupts on seafloor. It is denser and
composed of basalt and silica and magnesium (therefore called sima).
✓ Continental crust is less dense and composed of granite and silica and
aluminium (hence the name sial) – made up of different types of rocks (igneous,
metamorphic and sedimentary)
✓ The crust is thicker below the mountains and thinner below the oceans.
Mantle
• Immediately below the crust is the mantle and it extends up to the depth of
2900 kilometers. It is made of solid rock and it is hot because of heat conducted
from core. It is divided into Upper Mantle and Lower Mantle.
✓ Upper mantle extends up to 400 kilometers and known as asthenosphere.
Rocks in the asthenosphere behave as both a plastic solid and elastic solid
depending on the forces applied on them.
✓ Part between 400 and 650 kilometers is transitional zone which separates
upper mantle from lower mantle.
✓ The lower mantle, also known as mesosphere, extends from 650 kilometers
to 2900 kilometers below the earth’s surface and lies between transition zone
and outer core.
Core
• Beyond the depth of 2900 kilometers, there is a core of the earth which
extends right up to the center of the earth.
✓ The center of the core has very high temperature and pressure and it also
has the highest density among all layers which is measured as 13-14 grams per
centimeter cube.
✓ Core consists of 85 percent iron and 15 percent nickel (hence the name nife,
ni- Nickel and fe – Ferrous, that is, iron) which are responsible for the earth’s
magnetic field.

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✓ The outer core is liquid because of the head produced from the radioactive
elements present in the inner core and the inner core is in solid state.
• To reach to the center of the earth one needs to dig a hole of 6000 kilometer
deep on the ocean floor.
Isostacy
It is the property according to which tectonic plates rise and sink in the
continental and oceanic crust. It arises from the fact that crusts floats on the top
of the mantle. If the earth’s crust gains weight, such as mountain building, it
sinks deeper into the mantle and if the earth’s crust removes weight, the crust
floats higher on the mantle.

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MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH

• The surface of the Earth is made up of three components: Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and
Atmosphere.
• Lithosphere is the solid portion of the earth on which we live. Atmosphere consists of gases such
as nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide that surround the Earth. Hydrosphere is the area on the
earth’s surface which is covered with water. It has all the forms of water like ice, water vapour
and water.
• The Biosphere is an area which has all forms of life. Hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere
together constitute the biosphere.

Lithosphere
• Lithosphere consists of rocks and thin layers of soil that contains elements which has nutrients
and sustains organisms.
• The surface of the earth is divided into continents and ocean floors. Continents are the
landmasses while ocean floors are large water bodies. The major oceans of the world are
connected with each other. The greater part of land lies in the northern hemisphere.
• The level of the sea water always remains same and the elevation of land is calculated from the
level of the sea which is taken as zero.
• Mount Everest, the highest mountain peak, is 8,848 meters above the sea level while the
deepest point, Mariana Trench, in the Pacific Ocean is 11,022 meters below the sea level.
• There are seven continents in the world which are separated by each other with large water
bodies. These continents are: Asia, Africa, Europe, North America, South America, Australia
and Antarctica.
✓ Asia is the largest continent and lies in the eastern hemisphere. The combined mass of
Europe and Asia is known as Eurasia and they are also separated with the Ural
Mountains on the west. The Tropic of Cancer passes through this continent.
✓ Africa is the second largest continent after Asia. The Equator passes through the middle
of the continent. It is the only continent by which Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn
and Equator passes. The world’s hottest desert, Sahara desert, lies in Africa only. This
continent is surrounded by water on all the sides. Even the world’s longest river Nile
passes through this continent.
✓ Europe lies to the west of Asia. The Arctic Circle passes through this continent and
Europe is covered by water on all three sides.
✓ North America is the third largest continent. Isthmus of Panama connects North
America with South America.
✓ South America lies in the southern hemisphere. The world’s longest mountain range,
Andes, lies in this continent. Amazon River, the world’s largest river, flows through this
continent.

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✓ Australia is the smallest continent which lies in the southern hemisphere. It is called an
island continent as it is surrounded by seas and oceans on all sides.
✓ Antarctica is a huge continent which lies completely in southern hemisphere. The
center of this continent has South Pole, so it is covered by thick sheet of ice
permanently. Antarctica has research stations of many countries including India. The
research stations of India are named as Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri.

Hydrosphere
• Three-fourth of the earth surface is covered with water. Hydrosphere consists of water flowing
in rivers, ice in glaciers, water vapour in atmosphere and underground water.
• 97 percent of the water is found in oceans only and is unfit for use as it is salty.
• Only one percent of water is available for domestic purpose. Remaining percentage of water is
in the form of glaciers or ice sheets.
• Oceans forms the major part of the hydrosphere and they are interconnected with each other.
✓ The ocean water is always moving, and these movements are categorized into three
categories: waves, tides and ocean currents.
✓ The five major oceans in terms of their decreasing size are: The Pacific Ocean, the
Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the southern Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.
✓ The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean. Mariana Trench, the deepest part, lies in this
ocean only. The shape of this ocean is circular. It is surrounded by Asia, Australia, North
America and South America.
✓ The second largest ocean is Atlantic Ocean which is ‘S’ shaped. It is surrounded by
North and South America on western side and Europe and Africa on eastern side. From
trade and commerce perspective, it is the busiest ocean. It has indented coastline which
makes it ideal for natural harbours and ports.
✓ The Indian Ocean is named after ‘India’ and is triangular in shape. It is surrounded by
Asia in the north, Africa in the west and Australia in the east.
✓ The Southern Ocean surrounds the Antarctica and it extends northward to 60o South
latitude.
✓ The Arctic Ocean surrounds the North Pole and connected with Pacific Ocean by Bering
Strait. It is bound by Eurasia and northern coasts of North America.

Atmosphere
• The thin blanket of air provides us air that we breathe and protects us from harmful sun rays.
• On the basis of composition, temperature and other properties, atmosphere has been divided
into five layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
• The atmosphere contains 78 percent of nitrogen, 21 percent of oxygen and other gases such as
carbon dioxide, argon etc.
• Oxygen helps in breathing, nitrogen is useful for plants while carbon dioxide absorbs heat
radiated by earth, hence, keeps the planet warm.

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• The atmospheric density is maximum at sea level and it keeps on decreasing as we move
upwards. This is the reason, the climbers face breathing problems as they climb mountains.
They need to oxygen cylinders so that they can breathe easily at higher altitudes.
• The atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth and it is same everywhere.
• Moving air is called wind and it usually moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.

Biosphere
• Biosphere is the zone where life exists.
• For the survival, all the organisms are linked to each other as well as biosphere.
• The organisms are categorized into plant kingdom and animal kingdom.
• The three domains of the earth interact with each other and also affect one another.
• Although carbon dioxide is an important gas, but as its quantity increases, it leads to global
warming.
• Even cutting for forests for any use can lead soil erosion which ultimately hampers the growth of
plants.

One should use the resources carefully and balance between hydrosphere, atmosphere and lithosphere
should be maintained.

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Environment and Vegetation

• The places, people, things and nature that surround any living organism which are
basic life support system is called environment.
• It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat and the land where
we live.
• Whatever we see in our surroundings is environment. For example - mountains,
rivers, trees, animals, roads, cars, clothes, books

Components of environment
3 components of environment are-
1. Natural environment: - objects created by nature. Example - land, air, water, living
things.

➢ 2 types of Natural Environment

Biotic- The world of living organisms. e.g. plants and animals.
Abiotic- The world of non-living elements. e.g. land, water.

2. Human Made environment: -objects made by people. Example- buildings, parks,

roads, industries, etc.

3. Human environment: - refers to the activities, creations and interactions among

human beings like - wheel was invented, Surplus food was produced, Barter system
(a trade in which goods are exchanged without the use of money) emerged and trade
started
Example of human environment - individual, family, religion, political situation,
etc.
World Environment Day is celebrated on – 5 June

Domains of environment
❑ Land (lithosphere) - solid crust or the hard-top layer of the earth which is made
up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil
❑ Water (hydrosphere) - It contains various sources of water and different types
of water bodies like rivers, lakes, etc
❑ Air (Atmosphere) – It is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth
❑ Plants and animals (Biosphere) - It is a narrow zone of the earth where land,
water and air interact with each other to support life.

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Ecosystem
• It is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms with each other and
with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which they live, all
linked by transfer of energy and material.
• Ecosystem can be of large rain forest, grassland, desert, mountains, lake, river, ocean
or a small pond.

Vegetation
• There is a close relationship between height of land and the character of vegetations.
As the height changes, the climate also changes and that changes natural vegetation.
• The growth of vegetation depends on temperature, moisture, slope and thickness of
soil.
• Natural Vegetation is classified into three categories
1. Forests - grow in region where temperature and rainfall are plentiful
2. Grasslands - grow in the region of moderate rain
3. Shrubs - Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region

1. Forest
• They grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover.
• Depending upon these factors, dense and open forests grown.
• Different types of forest are-
❑ Tropical Evergreen Forest
❑ Tropical Deciduous Forest
❑ Temperate Evergreen Forest
❑ Temperate Deciduous Forest

Tropical Evergreen Forests –

• Also known as tropical rainforests
• Found in the regions - near equator and close to tropics. Because these regions
are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
• These forests are called evergreen because there is no particular dry season, so
the trees do not shed their leaves altogether.
• Here trees are closely spaced which do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside
the forest even in the daytime.
• Hardwood trees which are useful for making furniture, transport and
constructional materials are found here. Hardwood trees found here - rosewood,
ebony, mahogany.
• Anaconda, one of the largest snakes is found here

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• The tropical evergreen forest in Brazil is so big that it is like the lungs of the earth

Tropical Deciduous Forest

• They are monsoon forests
• Found in - India, northern Australia and in central America
• These regions experience seasonal changes which makes trees shed their
leaves in the dry season to conserve water
• Hardwood trees found here are - sal, teak, neem and shisham.
• Common Animals found here are - Tigers, lions, elephants, langoors and
monkeys

Temperate Evergreen Forests

• Found in the mid latitudinal coastal region
• Commonly found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In south
east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
• They have both hard and soft wood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

• Found in - the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile and in the
coastal regions of Western Europe.
• They shed their leaves in the dry season.
• Common trees found here are - oak, ash, beech, etc.
• Common animals found here are - Deer, foxes, wolves
• Birds like pheasants, monals are also found here

Mediterranean Vegetation
• Found in –
❑ West and south west margins of the continents
❑ Areas around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia
❑ Also outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, south
west Africa, south western South America and South west Australia.

• These regions have hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.

• Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help of their
thick barks and wax coated leaves which help them reduce transpiration.

• Known as ‘Orchards of the world’ for their fruit cultivation. Citrus fruits like
oranges, figs, olives and grapes are commonly cultivated here.

• People have removed the natural vegetation in order to cultivate what they
want to.

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• Not much wildlife present here.

Coniferous Forests
• Found in - higher latitudes (50°–70°) of Northern hemisphere
• These are also known as Taiga (means pure or untouched in the Russian
language)
• They are tall, softwood evergreen trees
• Animals found here are Silver fox, mink, polar bear

2. Grasslands - They grow in the region of moderate rain.

Tropical Grassland –
• Found in - either side of the equator and extend till the tropics

• This grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.

• They can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.

• Called by different names in different places-

In East Africa known as Savanna
In Brazil known as Campos
In Venezuela known as Llanos

• Animals found here are - Elephants, zebra, deer, giraffes, leopards

Temperate Grassland
• Found in – mid latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents.
• Grass here is short and nutritious.
• Animals found here- Wild buffaloes, bison, antelopes
• Called by different names in different regions
In Argentina known as Pampas
In N. America known as Prairie
In S. Africa known as Veld
In C. Asia known as Steppe
In Australia known as Down

3. Thorny Bushes
• Found in the dry desert like regions.
• Tropical deserts are located in the western margins of the continents.

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• The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat

Tundra Vegetation
• In polar regions only mosses, lichens and very small shrubs are found.
• It grows during the very short summer.
• Found in - polar areas of Europe, Asia and North America.
• Animals found here- seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes
• The animals have thick fur and thick skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic
conditions

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India and its natural vegetation

India
• India is a country of vast geographical expanse.
• It is bounded by :
❑ The Himalayas in the north
❑ The Arabian Sea in the west,
❑ The Bay of Bengal in the east,
❑ The Indian Ocean in the south
• Area of India - about 3.28 million sq. km.
• Located in the northern hemisphere.
• The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) passes almost halfway through India
• North-south extend from Kashmir to Kanyakumari and distance is about 3,200 km.
• From south to north, India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes.
• East-west extend from Arunachal Pradesh to Kachchh and distance is about 2,900
km.
• From west to east, India extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E longitudes.
• Due to great longitudinal extent of about 29°, difference between time in places
located at two extreme points of India is about two hours.
• The sun rises about two hours earlier in the east (Arunachal Pradesh) than in the
west (Gujarat).

Indian Standard Time

• IST – 82.5⁰ E Meridian
• IST is 5.5 hours ahead of GMT, so GMT+5.5
• 12 PM in London = 5:30 PM in India

• The local time of longitude of 82°30'E has been taken as the Indian Standard Time.

• This meridian or longitude is also termed as the Standard Meridian of India.

USA and Canada have seven and six time zones respectively

Neighbouring countries of India

• Seven landlocked neighbouring countries-

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Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Bangladesh, Myanmar

• Across the sea to the south, lie
Island neighbours— Sri Lanka and Maldives.
* Palk Strait separates Sri Lanka from India.
Political and Administrative Divisions
• For administrative purposes, India is divided into 28 States and 8 Union Territories
• Delhi is the national capital
• The states have been formed mainly on the basis of languages.
• Based on Area-
Largest state- Rajasthan
Smallest state - Goa
• The states are further divided into districts.

Physical Divisions:
Himalayas
• Him+alaya mean ‘the abode of snow’.
• The Himalayan mountains are divided into three main parallel ranges.
• Northernmost is the Great Himalaya or Himadri. The world’s highest peaks are
located in this range.
• Middle Himalaya or Himachal lies to the south of Himadri. Many popular hill
stations are situated here.
• The Shiwalik is the southernmost range

Northern Indian Plains

• They lie to the south of the Himalayas.
• They are generally level and flat.
• These are formed by the alluvial deposits (very fine soils, brought by rivers and
deposited in the river basins) laid down by the rivers– the Indus, the Ganga, the
Brahmaputra and their tributaries.
• These river plains provide fertile land for cultivation which is the reason for high
concentration of population in these plains

Great Indian Desert

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• Great Indian desert lies in the western part of India

• It is a dry, hot and sandy stretch of land.
• It has very little vegetation.

Peninsular Plateau
• It lies to the south of northern plains
• It is triangular in shape.
• This region has numerous hill ranges and valleys.
• The plateau is rich in minerals like coal and iron-ore.
• Aravali hills, one of the oldest ranges of the world, border it on the north-west
side.
• The Vindhyas and the Satpuras are other important ranges.
• West flowing Rivers Narmada and Tapi flow through The Vindhyas and the
Satpuras. They drain into the Arabian Sea.
• The Western Ghats or Sahyadris border the plateau in the west and the Eastern
Ghats border the plateau in east
• East flowing rivers are Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. They drain into the
Bay of Bengal. These rivers have formed fertile deltas at their mouth.
• The Sunderban delta is formed where the Ganga and Brahmaputra flow into the
Bay of Bengal.

Coral Island
• Corals are skeletons of tiny marine animals called Polyps.
• When the living polyps die, their skeletons are left.
• Other polyps grow on top of this hard skeleton which grows higher and higher, thus
forming the coral islands.
• Two groups of islands that form part of India.
Lakshadweep Islands- in the Arabian Sea and located off the coast of Kerala.
Andaman and the Nicobar Islands -lie to the southeast of the Indian
mainland in the Bay of Bengal.

• These are coral islands

• Tsunami is a huge sea wave generated due to an earthquake on the sea floor which
occurred in Andaman and Nicobar island

Weather and Climate

• Weather is an hour-to-hour or day to day condition of the atmosphere. For ex hot
or cold; sunny or cloudy; windy or calm
• Climate

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❑ Climate is the average weather condition, which have been measured over
many years.
❑ The climate of India has broadly been described as Monsoon type. Monsoon
is taken from the Arabic word ‘mausim’, which means seasons.
❑ The climate of a place is affected by its - location, altitude, distance from the
sea and relief.
❑ Different regions experience difference in the climate of India.
• Examples are-
1. Jaisalmer and Bikaner in the desert of Rajasthan are very hot, while Drass
and Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir are freezing cold.
2. Coastal places like Mumbai and Kolkata experience moderate climate i.e.
neither too hot nor too cold. Being on the coast, these places are very humid.
3. Mawsynram in Meghalaya receives the world’s highest rainfall, while in a
particular year it might not rain at all in Jaisalmer in Rajasthan.

South West Monsoon

• This season is marked by the onset and advance of monsoon.
• Winds blow towards the land from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal
• They carry moisture with them and when they strike against mountains, rainfall
occurs

Retreating monsoon
• When winds move back from the mainland to the Bay of Bengal. (Land to Sea)
• The southern parts of India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive
rainfall in this season.

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AIR

The Earth is surrounded by a thick blanket of air which is called atmosphere.

• It is because of atmosphere that humans can easily survive on the Earth as it provides air
for breathing and protects us from harmful effects of sun’s rays.
• Carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse gas.
• Increase in levels of carbon dioxide beyond certain limit causes global warming, which
results into rising of sea level and extinction of some plants and animals.

Composition of the Atmosphere

• The above chart depicts that nitrogen and oxygen are found abundantly in the atmosphere
while other gases like argon, carbon dioxide are found in minute quantities.
• Plants need nitrogen for their survival. They take nitrogen with the help of bacteria that
live in roots of some plants and soil.
• Humans and animals need oxygen for breathing.
• Carbon dioxide is also an important gas which helps plants to make food with the help of
sunlight and chlorophyll.

Structure of the Atmosphere

• Atmosphere is divided into five layers: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,

Thermosphere and Exosphere

Troposphere
✓ It is the most important layer of the atmosphere with the average height of 13
kms.
✓ Almost all weather phenomena take place in this layer.

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Stratosphere
✓ This layer lies above troposphere and free from all weather phenomena.
✓ It extends upto height of 50 kms and ideal for flying aeroplanes.
✓ It contains ozone layer which protects us from harmful effect of sun’s rays.

Mesosphere

✓ This layer extends upto height of 80 kms.

✓ Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from space.

Thermosphere

✓ Temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height

✓ Ionosphere is a part of this layer.
✓ It extends upto 400 km.
✓ Radio transmission takes place in this layer.

Exosphere

✓ The uppermost layer with thin air.

✓ Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from this layer.

Weather and Climate

• Weather is the hour-to-hour, day-to-day condition of the atmosphere.

• Climate is the average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time.

Temperature

• The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is called temperature.

• Insolation is the incoming solar radiation intercepted by the Earth. It affects the
distribution of the temperature.
• The amount of insolation decreases as we move from equator towards poles.
• The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius, invented by Anders
Celsius.
• Thermometer is the instrument that measures the temperature.

Air Pressure

• Air pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the earth’s surface.
• Highest air pressure is at sea level but as we go up, air pressure decreases.
• Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather while high pressure is
associated with clear and sunny skies.
• There is no air pressure on moon.

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• Barometer is the instrument which measures atmospheric pressure.

Wind

• Wind is defined as the movement of air from high pressure area to low pressure area.
• Wind is divided into three types: permanent winds (blow constantly throughout the
year), seasonal winds (change direction in different seasons) and local winds (blow
only for a particular period in a day in a small area)
• The trade winds, easterlies and westerlies are permanent winds; monsoon is an
example of seasonal wind while loo is an example of local wind.
• Wind vane shows the direction of wind.

• Moisture in the air is called humidity.

• As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases and it becomes
more and more humid.
• One must have observed a common phenomenon that jet planes leave a white trail. This
is due to the fact that the moisture from their engines condenses and there is movement of
air to disturb that trail.
• Clouds contain water droplets and when these water droplets become heavy, they come
down to earth in the form of precipitation. Precipitation that comes down to the earth in
liquid form is called rain.
• There are three types of rainfall: the convectional rainfall, the orographic rainfall and
cyclonic rainfall.
• The convectional rainfall occurs when water evaporates to form water vapour due to
sun’s heat. As the air rises, it cools and condenses to form clouds. When these clouds
become heavier with water droplets, it comes down in the form of rain.
• The orographic rainfall occurs when mountains acts as a barrier in flow of the air and
then it forces the moist air to get lifted, form the clouds and then come down as rain.
• The cyclonic rainfall occurs when cold and hot air meets. The warm air being lighter rises
above the cold air. As a result, the air is cooled beyond saturation point which results in
heavy rainfall.

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WATER
Water, a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in
gaseous liquid, and solid states. It is one of the most plentiful and essential compounds. A
tasteless and odorless liquid at room temperature, it has the important ability to dissolve
many other substances.
Structure of Water
Liquid water
The water molecule is composed of two hydrogen atoms, each linked by a single chemical
bond to an oxygen atom. Two isotopic forms of water are deuterium and tritium.
Deuterium oxide (D2O), called heavy water, which is used as a neutron moderator in some
nuclear reactors.
The melting point of water is 0°C.
The boiling point of water is 100°C.
Importance of Water
Water is an essential nutrient and plays a key role in the human body. We cannot survive
even for a single day without water. Every organism on this earth needs water or the proper
and efficient working of his body. Water carries nutrients to all cells in our body and oxygen
to our brain.
1) Water allows the body to absorb and assimilates minerals, vitamins, amino acids, glucose,
and other substances.
2) Water flushes out toxins and waste.
3) Water helps to regulate body temperature.
4) Water acts as a lubricant for joints and muscles.
Drinking water
Drinking water is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation. The drinking water
also known as potable water. A plenty of amount of drinking water required to maintain
good health.
Types of Water:
Surface Water
Surface water includes streams, rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands.
Ground Water
Groundwater, which makes up around 22 % of the water we use. It exists in soils and sands
that can retain water. Irrigation accounts for the largest use of groundwater.
Wastewater
Wastewater is any water that has been affected in quality by human activities. Wastewater
can develop from agricultural activities, urban water use. Wastewater from a municipality is
also called sewage.
Storm Water
This water runs over surfaces like engine oil, fertilizer, and radiator fluid. Stormwater not
soaking into the ground ends up as surface runoff draining into rivers, lakes, streams, and
oceans.
Hard water
The hardness of water is determined primarily by the amount of calcium and magnesium it
contains. Higher levels of these and other minerals make water hard.
Signs of hard water include:

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● Feeling a film on your hands after washing them. This is caused by the soap reacting
with calcium to form soap scum. You may need to rinse your hands longer if the water is
hard.
● Spots: These can appear on glasses and silverware coming out of the dishwasher. These
are usually deposits of calcium carbonate.
● Mineral stains: This shows up on clothes when they come out of the washing machine.
Clothes can wear out faster because of the harshness of hard water.
● Less water pressure in your home: Mineral deposits can form in the pipes, essentially
shrinking the interior diameter of the pipes and reducing water flow.
Soft Water
Soft water is treated with water. It is left with the only cation and that is sodium. It has a
salty taste.
A healthy lather is form when washing clothes, dishes and even your hands and body with
soft water.
The Clothes which are washed with soft water are cleaner, with no mineral stains and less
wear-and-tear damage
A slight sodium taste in drinking water, though in many cases a difference in taste is
imperceptible.

WATER

❖ About ⅔ of our body weight is water. It is used to produce digestive juices. It help in the
transportation of digested foods and oxygen throughout the body. It is involved in the
maintenance of body temperature. It is used in the excretion of soluble wastes.

Water pollution:- Some of the human activities make the water dirty and unfit for use, this is called
water pollution.

❖ Discharge of untreated industries and domestic waste into water bodies is one of the main
causes of water pollution.

❖ Bathing animals, washing clothes etc. in or near lake, river etc.

❖ Inorganic pesticides and chemical fertilizers used by farmers drains into water bodies.

❖ Oil leaks from ferry boats and ships leave a trail of oil on the water surface and pollute rivers
and ocean.

❖ Oil spills from huge tankers are also a major cause of water pollution, they have adverse effects
on marine animals.

❖ Religious and social practice causes water pollution as dead bodies are cremated on the river
bank-

Purification of water:-

● Water collected from the river is made free of large pieces of dirt and pumped into reservoirs.

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● Water is allowed to stand in large tanks so that suspended impurities settle down, this process is
called sedimentation.

● Water is passed through filter beds to remove all other insoluble impurities, this process is
called filtration.

● Water is chlorinated by addition of chlorine to kill any harmful micro organism that may be
present in it at this stage.

Dead Sea:-

● All oceans and seas have salty water.

● The saltiest of all the sea is known as the Dead Sea.

● Dead Sea is located between Israel and Jordan.

Water born diseases

❖ Mosquitoes Disease:-

Malaria, Dengue, Chikungunya etc.

Disease Spread By

Malaria Protozoa (Anopheles)

Dengue Viral disease (Aedes)

Chikungunya Viral disease (Aedes aegypti)

Medicine for Malaria:-

❖ Cinchona is a tropical rainforest plant.

❖ Quinine, bark of cinchona plant is used to cure Malaria fever.

Diarrhoea

❖ Water one of the most common causes of infectious diarrhoea.

❖ Excessive loss of water from body.

❖ Prevention of infection of diarrhoea is by improved sanitation, clean drinking water and hand
washing with soap.

Al- Biruni:- Al - Biruni was born in 973 in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.

❖ Al - Biruni’s Kitab - ul - Hind written in Arabic language.

❖ The government of India issue stamp in 1973 on the name of Al - Biruni.

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MINERAL
Mineral is defined as any substance which has definite chemical composition but different physical
properties. These are found in particular rock formations or specific area. Some minerals are even
found in the area which is not accessible.

• Minerals are usually formed naturally in varying geological conditions.

Types of Minerals
• On the basis of the composition, minerals are categorized as metallic and non-metallic
minerals.
• Metallic Minerals
• They contain metal in raw form.
• They are lustrous and conductors of heat and electricity. Examples include bauxite,
iron ore and manganese.
• They are further classified as ferrous and non-ferrous. Ferrous minerals contain iron
in it such as iron ore and chromites while non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron
but has other metals such as gold and silver.
• Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. For example: gypsum, mica, coal and
petroleum.

Extraction of Minerals
• The three ways by which minerals can be extracted are: mining, drilling and quarrying.
Mining can be open cast mining and shaft mining.
• Mining is the process by which minerals are taken out from the rocks which are laid deep
inside the earth.
• Open cast mining is extracting minerals from the rocks which lie at shallow depth.
• Shaft mining is the method in which shafts or deep bores are dug to take out materials
which are buried deep inside the earth’s surface such as petroleum and natural gas.
• Drilling is digging deep wells for extracting the minerals.
• Quarrying is the extraction process for the minerals which are laid near the earth’s surface.

Distribution of Minerals
• Different minerals are found in different rocks such as igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
• Usually, metallic minerals are found in metamorphic and igneous rocks while non-metallic
minerals are found in sedimentary mountains while coal and petroleum is found in
sedimentary strata. Limestone deposits in Caucasus region in France, manganese deposits in
Ukraine are few examples.
• Asia – Large iron deposits are found in India and China – tin producers are China, Malaysia
and India – China is the leading producer of tungsten, antimony and lead.
• Europe – Leading producer of iron ore with large deposits in Russia, France, Sweden and
Ukraine – Eastern Europe and European Russia has deposits of copper, zinc, nickel,
manganese and lead.
• North America – the mineral deposits are categorized into three zones: Canadian region
north of the Great Lakes consists of nickel, copper etc., mountain ranges of the west, that is,
Cordilleras have deposits of lead, gold, silver etc. and the Appalachian region has coal
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• South America – high grade iron ore deposits are largely found in Brazil – Copper’s leading
producer is Chile and Peru – Brazil and Bolivia produces tin – it is also home to diamond,
platinum, asbestos, manganese etc. – mineral oil is found in Columbia, Chile, Argentina etc.
• Africa – world’s largest producer of diamonds, platinum and gold – world’s large proportion
of gold is produced by Zimbabwe, Zaire and South Africa – Angola and Libya are rich in oil
deposits.
• Australia – world’s largest producer of bauxite – leading producer of zinc, gold, copper etc. –
gold deposits are found in Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas
• Antarctica – The continent is forecasted to have coal and iron deposits in Transantarctic and
Charles mountains respectively. Commercial quantities of gold, silver, oil and iron ore are
found.

Uses of Minerals
• Minerals are used in making jewellery and gems.
• Copper is used to make variety of materials such as coins and pipes etc.
• Silicon which is obtained from quartz is used in computer industry.
• Aluminum which is obtained from bauxite is used for various purposes such as in kitchen
utensils, airplanes and automobiles etc.

Minerals take thousands of years to form while these are consumed at higher speed. Therefore, one
must use them wisely, reduce wastage and recycle them.

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Power resources

• We need power in various industries as well as homes. The power resources

are categorized as conventional and non-conventional resources.
• Conventional sources of energy are sources which have been in use for a
long time. For example: firewood and fossil fuels
• Firewood
✓ It is widely used in villages for cooking and heating.
✓ Remains of plants and animals which got buried under the earth
millions of years ago converted into fossil fuels under immense heat
and pressure. For example: natural gas, petroleum and coal. They are
main sources of conventional energy.
• Coal
✓ Coal has varied uses - it is used in industries. It is also used in
generating electricity and people also use it as a domestic fuel.
✓ When electricity is generated from coal, it is called thermal power.
✓ Since coal is formed from the ferns and swamps that got buried
millions of years go, it is called buried sunshine.
✓ The leading producers of coal are USA, Russia, France, China etc. and
in India it is produced in Jharia, Bokaro, Raniganj and Dhanbad in
Jharkhand.
• Petroleum
✓ Petroleum is thick black liquid which is found between layers of rocks
and it is drilled from oil fields which are located in coastal and off-
shore regions.
✓ In its raw form, it is called crude oil and after its processing variety of
products are obtained such as wax, lubricants, petrol, diesel etc.
✓ Petroleum and its by products are known as Black Gold as they are
valuable.
✓ Major leading producers of petroleum are Qatar, Iran, Iraq and Saudi
Arabia. In India, it is produced in Digboi (Assam), Bombay High
(Mumbai) and deltas of Krishna and Godavari rivers.
• Natural Gas
✓ Natural gas is a by-product of petroleum and is obtained when crude
oil is brought to the surface. It is used as a domestic and industrial
fuel.
✓ Natural gas in the form of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is used in
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✓ The leading producers of natural gas are UK, Netherlands and Norway.
In India, it is found in Jaisalmer, Tripura, deltas of Krishna and
Godavari rivers and few areas of Mumbai.
• Hydelpower
✓ Hydelpower is the power which is obtained from water. Norway was
the first country to develop hydroelectricity.
✓ The rain water stored in the dams made to fall from great heights
through pipes over moving turbine blades. These blades turn the
generator to generate electricity.
✓ The water which is discharged after generation of electricity is used for
irrigation.
✓ The leading producers of hydelpower Norway, Paraguay, China and
Brazil. In India, Hydelpower stations are Damodar Valley projects,
Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunsagar and Bhakra Nangal.

Since there is an increase in the consumption of conventional uses of energy, these

sources have been declining at fast pace. These sources takes millions of years to
form and once exhausted they cannot be renewed within a short period of time.
Hence, non-conventional sources of energy have become an optional.

Non-conventional sources of energy

The non-conventional sources of energy are solar energy, wind energy and thermal
energy. These are renewable sources of energy.

• Solar energy
✓ To produce electricity, sun’s energy is trapped in solar panels. This
electricity is used for heating and lighting purpose. It is also used in
solar cookers and heaters.
✓ This energy can be utilized in those areas where sunshine is abundant.
• Wind energy
✓ Wind energy generated from wind mills. The winds which blow at high
speed moves the wind mill which is connected to a generator.
✓ Wind mills are also used to grind grain and lift water.
✓ Wind farms are located near the coastal regions or mountain passes
where strong winds blow.
✓ Few countries known for wind energy production are UK, USA,
Denmark, Spain, Germany and Netherlands.
• Nuclear Power
✓ Nuclear power is obtained from the nuclei of the radioactive elements
such as uranium and Thorium through the process of nuclear fission.

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✓ The world leading producers of nuclear power are USA and Europe. In
India, the large deposits of Uranium are found in Rajasthan and
Jharkhand while Thorium is found in Monozite sands of Kerala.
✓ The nuclear power stations in India are: Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu,
Ranapratap Sagar in Rajasthan, Tarapur in Maharashtra, Kaiga in
Karnataka and Narora in Uttar Pradesh.
• Geothermal Energy
✓ It is the energy which is obtained from the heat of the earth.
✓ The temperature of the earth rises as we go deep inside the earth.
Heat energy sometimes comes out of the surface in the form of hot
springs.
✓ Heat generated from these hot springs can be used for various
purposes such as cooking and heating.
✓ The world’s largest geothermal plants are found in USA and then
followed by Iceland, Philippines etc. In India, these plants are found in
Manikaran, Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley, Ladakh.
• Tidal Energy
✓ Tidal energy is the energy which is obtained from tides and it can be
trapped by making dams near the openings of the sea.
✓ Electricity is usually generated when high tides occur, as the energy
from high tides turn the turbine blades of the dam.
✓ Huge tidal farms are found in France and Russia and in India, these
are found in Gulf of Kutch.
• Biogas
✓ Biogas is the gaseous fuel obtained from the organic wastes such as
dead plants and animals, kitchen wastes etc.
✓ In biogas digesters, this waste is decomposed by bacteria to form
biogas which is a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
✓ Biogas produces manure and used for lighting and cooking.

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AGRICULTURE
• There are three types of economic activities: primary, secondary and tertiary; primary activities
are related to the extraction and production of natural resources; secondary activities are
connected with the processing of natural resources while tertiary activities provide support
services to the primary and secondary activities.
• Agriculture is one of the primary activities which involve growing of fruits and vegetables and
rearing of livestock.
• Suitable climate and soil is necessary for agriculture. The crops are grown on arable land.
• Important inputs for agriculture are seeds, fertilizers, machinery and labour. Ploughing, sowing,
irrigation, weeding and harvesting are few operations while crops, dairy products are outputs.

Definitions to be noted
• Agriculture – it is also known as farming and includes cultivation on soil, rearing of livestock and
raising crops.
• Sericulture – it is the rearing of silkworms on commercial scale
• Pisciculture – breeding of fish in specially designed ponds and tanks
• Viticulture – grape cultivation
• Horticulture – it is the growing of fruits, flowers and vegetables for commercial purpose

Types of Farming
There are two types of farming on the basis of geographical conditions, labour and level of technology:
subsistence farming and commercial farming.

• Subsistence Farming
✓ This type of farming is done to meet the needs of the family of the farmer. Low level of
technology and household labour is utilized.
✓ This farming is further subdivided into two categories: intensive subsistence and
primitive subsistence which is further classified into shifting cultivation and nomadic
herding.
✓ In intensive subsistence farming, small tools and more labour is used. Adequate
sunshine and fertile land allows growing of more than one crop on the same plot of
land. The main crop is rice and other crops are maize, oilseeds wheat etc. This type of
farming is done in areas which are densely populated and includes monsoon regions of
the South, Southeast and East Asia.
✓ Shifting agriculture is done in densely populated areas of Amazon basin, tropical Africa,
parts of Northeast India and Southeast Asia as these areas receive heavy rainfall and
vegetations regenerates quickly. This is also known as ‘Slash and Burn’ agriculture. In
shifting agriculture, trees are made to fell down and then they are burnt. The ashes are

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then mixed with the soil and few crops are grown such as potato, maize, cassava etc.
Once the soil lost its fertility, the field is left fallow and farming is done on a new plot.
✓ In nomadic herding, herdsman move from one place to another along definite routes
with their animals for fodder and water. This type of activities can be seen in arid and
semi-arid regions of Central Asia, Sahara and some parts of India.
• Commercial Farming
✓ In this type of farming, crops are grown and rearing of animals is done for commercial
purpose.
✓ The land under cultivation and the capital required is very large as most of the work is
done by the machines.
✓ Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation
agriculture.
✓ In commercial grain farming, farming of grains, such as wheat and maize, is done for
commercial use. Mostly, a single crop is only grown. This type of farming is practiced in
temperate grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia. This type of farming is not
done in severe winters.
✓ In mixed farming, the land is used for growing fodder crops and food and for rearing
livestock. This type of farming is practiced in New Zealand, Argentina, USA, Europe etc.
✓ Another category of commercial farming includes plantation agriculture. In this type of
farming, only one crop such as tea, coffee, cashew, banana or rubber is grown. It is both
capital and labour intensive. This farming is practiced in tropical regions, for example,
rubber is grown in Malaysia, tea in Sri Lanka and coffee in Brazil.

Major crops
• Rice – It is world’s major food crop and staple diet of sub-tropical and tropical areas. It needs
adequate rainfall, high temperature as well as high humidity. Alluvial clayey soil is best for
growing rice. The leading producer of rice is China and next is India and Japan.
• Wheat – In the growing season, wheat requires moderate temperature and rainfall. But at the
time of harvest, it requires bright sunshine. Loamy soil is best for growing wheat. In India,
wheat is grown in winter season. In USA, Argentina, Ukraine, wheat is grown on large scale.
• Millets – Millets are also known as coarse grains. In India, jowar, ragi and bajra is grown. Less
fertile and sandy soil is required for millets. It also require low to moderate rainfall and
moderate to high temperature. Millets are also grown in Nigeria, Niger and China.
• Maize – Moderate temperature, moderate rainfall, adequate sunshine and well-drained fertile
soil is required for the growth of maize. It is grown in Brazil, China, Mexico, India etc.
• Cotton – Cotton is the raw material for cotton textile industry. Very little rainfall, high
temperature, bright sunshine and 210 frost free days are required for the growth of cotton.
Black soil and alluvial soil is suitable for cotton. The leading producers of cotton are China, USA,
and India etc.

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• Jute – It is also known as Golden Fiber. High temperature, high rainfall and humid climate are
required for the growth of jute. Alluvial soil is suitable for cotton. The leading producers of jute
are India and Bangladesh.
• Coffee – Well drained loamy soil, warm and wet climate is required for the growth of coffee.
This is best grown on hill slopes. The leading producer of coffee is Brazil which is followed by
Columbia and India.
• Tea – It is a beverage crop which is grown as plantation crop. Throughout the year, this crop
requires cool season and high rainfall. It is mostly grown on slopes and in well drained loamy
soil. It is labour intensive crop as leaves need to be picked up. The best quality tea is produced
by Kenya, India, Sri Lanka and China.

Agricultural Development
• The term ‘agricultural development’ means to put in efforts for increasing the agricultural
production to fulfill the demands of the increasing population and increase food security.
• This can be done in various ways such as the number of crops grown at a particular time,
increasing the cropping area, using high yielding variety seeds, use of fertilizers etc.
• Agriculture development is also associated with mechanization of agriculture.
• Countries which are developing and have large population generally practice intensive
agriculture where crops are grown for survival.
• USA, Canada and Australia practice commercial agriculture in larger holdings.

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Industry
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods,
extraction of minerals or the provision of services. Example-iron and steel industry
(production of goods), coal mining industry (extraction of coal) and tourism
industry (service provider).

Industries can be classified on the basis of

1. raw materials

2. size;

3. ownership.

1. Classification on the basis of Raw Material

a. Agro- based industries

Raw material- plant and animal-based products.

Example- Food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products and leather
industries.

b. Marine based industries –

Raw material-products from the sea and oceans.

Examples- Industries processing sea food or manufacturing fish oil.

c. Forest based industries

Raw Material- utilise forest produce.

Examples- industries of pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture, and buildings.

d. Mineral based industries (primary industries)

Raw material- mineral ores

*The products of these industries feed other industries.
Example- Iron made from iron ore is the product of mineral based industry which
is raw material to manufacture other products like heavy machinery, building
materials and railway coaches.

2. Classification on the basis of size - It means the capital invested, number

of people employed and the production’s volume. Based on size, industries can be
classified into - small scale industries and large-scale industries.

a. Small scale industry-

Use less amount of capital and technology

Examples- Cottage industries where the products are manufactured by hand, by
the artisans, Silk weaving, food processing Basket weaving, pottery, and other
handicrafts.

b. Large scale industries-

Produce large volumes of products.

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Investment of capital is high, and the technology used is superior

Example - Production of automobiles and heavy machinery

3. Classification on the basis of ownership

a. Private sector industries-

Owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals.

b. Public sector industries –

Owned and operated by the government

Ex-Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel Authority of India Limited.

c. Joint sector industries –

Owned and operated by the state and individuals

Ex- Maruti Udyog Limited.

d. Co-operative sector industries –

Owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or

both.
Ex- Anand Milk Union Limited (Amul) and Sudha Dairy

Factors affecting location of industry

• Availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport, and
market.

• Government’s incentives like subsidised power, lower transport cost and other
infrastructure to locate industries in backward areas.

Industrial System

• Inputs- raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power, and other
infrastructure.

• Processes - wide range of activities that convert the raw material into finished
products.

• Outputs - end product and the income earned from it.

Industrial Regions

Industrial regions formed when a number of industries are located close to each
other and share the benefits of their closeness.

• Major industrial regions generally located in the temperate areas, near seaports
and especially near coal fields.

• World’s major industrial regions are- eastern North America, western and
central Europe, eastern Europe, and eastern Asia

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• India’s major industrial regions are – Mumbai-Pune cluster, Bangalore-Tamil

Nadu region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, Chhotanagpur
industrial belt, Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram industrial cluster, etc.

Distribution of major Industries

The world’s major industries are - Iron and steel industry, The textile
industry, information technology industry.

• Older industry - Iron and steel and textile industry.

Iron and steel industry are located in-Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
Textile industry is located in- India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.

• Emerging industry - Information technology.

Emerging industries are also known as ‘Sunrise Industries’. These include

Information technology, Wellness, Hospitality and Knowledge.
Information technology industry is located in Silicon Valley of Central
California and the Bangalore region of India.

Iron and Steel industry

• It is known as a feeder industry as its products are used as raw material for
other industries.

• Inputs - raw materials like iron ore, coal and limestone, with labour, capital,
site and other infrastructure.

• Process- converting iron ore into steel which involves many stages

• The raw material is put in the blast furnace where it undergoes smelting
(process where metals are extracted from their ores by heating beyond the
melting point). Then it gets refined.

• Output - steel (used by other industries as raw material)

• Special alloys of steel are made to give steel unusual hardness, toughness, or
ability to resist rust by adding small amounts of other metals such as aluminium,
nickel, and copper.

• Steel is often called the backbone of modern industry. Because almost

everything is either made of iron or steel or has been made with tools and
machinery of these metals.

• In India, important steel producing centres such as Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur,

Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are situated in a region that spreads over four
states — West Bengal, Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh.

• Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in the country – Tata Iron
and Steel Company Limited (TISCO) which was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near
the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in Jharkhand and it was
privately owned. It gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone,

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dolomite and manganese from Orissa and Chhattisgarh which were close to Sakchi
(Later Sakchi became Jamshedpur)

Cotton Textile industry

• Textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials i.e. Fibres which can
be natural or man-made.

• Natural fibres are wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute.

• Man-made fibres are nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.

• The cotton textile industry iss based on natural fibre i.e. cotton

• It is one of the oldest industries in the world.

• India, China, Japan and USA are important producers of cotton textiles

• Before the British rule, the Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam,

Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton pieces of Burhanpur, Surat and
Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.

• First textile mill in the country was established at Fort Gloster near
Kolkata in 1818 but it closed down after some time.

• First successful modern textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.

• Initially this industry flourished in Maharashtra and Gujarat due to favourable

humid climate.

• Today this industry has spread in other parts also like in Coimbatore, Kanpur,
Chennai, Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Kolkata, Ludhiana, Pondicherry and Panipat as
today humidity can be created artificially

Cotton Textile industry in Ahmedabad

• Ahmedabad is located in Gujarat on the banks of Sabarmati river.

• First mill was established here in 1859 and then it became the 2nd largest textile
city of India, after Mumbai.

• Ahmedabad is referred to as the ‘Manchester of India’.

• The development of textile industry here is due to favourable locational factors

as it is situated very close to cotton growing area

• But now, due to emergence of new textile centres as well as non-upgradation of

machines and technology in the mills, several textile mills have closed down here

Cotton Textile industry in Osaka, Japan

• It is known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.

• Textile industry developed here due to geographical factors. Like, Land was
easily available to grow cotton mills, Warm humid climate, which is well suited to
spinning and weaving, River Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills.

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• But now textile industry of Osaka has been replaced by other industries like iron
and steel, machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles, electrical equipment, and
cement.

Information technology industry

• It deals in the storage, processing, and distribution of information.

• This industry has become global due to a series of technological, political, and
socioeconomic events.

• Main factors for locating this industry - resource availability, cost and
infrastructure.

• Major hubs of the IT industry are - Silicon Valley, California and Bangalore,
India.

• Bangalore is located on Deccan Plateau from where it gets the name

‘Silicon Plateau’. The state government of Karnataka was the first to
announce an IT Policy in 1992. Bangalore has always had a unique advantage,
as a city with highest availability of middle and top management talent.

• Silicon Valley, is a part of Santa Clara Valley, located next to the Rocky
Mountains of North America and area has temperate climate with the
temperatures rarely dropping below 0˚C.

• Other emerging information technology hubs in metropolitan centres of India -

Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and Chennai.

• Other cities - Gurgaon, Pune, Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Chandigarh

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Earthquake
Earthquakes are caused due to the movement in the lithosphere. This
movement results in the vibration of the earth’s surface and these vibrations can travel
over a very large distance or area. The shaking of earth’s surface due to these
movements is called an earthquake.

➢ The point of origin of an earthquake is called focus. This is a point in the crust
from where the movement starts.
➢ Isoseismic line is a line joining the points on the earth’s surface where
earthquake depth or magnitude is the same.
➢ Homo-seismic line or coseismal line is the line at the Earth's floor connecting
points wherein the seismic wave arrives, generated through an earthquake, on
the same time.

Causes of Earthquakes:
Earth's crust is fabricated from numerous tectonic plates, which slowly
pass round Earth's surface. Most tectonic activity, along with earthquakes, happens
wherein those plates meet.

1. Divergent plate boundaries:

It occurs when the tectonic plates move away from each other.

2. Convergent plate boundaries:

The area where two or more lithospheric plates collide with one another.

Classification of Earthquakes:
Generally, earthquakes are classified on the basis of the
following:
i) Cause of origin
ii) The depth of focus
iii) Its Intensity
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On the basis of depth, it is classifies as following:

Depth Type of earthquake
0-10 km Surface earthquake
10-60 km Normal earthquake
60-300 km Intermediate earthquakes
300 km & more Deep focus earthquakes

Distribution of earthquakes:
i) In circum-pacific belt, 68% of earthquakes take place.
ii) In mid-continental belt, 21% of earthquakes take place.
➢ East-African belt
➢ East-Indian belt
➢ Mid-Atlantic ridge
➢ Gulf of Aden
The circum-pacific belt, which is also known as ring of
fire, is a ring surrounding the Pacific Ocean where most of
the earthquakes take place.

Magnitude and intensity of earthquakes:

i) Intensity:
Intensity of an earthquake is the how strong the
sensations of the vibration we feel. It depends on one’s
distance from the epicenter of the earthquake, amount of
energy at the epicenter and the focus’s depth.
ii) Magnitude:
The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the
amount of energy released during an earthquake. This is
measured from the tracks that seismographs keep.
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Measuring strength of Earthquakes:

1. A scale called modified Mercalli scale is used to measure the magnitude of the
earthquake hit. The scale was invented in 1902 by an Italian seismologist,
Mercalli. In 1931, it was later modified by Wood and Newman. It has values
ranging from I-XII.

2. The intensity of earthquakes is continuously recorded by keeping tracks of

ground vibrations. This accomplished using seismographs.
The scale upon which the intensity is measured is called a Richter scale.
➢ It was invented in 1935 by Charles Francis Richter.
➢ It was later modified by Benq Ocutenberg in 1965.
➢ The range of values in a richter scale is 0-9.
➢ The number in the range value represents the magnitude of the earthquake
hit. As the number increases by 1, the measured wave amplitude gets added
10 folds and the wave energy gets boosted by 32 times.

3. Other scales measuring earthquakes:

i) Rossi Forel scale has a range value of I-X.
ii) Medvedev Sponheur Karnik scale has a range value of 1-12.
iii) Japan Meteorological Agency scale has a range value of I-VII.

Impacts of earthquakes:
i) Loss of lives and precious properties of people.
ii) Shaking and fall down of huge building, causing deaths of people residing in it.
iii) Destruction of the cities, towns. It also causes fire.
iv) It damages the oil pipelines, electric lines, and other important supplies. In severe
cases, it also causes extreme fire.

Earthquake management:
Earthquake is one of the maximum devastating natural disasters on earth. Beside
tsunami, earthquakes can create many greater failures along with liquefaction,
landslides, earth ruptures and maximum prominently floor vibration. The floor vibration
can cause structural collapse, loss of lives and belongings damages. So, to manage it
and get ready for it becomes extremely important.
Following are some ways through which we can manage it:
Seismic stations warning ahead of an earthquake.
Predictions of earthquakes early from a long time.
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Building the architectures like houses etc., earthquake resistant using necessary
protocols.
Observing an abnormal behavior in animals’ nature.
Expertise training.
Obeying 3R rule, i.e., Rescue, Relief and Rehabilitation.
Making different authorities coordinate and cooperate.

Volcano
A volcano is a sudden explosion in the earth’s crust which ejects magma, gas, dust,
smoke and some other solid materials. It gets ejected through a vent in the earth’s crust
from where the molten entities erupt suddenly.
Nature of volcanic eruptions:
a) It consists of water vapors which is in large quantities as it accounts for around
60-90% of all the gases erupted.
b) The temperature of the lava ranges from 9000 to 12000 C.
c) The lava moves with a speed of 15-80 Km/h.
d) The diameter of the volcanic loom has a range of 6mm- 33 mm and it weighs 60
tons. The smaller fragments which are of a size of a walnut or a seed is called a
‘lapilli.
e) When they acquire a vesicular structure, they are called as pumic, scoriae or
cinders.
f) Cinder size ranges from 4-32 mm.
g) The volcanoes consisting of sand particles and finer tephra, it is referred to as
‘volcanic ash’. The size generally is 2mm.
h) The rock which is made of ash, dust, lapilli and cinder is known as ‘tuffs.

Some typical volcanoes of different places:

1. Strombolian volcano:
The lava fountain rises in the Mediterranean Sea up to a height of 900m. It is
visited in the night as it glows red in color on the bottom of the huge stream. It is
also known as ‘lighthouse of the Mediterranean Sea.’
2. Vulcanian volcano:
This volcano type was named after the volcanic site situated in the Lipari
group of islands, Italy. The volcanic eruption, Krakatoa eruption, which
took place in Indonesia in 1883, was of this category. The volcanic clouds
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thus formed are dark and blackish. They acquire a cauliflower like shape
as it grows.

3. Vesuvius volcano:
Some well-known volcanic eruptions of Europe Etna on Sicily, Vesuvius
near Naples belong to this type. It also took place in Kamchatka. It was
witnessed by Pliny in 79 A.D. during a severe volcanic eruption. Due to
this, it’s also sometimes called as Plinsian volcanic eruption.

4. Pelean Volcano:
The name was kept after the mount pelee volcano. It erupted on the island
of Martinique of Antilles. It comprises solid products when exploded. The
cone which it forms is called ‘pyroclastic’.

Types of volcanoes:
1. Active volcanoes: The volcanoes which gets activated at a regular
interval of time, i.e. frequently, are put in the category of active volcanoes.
The examples of such volcanoes are Etna volcano of Italy and Stromboli of
Mediterranean Sea. The Etna volcano has been active for the last 2500
years.
2. Dormant volcanoes: The volcanoes which are less frequent and hasn’t
erupted for a long period of time is put in the category of Dormant volcanoes.
Some of them are Vesuvius volcano of Italy, Kilimanjaro etc.
3. Extinct volcanoes: The volcanoes which has not erupted for a very
significant amount of time are put in the category of extinct volcanoes. The
crater of such volcanoes is filled with rain water and the vent is blocked.
Some of them are Krakatoa, Sumatra.

Volcanic Landforms:
1. Ash or Cinder cone:
Cinders are the cooled pieces of solid rocks which are erupted by a
volcano. A cinder cone has a height of about 300m and its side is concave
in slope, having an angle of range 30-450. For e.g. Mount Fuji.
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2. Composite cones:
These volcanic cones are considered largest and highest. They get
formed by alternate layers of lava and fragments due to the explosion.
Most of the volcanic sites are of this category. For e.g. Vesuvius, Italy,
Fujiyama in Japan.
The size of the fragments ranges from a size of dust to large solid blocks.
The cone is as much as 350.

Distribution of volcanoes:
1. The circum-Pacific belt:
➢ This belt is known as Pacific ring of fire. It is considered as volcanic
zone of the convergent oceanic plate margin which covers eastern
and western coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean.
➢ The frequency of the volcanic eruption is so high that the worlds’
2/3rd of the volcanic eruptions take place here.
➢ This belt extends through Kamchatka to Taiwan, Philippines, New
Zealand.
➢ There are 4 young volcanoes on the Ross island.
2. Mid-continental belt:
➢ This belt is a zone of convergent continent plate margins that
covers the volcanoes of Alpine mountain chains.
➢ It includes the Mediterranean Sea, fault zones of eastern Africa,
Indian plate, Eurasian plate, Vesuvius, Etna etc.
3. The Atlantic Zone:
➢ In Atlantic Ocean, most of the volcanoes occur along the mid-Atlantic
ridge and lateral ramifications.
➢ It includes divergent plate extending Canary island, Cape Verde
island, Madeira island. These are located in the eastern part of
Atlantic Ocean.
4. Intra-plated volcanoes:
The is the most studied and elaborated volcano topic and it belongs
to Hawaiian Islands.
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Geysers:
Some of the volcanoes explodes hot water at regular intervals. Such
volcanoes are called ‘geysers’.
➢ The term is originated from ‘Geysir’, and is named after the
Icelandic name for most spectacular member of a composite group
which is in north-west of Hekla.
➢ They can be seen in U.S., Iceland, New Zealand. One famous
geyser is in the Wyoming state of America, in Yellowstone park.
➢ The temperature of the water ranges between 75-900 C.
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LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS

The world is divided into two categories of grassland: the grasslands that are found in the temperate
region and other which is found in the tropical region.

Prairies – Temperate Grassland

• Prairies is a type of grassland which is found in North America.
• For the major portion of the year, prairies are treeless, but woodlands can be seen near river
valleys and low-lying plains.
• The landscape is covered with grass of 2 meters length, and hence, it is known as ‘sea of grass’.
• In the west, prairies are bounded by Rocky Mountains and in the east, they have Great lakes.
• The Prairies are found in USA and some parts of Canada and drained by river Mississippi
tributaries and Saskatchewan tributaries respectively.
• The Prairies are home to tribes like the Crow, the Apache, The Cree etc and native Americans
which are popularly known as ‘Red Indians’.
• Climate
✓ The climate is continental type with 200 summer temperature and -200 winter
temperature. In winters, one can find heavy snowfall.
✓ Rainfall is average and sufficient for the growth of the grass and wind Chinook is found
in this region. Winds blows without any north-south barrier.
• Flora and Fauna
✓ Prairies are not known for trees, but where water is available, some tress can be seen
such as poplars, willows and alders.
✓ Maize is the major crop and other crops which are grown here are potato, cotton,
alfa-alfa and soyabean.
✓ In Prairies, cattle rearing is also done. Large farms of cattle are known as ranches and
they are look after by cowboys.
✓ The most important animal is Bison and is now considered as protected species due
to indiscriminate hunting. Other animals are gophers, rabbits and prairie dog.
• People
✓ Both in USA and Canada, people have utilized technology to harness natural
resources. As a result, North America has become surplus food producer. The Prairies
is known as ‘Granaries of the World’ as wheat is produced in surplus.
✓ Apart from crop production, people are engaged in dairy farming. It extends from
Great lakes to Atlantic coast in the east.
✓ The region has been industrialized region as coal and iron deposits have been found
here and cities are well connected with roads, canals and railways.

Velds – Temperate Grassland

• These are the grasslands found in South Africa. It is bounded by Drakensburg mountains on
the east and Kalahari Desert on the west.
• This region is drained by the tributaries of Orange and Limpopo rivers.
• Climate
✓ This region has very mild climate. Winters are cold as well as dry with July as the
coldest month.

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✓ Rainfall starts in November and goes till February. These months are summer months.
It is because the warm ocean currents touch the shores of these grasslands.
• Flora and Fauna
✓ The landscape is dominated by the grasses and red grass is grown in bush Velds.
✓ Acacia and maroola are grown here.
✓ Fauna includes leopards, cheetah, kudu and lions.
• People
✓ The people of these area are engaged in mining and cattle rearing.
✓ The soils are not fertile in nature as there are barren patches in between soil.
✓ Maize, barley, wheat, potato and oats are grown where soil is fertile. Moreover, the
cash crops are also grown here such as cotton, sugarcane and tobacco.
✓ People rear sheep for wool which has given rise to wool industry. The popular species
of sheep here is Merino Sheep.
✓ Dairy farming is also done here and products like butter, cheese are exported to other
countries.
✓ This region has coal and iron deposits; therefore, it has developed iron and steel
industries.
✓ Johannesburg and Kimberley is famous for gold and diamond mines respectively.

LIFE IN THE DESERTS

Deserts are characterized by scanty rainfall, extreme temperatures and low vegetation cover. Deserts
can be hot and cold.

Sahara Desert – The Hot desert

• It lies in the large part of the North Africa and considered as the largest desert of the world.
• It covers 11 countries: Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger, Sudan,
Tunisia and Western Sahara.
• Climate
✓ The climate of this region is hot and dry with short rainy season.
✓ Evaporation rate is much higher as compared to non-desert areas.
✓ The nights are freezing cold with almost zero-degree temperature.
✓ The highest temperature in this region has been recorded as 570 Celsius in Al Azizia.
• Flora and Fauna
✓ The flora consists of cactus, acacia and date palms.
✓ The fauna includes snakes, lizards, foxes, scorpions, hyenas and camels.
• People
✓ The nomadic tribes are Bedouins and Tuaregs and they rear sheep, camels, goats and
horses. Tuaregs also work as guides to tourists
✓ The animals provide them milk, leather and hairs which are used for variety of
purposes.
✓ People wear heavy robes which protect them against hot winds and dust storms.
✓ People grow date palms and crops such as wheat, rice, barley and beans are also
grown in this region. The cotton which is grown in Egypt are famous worldwide.
✓ The oil which has been discovered in this region had transformed the desert areas.
Phosphorus, uranium, iron and manganese deposits are found here.
✓ With the context of salt trade, camel has been replaced by trucks.

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Ladakh Desert – The Cold Desert

• The Ladakh desert lies in Great Himalayas and enclosed by Karakoram range from north and
Zanskar Range from the south. Ladakh is known by the name of Khapa-clan which means the
land of snow.
• Important river of this region is Indus and several glaciers are also found here.
• The climate is extremely cold and dry but heat of the sun is also intense.
• Rainfall is very low as it lies in the rain shadow area of the Himalayas.
• Flora and Fauna
✓ Since the aridity is very high, vegetation is sparse.
✓ Poplars and willow groves are found here with patches of grasses and shrubs.
✓ In summers, one can find apple, walnut and apricot trees.
✓ Bird species include robins, Tibetan snowcock, hoopoe and raven.
✓ Animals include yak, special variety of dogs and wild sheep as well as wild goats. The
Tibetan antelope which is hunted for wool is now a endangered species.
✓ Yak’s milk is used for cheese and butter production.
✓ Animal rearing is done for hides, meat and milk.
• People
✓ The people in this region are either Muslims or Buddhists. Ladakh is a home to various
Buddhist monasteries with traditional gompas. Some of them are Hemis, Shey,
Lamayuru etc.
✓ In summer season, people engage themselves in cultivation which include peas,
potatoes, barley, turnip etc.
✓ As the winter season is extremely cold, people work less and involve themselves in
festivities and ceremonies.
✓ Women in this region, apart from household work, manage shops and small business.
✓ The capital city of Ladakh, Leh, is connected with Ladakh by road as well as air.
Through NH 1A, Leh is connected with Kashmir via Zoji La Pass.

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HUMAN ENVIRONMENT – SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT AND

COMMUNICATION
Settlements
• Settlements are places where people build their homes.
• The settlements grew near the river valleys as water was available and land was fertile.
• With the development of trade, commerce and manufacturing, human settlements became
larger.
• Settlement flourished and civilizations developed near river valleys.

Types of Settlement:
Settlements are categorized in to two Categories:

1. Permanent & Temporary Settlements

2. Rural or urban Settlements

Permanent Settlements & Temporary Settlements

• In permanent settlement people resides for a long time. They build homes to live in.
• Settlements which are occupied for a short time are called temporary settlements.
• For example - People living in deep forests, hot and cold deserts and mountains often dwell
in such temporary settlements.
• They practice hunting, gathering, shifting cultivation and transhumance.

Rural or urban Settlements:

• Rural Settlement - The villages are rural settlement where people are engaged in activities
like agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work and trading etc.
• Rural settlements can be compact or scattered.
1. A compact settlement is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available.
2. In a scattered settlement dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
• This type of settlement is mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme
climate
• Urban Settlement – This settlement includes towns and cities
• The towns are small, and the cities are larger urban settlements.
• In urban areas the people are engaged in manufacturing, trading, and services.

Important Terms:
• Site: The place where a building or a settlement develops is called its site.
• Transhumance: It is a seasonal movement of people. People who rear animals move in search
of new pastures according to changes in seasons.

Transport

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• Transport has been defined as a means by which people and goods can be transported from
one place to another.
• In various countries, animals are used as a means of transport. For example, in India, mules,
bullocks, donkeys etc. are used. While in Andes mountains Llamas are found and in Tibet, Yaks
are used.
• The four major types of transport are: railways, roadways, airways and waterways.
• Railways
✓ It is the most commonly used means of transport for carrying bulky goods over long
distances.
✓ The speedy development of railways is due to the development of steam engine as
well as industrial revolution. But steam engines have now been replaced with electric
and diesel engines.
✓ The plain areas have more railway lines as compared to hilly terrain where advance
skills are required to lay the railway line.
✓ The longest railways system is the Trans-Siberian railway which connects St.
Petersburg in Western Russia and Vladivostok on the Pacific coast.
• Roadways
✓ For short distances, people prefer roadways. They can also be built in terrains such as
mountains, forests etc.
✓ Roads can be metalled or unmetalled. Metalled means pucca roads while unmetalled
means kutcha roads.
✓ The highest roadway in world is Manali-Leh Highway.
✓ Flyovers the roads which are built on raised structures while subways are the roads
which are built underground.
• Airways
✓ It is the fastest and the expensive mode of transport.
✓ It is the only medium of transport which can access remote and distant areas but it is
affected by bad weather conditions.
✓ At the time of calamities and in inaccessible situations, helicopters are used.
• Waterways
✓ For carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances, waterways are considered as
the cheapest mode of transportation.
✓ Waterways can be inland waterways or sea routes. Inland waterways consist of
navigable rivers and lakes while sea routes are used for goods and merchandise
transportation. The sea routes are connected with the help of ports.

Communication
• It is the process by which one can interact with others. With the passage of time, technological
advancements have been taking place by which one can inform, educate, interact and
entertain others across the globe.
• Mass media is the media which caters thousands of audiences at a point of time. For example:
television, radio, magazine, newspaper etc.
• With the use of satellites, communication has become very quick. Moreover, satellites are
also used in forecasting of weather, oil exploration, forest survey etc.
• With the introduction of mobile phones, wireless communication has become popular.

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• With the help of internet, we can gain abundant amount of information sitting anywhere in
the world. People have become tech savvy. Now they are booking travelling tickets online,
reserving seats in restaurants while sitting at home etc. The life has become comfortable and
the world has become a large society.

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Land, soil, Water, Natural vegetation, and Wildlife Resources

If we compare two places on the earth, then they cannot be exactly same. This is because of
the differences in the soil, animals, natural vegetation, quality of land and technology usage.

Land
• One of the most important natural resources is land.
• It covers 30 percent of the total surface of the earth, but all the parts of land are not
suitable for settlement purpose.
• It is the varied characteristics of land and climate which is responsible for uneven
distribution of population.
• Those areas which have rugged topography, covered with thick forests, susceptible
to water logging are generally sparsely populated while areas which are covered
with plains and river valleys are densely populated.
➢ Land Use
• The term land use can be described as the use of land for different purposes such as
forestry, mining, agriculture etc.
• The use of the land depends on physical factors as well as human factors. Physical
factors include topography, climate, availability of water, soil etc. while human
factors consist of population and technology.
• On the basis of ownership, land can be divided into private land and community land
or common purpose land. Private land is owned by individual person while
community land is owned by community for common purpose.
• Slowly and gradually, people have started encroachment of common land for
commercial use and to expand agricultural fields. As a result, once notice the
negative impacts such as land degradation, soil erosion, landslides and
desertification.
➢ Conservation of Land Resource
• Growing population is putting burden on land resource and leading to large scale
destruction of forests and arable land.
• Some of the common methods can be adopted to conserve land resource. These are
land reclamation, check on overgrazing, afforestation and regulated use of pesticides
and fertilizers.

Soil
• The thin layer of grainy substance which covers the earth surface is called soil.
• The type of soil is determined by landforms.
• Organic matter, weathered rocks and minerals constitute the soil.
• It is right mix of organic matter and minerals which makes the soil fertile.
• It takes 100 of years to make 1 centimetre of soil.
• Soil profile is the vertical cross section of the soil.

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➢ Factors of Soil Formation

• Parent Material - Few soils weather (break down into smaller particles) directly from
the underlying rocks. Parent rock determines colour, texture, content, permeability,
chemical properties etc.

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• Climate – Temperature, humus formation, rainfall which influence rate of weathering

are some important factors.
• Relief/ Topography – Accumulation of soil is determined by slope and altitude of that
place.
• Flora/ Fauna/ Organisms – These affect the rate of formation of humus.
• Time – It determines the soil thickness.
➢ Degradation of soil and conservation measures
• Human and natural factors can lead to degradation of soil which leads to soil erosion
and depletion.
• Some of the factors are overuse of pesticides, overgrazing, deforestation, floods,
landslides, rain wash etc.
• Soil should be conserved as it is indispensable for the growth of plants. Following are
some methods:
✓ Mulching – Helps to retain soil moisture. The bare ground between plants is
covered with organic material.
✓ Contour barriers – Materials such as soil, stones are used to make barriers
along contours. To collect water, trenches are made in front of barriers.
✓ Rock Dam – To prevent gullies and soil loss, piles of rocks are made to slow
down the flow of water.
✓ Terrace farming – This method is used where there are steep slopes and to
reduce surface run-off broad flat steps are made which can be used to cultivate
crops.
✓ Intercropping – Different crops are sown in alternate rows and different times
to prevent rain wash.
✓ Contour ploughing – Ploughing is done parallel to the contours of hill slopes to
that water does not flow down.
✓ Shelter belts – This method is adopted in coastal and dry regions. In this
method, trees are planted to check wind movement and protect soil cover.

Water
• As land is the important resource and so is the water. It is an essential renewable
resource.
• Three-fourth of the earth’s surface is covered with water; therefore, it is known as
blue planet. But two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with oceans and that water
is not fit for consumption water is saline in nature.
• Fresh water accounts only for 2.7 percent and 70 percent of this total water is found
in form of ice sheets in Greenland, Antarctica and mountainous regions. This water is
inaccessible. Hence, only 1 percent is fit for human consumption and this water is
found in the form of ground water, surface water and water vapour.
• The most precious substance is freshwater whose volume remain constant. But its
abundance may vary because of the movement of water during evaporation,
condensation, precipitation and run-off – this process is part of water cycle.

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• Human use water for production purpose, drinking and washing. In addition to this,
water from reservoirs is used to generate electricity.
• In few areas shortages of water can be seen because of increasing population,
increasing urbanization and industrialization, increased demand for foods and rise in
standards of living.
• In many regions of the world, there is scarcity of water. These regions are West Asia,
Africa, north-west Mexico, Australia and parts of South America.
• The shortage of water may occur due to seasonal or annual precipitation and scarcity
may occur due to over-exploitation and contamination of water resources.
➢ Conservation of Water Resources
• Adequate water sources and availability of clean water is a major problem at global
level.
• Moreover, water also gets contaminated due to discharge of effluents, untreated
water etc. This makes water unfit for consumption as these pollutants reach human
bodies through water.
• There are certain steps which needs to be taken to conserve water. These are:
✓ Forest and vegetation cover slow surface run-off and also restock underground
water.
✓ To save surface run-off, water harvesting could also be done.
✓ Canals should be lined properly to avoid any leakage or seepage.
✓ Sprinklers can be used to irrigate area as water loss can be checked through
seepage and evaporation.
✓ In regions where evaporation is high, one can adopt trickle irrigation.

Natural Vegetation and Wildlife

• Natural vegetation is found only in biosphere which is a narrow zone where
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere exists together. In biosphere, living beings
are dependent on each other for their survival and this life supporting system is known
as ecosystem.
• Both vegetation and wildlife are valuable resources. Plants provide us with timber,
oxygen, shelter to animals, protects soils, act as shelter belts and help in storage of
underground water. In addition to this, they give us fruits, latex, nuts, turpentine oil,
gum, and also the paper.
• Animals whether big or small, all are essential in maintaining balance in the
ecosystem. They provide us milk, wool and hides. Insects help in pollination of flowers
and also play the role of decomposers in the ecosystem. The birds also act as
decomposers. Vulture is considered as a scavenger due to its ability to feed on dead
livestock.
➢ Distribution of Natural Vegetation
• Temperature and moisture are two factors that determine the growth of vegetation.
The vegetation can be classified into forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra.
• The forests are found in the areas which receive heavy rainfall.

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• As the amount of moisture or rainfall decreases, the size of trees and their density also
reduces. Short stunted trees and grasses grow in the regions of moderate rainfall and
thus form the grasslands of the world.
• Areas which receive low rainfall usually have thorny shrubs and tundra vegetation (in
colder regions, mosses and lichens forms part of tundra vegetation). This kind of
vegetation is characterized by deep roots, leaves with waxy surface so as to reduce
the loss of moisture through transpiration.
➢ Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife
• Due to human interferences, changes in climate can be seen. As a result, plants and
animals are losing natural habitats. Some species have become vulnerable while some
are on the verge of extinction.
• Human and natural factors such as deforestation, constructional activities, poaching
(collection and illegal trading of animal teeth, skin, feather etc.), soil erosion, forest
fires, landslides and tsunami have accelerated the process of extinction of these
resources.
• National parks (natural area designated to protect the ecological integrity), wildlife
sanctuaries (area where animal habitats are protected from any disturbance) and
biosphere reserves (protected areas that are intended to demonstrate the
relationship between conservation and development) must be made for protecting
natural vegetation and wildlife. Even the conservation of lakes and wetlands is
necessary to conserve these resources.
• At community level, awareness programmes can be conducted like social forestry and
Vanamohatasava.
• At school level, children should be encouraged to visit nature camps and zoos so that
they become aware of the habitat of various species.
• At national level, laws can be passed against the trade as well as killing of birds and
animals. For instance, in India, killing lions, deer, tigers, peacocks and Great Indian
Bustard is illegal.
• At international level, an international convention CITES (Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) has been established which
make the lists of several species of animals and birds in which trade is prohibited.
• But it is duty of each and every individual to contribute in conservation of plants and
animals.

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Study Notes – Introduction to Maps

Introduction

• A map is a representation or a drawing of the earth’s surface or a part of it drawn on

a flat surface according to a scale. However, it is not possible to flatten the round
shape of the earth completely.
• As compared to globe, maps are useful when we want to study only a part of the earth.
For instance: a country, a village etc. But if we want to study earth as a whole, globes
serve the purpose not the maps.
• Atlas is a kind of book in which many maps are put together. Atlases are of various
sizes, measurements drawn on different scales.
Types of Maps

• Maps which show natural features of the earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains,
rivers, oceans etc. are called physical or relief maps.

Fig: Physical Map of Africa

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• Maps which show cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the
world with their boundaries are called political maps.

Fig: Political Map of India

• Maps which focus on specific information such as road maps, rainfall maps, maps
showing distribution of forests, industries etc. are known as thematic maps.

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Fig: Thematic Map showing rainfall distribution in India

Components of Maps
There are three components of maps: distance, direction and symbol. All these components
have been explained below:

• Distance
✓ Maps are drawings, which reduce the entire world or a part of it to on a sheet of paper.
In other words, maps are drawn to reduced scales.
✓ This reduction is done very carefully so that the distance between the places is real. It
can only be possible with the help of scale which is chosen for this purpose.
✓ Scale has been defined as the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and
the distance shown on the map. It is very important in the map.
✓ For example, the distance between your school and your home is 10 km. If you show
this 10 km. distance by 2 cm on a map, it means, 1 cm on the map will show 5 km. on
the ground. The scale of your drawing will be 1cm = 5 km.
✓ When large areas like continents or countries are to be shown on a paper, then we
use a small scale while when a small area like your village or town is to be shown on
paper, then we use a large scale. These are known as small scale and large-scale maps
respectively.
✓ Large scale maps give more information than small scale maps.
• Direction
✓ There are four major directions which are also known as cardinal points. These are
north, south, east and west.
✓ Other four are intermediate directions such as north-east (NE), southeast (SE), south-
west (SW) and north-west (NW).
✓ With the help of these intermediate directions, we can locate any place more
accurately.

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✓ We can find out the direction of a place with the help of an instrument known as
compass. It has a magnetic needle which always points towards north-south direction.
• Symbols
✓ It is not possible to draw the actual shape and size of different features such as
buildings, trees, roads, railway lines etc. on a map. As a result, they are shown by using
certain letters, shades, colours, pictures and lines. These letters, shades or colours are
known as symbols.
✓ These symbols give a lot of information in a limited space.
✓ By using these symbols, maps can be drawn easily and are simple to read. Moreover,
if you don’t know the language of a country or state, then also you can travel easy by
reading symbols shown on map.
✓ Maps have a universal language that can be understood by all.
✓ There is an international agreement regarding the use of these symbols. These are
called conventional symbols.

Fig: Conventional Symbols

✓ At times, various colours are also used for showing features. For example, blue colour
is used for showing water bodies, brown colour is for mountain, yellow colour is for
showing a plateau while green colour is used for plain area.
Sketch

• A sketch is a drawing which is based on memory and on the spot observation and this
is not meant to scale.
• A rough drawing which is drawn without scale is called a sketch map.
• A sketch map is required of an area to tell where a particular place is located with
respect to other places.
Plan

• A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale.

• A large-scale map gives lot of information, but plan is used where there are certain
things which can’t be shown in a map. For example: length and breadth of a room.

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Major Landmarks of the Earth

The landscape is being continuously worn away by two processes- weathering and erosion.
Weathering is the breaking up to the rocks on the earth's surface. Erosion is the wearing away
of the landscape by different agents like water, wind, ice and eventually deposited. This process
of erosion and deposition create different landforms on the surface of the earth.
Geomorphic agents acting over long periods of time produce systematic changes leading to
sequential development of landforms. Each geomorphic agent produces its own assemblage of
landforms.
Erosional and depositional landforms are produced by geomorphic agents, some geomorphic
agents are given below-
i) Running water- running water is considered the most important geomorphic agent.
There are two components of running water-
a) Overland flow (b) Liner flow
Overland flow on general land surface as a sheet and liner flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
Most of the erosional landforms made by running water are associated with vigorous and
youthful rivers flowing along gradients.
Overland flow causes sheet erosion. The overland flow may concentrate into narrow to wide
paths.
In the early stages, down cutting dominates during which irregularities such as water falls and
cascades will be removed and in the middle stage, streams cut their beds slower and lateral
erosion of valley sides becomes severe.

Youth- Streams are few during this stage with poor integration and flow over original slopes
showing shallow V- shaped valleys with no flood plains. Steam divides are broad and flat with
marshes, swamp, and lakes.

Mature- During this stage streams are plenty with good integration. The valleys are still V-
shaped by deep. The flat and broad inter steam areas are swamps and marshes of youth
disappear and the streams divides turn sharp.

Old- Smaller tributaries during old age are few with gentle gradients. Streams meander freely
over vast flood plains showing natural levees, oxbow, lakes etc.

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Erosional Landforms
as small and narrow rills, the rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies. The gullies
will future deepen, wider and lengthen to give rise to valleys. Depending upon dimensions and
shape, many types of valleys like V-Shaped valley, gorge, canyon etc. valley types deep end
upon the type and structure of rocks in which they form.

Potholes and Plunge Pools- Over the rockey beds of hills streams more or less circular
depressions called potholes form. The large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls are called
plunge pools. These pools help in the deepening of valleys.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders-

Incised meanders which are particularly well developed occur when a river's base level ha fallen
giving the river a large amount of vertical erosion power. Incised meanders are formed due to
vertical erosion.

River Terraces- River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor. River terraces are
basically products of erosion when the river terraces may occur at the same elevation on either
side of the rivers, they are called paired terraces.
When a terrace is present on one side of the stream and other side is quite different elevation
are called non- paired terraces.

Depositional Landforms
Alluvial Fans- They are formed when stream flowing from higher levels break into foot slope
plains of low gradient. stream carried very coarse load over mountain slopes. This load
becomes too heavy for the streams to be carried over gentle gradients and gets dumped and
spread as a broad low to high cone shaped deposit called Alluvial fans.

Deltas- Deltas are development at a different location. The load carried by the rivers dumped
and spread into the sea. The deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear
stratification. The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer fraction lifts silts and clays

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are carried out into the sea. As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue to increase in
length.
Floodplains, Natural levees and Point bars.

Floodplains is a major landforms of river deposition. Large sized materials are deposited first
when stream channel breaks into gentle slope.

Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, liner, and parallel
ridges of coarse deposits along the banks of rivers.

Pointbar are also known as meander bar. They are found on the convex side of menders
of large rivers and are sediments deposited in a liner fashion by flowing waters along the bank.

Meanders- meanders are loop like channel patterns develop over flood and delta plant. It is
only a type of channel patterns.

Erosional landforms
Poles, Sinkholes, Lapis, and Limestone Pavements
Sink holes are very coon in limestone area. A sinkhole is an opening more or less circular at the
tope and funnel shaped to words the bottom with soil, mantle and appear as a shallow water
pools.

Canvas- In areas where there are alternating beds of rocks with limestone in between or in
areas where limestone are dense, massive, and occurring as thick beds cave formation is
prominent.
Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharges. Caves having
openings at both the ends are called tunnels.

Depositional Landforms-
They are developed within the limestone caves when the calcium carbonate is deposited in the
water and loses its carbon dioxides it trickles over rough rock surfaces.

Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillers-

Stalactites hang as icicles of different diameters. They are broad at their bases and toper
towards the tree ends showing up in a variety of forms.

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Stalagmites rises up from the floor of the caves. They form due to dripping water from the
surface.

Glacier- masses of ice moving as sheets over the land or as liner flows down the slopes of
mountain in broad trough like valleys are called glaciers.

Erosional landforms-
Cirque- They are the most common landform in glaciated mountains. They are found at the
heads of glacial valleys. They are deep, long and wide basins.

Horns and Serrated ridges

Horns forms through head ward erosion of the cirque walls. The divides between cirque side
wall gets narrow because of progressive erosion and turn into serrated referred with very sharp
crest and a zig zag outline.

Glacial valleys- They are trough like and U shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth
and steep sides. Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shore liner are
called flords.

Moraines- They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are long ridges od
debris deposited at the end of the glacier. Lateral moraines form along the sides parallel to the
glacial valleys. The moraines in the center of the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines is
called medial moraines.

Outwash Plains- The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of
continental ice sheets are covered with glacial- fluvial deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial
fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt etc.

Drumlines- They are smooth oval shaped ridge like features composed mainly of glacial till
with some masses of gravel and land. Drum lines measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so
in height. They give an indication of direction of glacier movement.

Waves and Currents-

Coastal processes are the most dynamic and hence most destructive. Some of the changes
along the coast take place very fast. At one place, there can be erosion in one season and
deposition in another.

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When waves break the water, it thrown with great force on to the shore. Storm waves and
Tsunami waves can cause far reaching changes in a short period of time than normal breaking
waves.
Two types of coasts are considered to explain the concept of evolution of coastal landforms-

i) High rocky coasts- the river appears to have been drowned with highly irregular
coastline. Along high rockey coasts, waves break with great force against the land
shaping the hill sides into cliffs.
ii) Low sedimentary Coasts- The river appears to extend their length by building
coastal plains and deltas.

Erosional Landforms-
Cliffs, Terraces, caves, and Stacks
Wave cut cliffs and terraces are two forms found where erosion is the dominant shore
process.
Almost all sea cliffs are steep and may range from a few m to 30 m.
The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets smashed
against the cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and these hollows get widened and
deepened to form sea caves.
Retreat of the cliff leave some remnants to rocks standing isolated as small is lands just off
the shore. Such resistant masses of rock are called sea stacks.

Pediments and Pedi plains-

Gently inclined rockey floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a thick
cover of debris are called pediments.
Pedi plains broad, relatively flat rock surface formed by the joining of several pediments.
Pedi plains are usually formed in arid or semi arid climate.

Playas- The flat- floored bottom of an undrained desert basin that become at times a
shallow lake. It is location where ephemeral lakes form during wet periods, and is underlain
by stratified clay, silt and sand, and commonly soluble salts.

Deflation Hollows Sand caves-

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Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil gets blown out by persistent movement
of wind currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depression called
deflation hollows.

The rock faces suffer impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand the first shallow depression
called blow outs are created and some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be
called caves.

Sand Dunes- Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to
initiate dune formation are equally important.
Parabolic dunes form where sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation.
Transverse dunes are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. They may be very long and
low in height.

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DIVERSITY AND DISCRIMINATION

• India is a diverse country which means it has people who belong to different culture, religious
rituals, occupation, interests, caste etc. Moreover, different people speak different languages; wear
different types of cloth, prefer different varieties of food and celebrate different festivals depending on
the region.
• Another element of diversity is inequality. The word inequality means not equal. In the context of
social and political life, it means inaccessibility and non-availability of resources and opportunities to
some people.
• It is the caste system which gave the birth to inequality. As one can observe that in caste system one
needs to follow the occupation in which his forefathers have been engaged. Neither one was allowed to
do any other work nor possess any kind of extra knowledge which was not related to their occupation.
Even if one possesses the skills or knowledge about different profession then also he/she was forced to
follow the same occupation from generation to generation.
• In earlier times, people used to wander from place to place in search of food, new lands to settle and
for trading purpose. Even people used to leave their homes due to natural calamities such as famines,
floods and droughts etc. Other reasons that male people left their homes are war and search for work.
• When people started settling in new places, they learnt new things as well. This led to fusion of new
and old culture, religion, language and food etc. As a result, each region develops its own unique and
diverse culture.
• Even the geographical and historical features affect the diversity of a region. For example: living in the
plain areas is always easier as well as comfortable as compared to living in mountainous areas. After a
certain period of time, people adapt themselves according to the environment.
• Let us understand more about diversity by comparing two different regions: Kerala and Ladakh.
Ladakh
• Ladakh is a cold desert which lies on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Since this region is covered with snow for most of the year, agriculture cannot be done on large scale.
• People need to depend on melting snow for accessibility to drinking water.
• The famous ’Pashmina wool’ comes from goats found in Ladakh region. This wool is further sold to
traders in Kashmir where shawls are woven. These shawls are of premium quality and demanded in all
over the world.
• The people of Ladakh usually eat meat and prefer milk products such as butter and cheese. In this
region, cows, goats and dzos are owned by people.
• Despite of the fact that Ladakh is a desert, it is considered a good trade route as it has various passes
by which caravans used to travel to Tibet. Spices, textiles, carpets and raw silk were used to carry by
caravans.
• Buddhism also reached Tibet via Ladakh (known as Little Tibet).
• Four hundred years ago, Islam was introduced in Ladakh and hence, it had a large population of
Muslims.
• Both Muslims and Buddhists sing and perform the local version of the Kesar Saga, the national epic
of Tibet.
Kerala
• Kerala is the state which lies in south-western part of India.
• Kerala is known for spices such as pepper, cloves and cardamom.

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• Jewish and Arab traders were the first communities to settle in Kerala.
• The Apostle of Christ, St. Thomas brought Christianity into India.
• Kerala is home to various religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism.
• The fishing nets found in Kerala are very similar to Chinese fishing nets, cheena-vala. The utensil which
was used for frying is known as the cheenachatti.
• The staple food of this region is rice. People eat rice with vegetables and fish.
Unity in Diversity
• From the times when Britishers used to rule India, people from different religions and cultural
background united to fight against British.
• The main intention of Britishers was to divide Indians as they belong to different religion and
cultures but they faced them by being united.
• The Indian flag was used everywhere as a symbol of protest against the British rule.
• It was Jawahar Lal Nehru who has given the phrase ‘Unity in Diversity’ and authored the book ‘The
Discovery of India’.
• The National Anthem of India was composed by Rabindranath Tagore.
Prejudice and creating Stereotypes
• Prejudice means judging someone negatively or treating other inferior. People can be prejudiced
about culture, language, colour of the skin etc.
• Stereotype is concerned with gender discrimination which is created by fixing people into one
image.
• Stereotype led people to fit all the individuals into a common group. It does not help in segregating
individuals who possess unique qualities.
Inequality and Discrimination
• People are discriminated when people believe on their stereotypes or prejudices.
• Discrimination can take place on the basis of religion, languages spoken, economic backgrounds,
culture etc.
• People are even discriminated on the basis of work they indulged in. For example: teaching,
weaving, fishing is considered as valuable work rather than garbage picking, cleaning homes, cutting
hair etc. This is the resultant of prevalent caste system in India. Garbage pickers, maid servants etc. are
put on the bottom of the caste ladder and are considered as untouchables.
• Untouchables were not allowed to enter the temples, public parks, restaurants and homes of upper
castes people. Their children were not allowed to enter in schools.
• Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was considered as the leader of Dalits as he fought for the rights of the
Dalits. He was the first leader who shared his first experience of caste based discrimination.
Striving for Equality
• There are different groups who fought for the inequalities. These include Dalits who demanded
accessibility to temples, women who fought for getting better education, peasants and tribals wanted
themselves to get free from moneylenders.
• The Indian Constitution ensured that all the citizens of India will be considered equal. Untouchability
has become a crime and it has been abolished by law.
• Moreover, the Indian Constitution ensures that people should have freedom to follow any religion,
speak any language, and celebrate any festivals and much more.
• Therefore, India is considered as a secular country where people from varied religions reside
together without any kind of discrimination.

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Government
• The Government is needed by every country to take the decisions related to the state or country
as a whole.
• It is the responsibility of the government to provide public facilities such as transport; postal
services; health services etc. and it also takes the actions on social issues.
• The government maintains harmony with other countries and also protects the territorial
boundaries by maintaining peaceful relations.
• Even the courts, which are part of judicial systems, come under the purview of the government.
Levels of Government and Laws of Government
• The government works at three different levels: local level (covers village or town), state level
(covers entire state such as West Bengal, Rajasthan etc.) and national level (covers entire
nation or country).
• The government functions by making laws which every citizen needs to follow. As the
government has the power to take the decisions, it has the power to enforce decisions as well.
• If a particular law is not followed, then people can take action and approach to the court. The
court then gives recommendation or suggestions for what could be done.
Types of Government
• There are various types of government but following two types are major governments:
Democratic government and Monarchial government.
• In a democratic government, people give the power to government to make and enforce
decisions. It is done through elections by which people elect their representatives.
• In a monarchial government, only the monarch (king or queen) has to power to make and
enforce the decisions. Although he/she can consult with some members but ultimate decisions
lies in the hands of monarch.
Democratic Government
• India is a democratic country where people have the rights to elect their leaders or
representatives.
• Democratic government is also known as representative democracy.
• People participate in the decision making not directly but though their representatives they
elect.
• The main feature of the democratic government is Universal Adult Franchise. This means that
citizens above the age of 18 years are allowed to vote.
• In the past times, only men who are educated and owned a property were allowed to vote.
Later on, a small minority group was also allowed to vote. Seeing this injustice, Gandhiji
demanded that all the citizens must be allowed to vote.
Key Elements of Democratic Government
• The government is elected for a fixed tenure. In India, this tenure is for the period of five years.
When a particular government is elected, it remains functional for five years. If the government
wants to remain functional for another five years, then it needs to be re-elected.

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• By regular elections, the government power gets limited. Elections are usually held once in five
years.
• The other way by which people participate in the decision making is by taking interest in the
functioning of the government. People sometimes support the government and sometimes
criticize it.
• There are methods by which people express their views. These include rallies, strikes, signature
campaigns etc. People also organize social movements by which they challenge the working of
the government.
• There are various mediums by which people express their opinion. These are newspapers,
television, magazines, radio etc.
• The more the people are interested in the functioning of the government, the more the
stronger is the democratic character of the government.
Need to Resolve Conflict
• Conflict is described as a situation when people with different culture, religion, castes etc.
cannot live in harmony or feeling of inequality arises between the different groups.
• The conflicts result in tension within the group. And it is the responsibility of the government to
resolve the conflict according to the laws set by the government.
• Sometimes, the festival celebrations can lead to conflicts in a particular region. In this case, the
government tries to resolve the conflict with the help of police and community representatives.
• Conflict, at times, gives rise to violence. The police prevent the occurrence of violence.
• Even if the river flows through various states, then also conflict can arise regarding which state
will reap the benefits of river water. For instance: the Kaveri river dispute between the two
states, that is, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The reason for the conflict was the dependency of
Tamil Nadu on Karnataka for the supply of water. Since the dams of Karnataka (Krishna Raja
Sagar) and Tamilnadu (Mettur Dam) were built on same river, however, the dam which was
constructed in Tamil Nadu gets water only when the water was released from upstream dam
in Karnataka. As a result, both Karnataka and Tamil Nadu could not get enough water as per
their requirements, which had given rise to conflict. Thus, the central government took the
initiative to distribute the water proportionately between the two states.
Equality and Justice
• Two important elements of democracy are equality and justice which are inseparable in nature.
• In this regard, government enacted various laws and untouchability was abolished by law.
• BR Ambedkar was one such leader who has played a pivotal role for the establishment of
equality and thereby justice to the backward communities.
• It is the governments’ responsibility to make provisions and design policies for the upliftment of
the underprivileged people or groups.
• In the Indian society, one can observe the gender biasness, where boys are treated fairly as
compared to girls. To promote justice and overcome gender discrimination, the government has
designed various policies.

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Introduction to the Indian Constitution

Constitution is the set of rules which tells about the political structure of the country it is
the supreme law of land which provides convenience as well as regulations for all the
citizens living in a country.

Preamble of the Indian Constitution

The term preamble refers to the first page of the Constitution or we can say it is the
preface of the Constitution, an eminent jurist N.A Palkhivala called the preamble as the
“identity card of the constitution’. By reading the preamble of any constitution one can
understand the basic nature of the country.
The preamble of the Indian Constitution is based on the ‘Objective Resolution’ drafted and
moved by Pandit Nehru and adopted by the Constituent Assembly.
The preamble of India says:
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolve to constitute INDIA into a SOVEREIGN
SOCIALIST SECULAR DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC & too secure all its citizens. JUSTICE, Social,
Economic, Political, LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith & worship.
EQUALITY of status and opportunity;
and to promote among them all.
FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation;
IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY
ADOPT, ENACT & GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
The preamble of the Indian constitution has been taken from the constitution of USA.
The preamble of Indian Constitution was once amended by the 42 nd Amendment Act 1976
when three words Socialist, Secular and Integrity was added to the preamble of India.
The Preamble is the part of the Constitution and the Parliament of India has the right to
amend the Preamble but the Parliament of India does not have the power to amend the
basic structure of the Constitution as it was decided by the Supreme Court of India in the
famous case Keshvanand Bharti vs State of Kerela in the year 1973

The Preamble of the Constitution says India is

1. Sovereign
The word sovereignty has been taken from the French Constitution. India adopted the
concept of sovereignty in the year 1952.
Sovereign country is a country which is not only physically free but it is also free to make
its own policies and laws i.e there is no interference of any foreign country while making
the policies and laws by the government of India

2. Socialist
A socialist country is a country where the policies and laws which are made by the
government are not anti-social. The ideas of socialism in India were given by Mahatama
Gandhi and that’s why Indian socialism is known as Democratic Socialism or Gandhian
Socialism. Gandhi believes in the idea of mixed economy where not only the government
sector but also the private sector works for the betterment of the society.
The main aim of socialism is to end the six evils of the society
1. Poverty
2. Malnutrition
3. Discrimination
4. Untouchbility
5. Ignorance
6. Inequality

3. Secular
A secular country is a country where there is absence of religion i.e. a country which is
not having its own state religion. In India positive form of secularism is followed where all
the religions have been given equal right

4. Democratic

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A democratic country is a country where the government of the country is elected by

people and where all the citizens of the country has the right to take part in the elections.
In the democracy there is concept of Bi party or the Muti party System. The democracy is
further divided into direct and indirect democracy.
5. Republic
Republic country is a country where the head of the country comes through the electoral
process and not through the hereditary process

MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION

Timeline
India was getting close to the independence and with this arise the need of the
constitution. The idea to have the constitution in India was given in the year 1934 by Mr.
M.N. Roy the pioneer of the communist movement in India.
In the year 1935 the Indian National Congress for the first demanded a Constituent
Assembly to frame the constitution of India.
In the year 1938 Jawharlal Nehru on the behalf of congress said that the Constitution of
India will be made by the independent constituent assembly without any external
interference.
The demand was accepted by the British parliament which came to be known as the
August Offer in the year 1940
In the year 1942 Cripps India Mission came to India under Sir Strafford Cripps and said
that the Constituent Assembly will be setup but after the Second World War
Finally in May 1946 Cabinet Mission Plan came to India under Cripps, Lawrence and
Alexander and they setup the Constituent Assembly of India

Constituent Assembly
The Constituent Assembly of India consists of 389 members out of whom 292 members
were elected from the various provinces, 93 members were nominated from the princely
states and 4 members were from the Chief Commissioner areas of Delhi, Ajmer- Marwar,
Coorg and British Baluchistan.
The members of the Constituent Assembly were on the basis of the population and were
in the ratio of roughly 1: 10,00,000(1 million).
The seats of the provinces were divided into three major communities i.e. Muslims Sikhs
and general (all except Muslims and Sikhs). The members of the each community selected
there members by the method of proportional representation with single transferable
voting system.
The Constituent Assembly included all the important personalities of India except Mahatma
Gandhi and M.A. Jinnah.
After the creation of the new constituent assembly for Pakistan 90 members resigned from
the constituent assembly of India which reduced the size of the assembly from 389 to 299
members.

Working of the Constituent Assembly

The first meeting of the Constituent Assembly took place on 9 th December 1946 under the
leadership of Dr. Sachidanand Sinha however he was only temporary president and was
replaced by Dr, Rajendra Prasad and H.C. Mukherjee as the permanent President and Vice
President of the Constituent Assembly on 11 th December 1946. Mr. B.N. Rau was appointed
as the advisor of the Constituent Assembly.
The Constituent Assembly presented three drafts of the Constitution on
4th November1948
15th November 1948 and
14th November 1949.
After enormous number of changes the Constituent Assembly of India finally accepted the
Constitution on 26th November 1949.

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The last session of the Constituent Assembly took place on 24 th January 1950 where Dr.
Rajendra Prasad was elected as the President of India; out of the total members of the
assembly 284 members signed the official copies of the Constitution.
Some provisions of the Constitution pertaining to citizenship, elections, provisional
parliament,temporary and transitional provisions, and short title contained in Articles 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366,
367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392 and 393 came into force on November 26, 1949 itself.
The remaining provisions (the major part) of the Constitution came into force on January
26, 1950.
This day is referred to in the Constitution as the ‘date of its commencement’, and
celebrated as the Republic Day.

January 26 was specifically chosen as the ‘date of commencement’ of the Constitution

because of its historical importance. It was on this day in 1930 that Purna Swaraj day was
celebrated, following the resolution of the Lahore Session (December 1929) of the INC.
With the commencement of the Constitution, the Indian Independence Act of 1947 and
the Government of India Act of 1935, with all enactments amending or supplementing the
latter Act, were repealed.
The Constituent Assembly took 2years, 11months and 18days in making the Constitution
and the cost of making the Constitution was approximately 64 lac
The Constitution of India is the longest written Constitution in the history of the world
having a Preamble, 395 Articles, 22 Parts and 8Schedules although presently it has around
465 Articles, 25 parts, 12 Schedules and more than 100 Amendment
The nature of the Indian Constitution is Quasifederal i.e. more federal and less unitary
during the normal circumstances it is federal but during the proclamation of National
Emergency under article 352 the nature of the constitution becomes unitary in nature
Dr. B R Ambedkar played a major role and was the chairman of the drafting committee of
the constitution that is why he is also known as the father of Indian Constitution or “Modern
Manu”

Chairman’s of the Important Committees

Name of the Committee Chairman

Rules of Procedure Committee Rajendra Prasad

Fundamental Rights, Minorities Vallabhbhai Patel
Union Powers Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Union Constitution Committee Jawaharlal Nehru
Drafting Committee B.R. Ambedkar
Flag Committee J.B. Kriplani

Drafting Committee
Amongst the most important committees of the Constituent Assembly the most important
was the drafting committee which was set up on 29 th August 1947. The main aim of this
committee was the preparation of the draft of the new Constitution. The drafting
committee consists of seven members.
1. Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar (Father of the Constitution)
2. N. Gopalaswamy Ayyar
3. Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar
4. Syed Mohammad Saadullah
5. Dr. K.M Munshi
6. N. Madhava Rau (replaced B.L Mitra)
7. T.T Krishnamachari (replaced D.P. Khaitan)
The Drafting Committee took less than six months to prepare the draft, in all it sat for the
total of 141 days.

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Some Important Points

1. The Constitution was accepted on 26 th November 1949
2. The National Song was accepted on 24th January 1950
3. The National Anthem was accepted on 24th January 1950
4. The National Flag was accepted on 22nd July 1947
5. Pingali Venkaiha from Andhra Pradesh was the designer of the National Flag of
India
6. Elephant was the symbol of the Constituent Assembly of India
7. Prem Bihari Raizada was the English Calligrapher of the Constitution
8. Vasant Krishna Vaidya was the Hindi Calligrapher of the Constitution

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The Parliament
• The Parliament is supreme bicameral legislature which consists of all the representatives that
together controls and guides the government.
• The Parliament has enormous powers as it is the representative of the people. During elections,
people elect their representatives to the Parliament and one group from among these elected
representatives forms the government.
• The qualifications for becoming a Member of Parliament are that the person must be a citizen of
India and must not be less than 25 years of age in the case of Lok Sabha and 30 years in the
case of Rajya Sabha.
• The Parliament sessions are held thrice a year: Budget session (February to May), Monsoon
session (July- August) and Winter session (November-December).

Functions of the Parliament

• To select the National Government
✓ The Parliament in India consists of the President and the two houses: the Lok Sabha
(House of People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
✓ After the elections of Lok Sabha are over, a cumulative list is prepared which shows the
number of Member of Parliament (MPs) associated with each political party.
✓ If a political party wants to form the government, than it should have majority of
elected MPs.
✓ The maximum strength of the members of the Lok Sabha is 552 which include 2
members from Anglo Indian community which are nominated by the President, 530
represent the States and 20 members represent the Union Territories. At present,
there are 545 members of the Lok Sabha. To become a majority, a party should have
more than half members, that is, 272 members or more than that.
✓ The term of the Lok Sabha is five years, but it may be resolved earlier by the President. It
might be extended during emergency but that too maximum only for one year.
✓ The largest party that stands in opposition of the majority is known as opposition party.
Even coalition government can be formed together with different political parties, if
there is no single party that wins the majority.
✓ Parliament plays a very important role in selecting the executive. The executive is a
body which implements the laws which are made by the Parliament. The executive is
synonymous to the government.
✓ The leader of the ruling party is the Prime Minister. He/she selects the other ministers
who can be associated with him/her to execute the decisions.
✓ The Rajya Sabha is considered as the representative of the Indian states in the
Parliament.
✓ In order to become the law, the bill is required to pass through the Rajya Sabha. It has
the power to review and alter the laws which are initiated by the Lok Sabha.

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✓ Elected members of the legislative assemblies elect the members of the Rajya Sabha.
✓ Rajya Sabha consists of 245 members out of which 233 elected members represent
states and union territories and other 12 members are nominated by the President of
India. The President of India is a part of legislature, although he does not sit in the
Parliament.
• To control, guide and inform the government
✓ When the Parliament session is in continuation, it starts with the question hour. This
hour usually starts at 11 AM and ends at 12 Noon for five days a week. It is a system
through which Members of Parliament obtain the information related to the working of
the government.
✓ The session is the period between the first meeting of Parliament and prorogation
(ending) of Parliament.
✓ The period after the question hour is known as zero hour. It begins usually at noon
where the members express their views and opinions on various issues.
✓ With the questioning session, the government can be made aware of its weaknesses
and opinion of the citizens through their representatives. Even also it gets feedback with
the help of questions put up by MPs.
✓ The opposition parties play a very vital role as they also emphasize on the shortcomings
in the policies of the ruling government and try to gain support for their own policies.
✓ While dealing with the matters which are related to finance, the approval of the
Parliament is necessary.
✓ So it is the MPs who play a crucial role in guiding and controlling the Parliament and in
turn, the government.

• Law Making
✓ The Parliament plays a very important role in making laws for the country. Different
groups in the society face different problems and demand to raise the demand for a
law.
✓ The law doesn’t discriminate the persons on the basis of caste, colour, creed, gender
etc.

People in Parliament
• Parliament consists of members who belong to rural areas as well as regional parties.
• They also include members from Dalit and backward classes.
• Some seats are reserved for even Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This reservation is
kept so that representative members must be aware of the interest of the groups they are
representing.
• Parliament has reserved seats for women as well. Today, 11 percent of seats are reserved for
women as compared to 4 percent of seats which were reserved 60 years ago.

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Local Government - District Administration and judicial

system with special reference to Rajasthan

Local govt. Of Rajasthan

• Lord Rippon is known as Father of Local Self-government in India because he formed
the local government body in 1882 in India when he was the Viceroy of India.
• Village Panchayats were established in many provinces following Government of India
Act, 1919
• In 1928, Bikaner State took the lead by passing an act to provide for the establishment
of Panchayat, then the panchayat acts passed in The Jaipur Village in 1938, Karauli in
1939, Bharatpur in 1944 and Sirohi in 1947. Besides these, there was Panchayat Acts in
force in some other states, e.g., Kota, Bundi, Jhalawar, Tonk, Shahpura, etc.
• After independence, subject of local Government was one of the provisions of
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) (Art.40)
• Panchayati Raj Ordinance was enacted by United Rajasthan in 1948. After the creation
of Rajasthan in 1949, a separate Panchayat Department was established under the
Chief Panchayat Officer.
• The Panchayats were reorganized by the Rajasthan Panchayat Act, 1953 which was
enforced on 1 January 1954.
• Government of Rajasthan started Community Development Programme (CDP) in 1952
and National Extension Service (NES) in 1953
• In 1957, Balwant Rai Mehta’s Team examined the working of CDP & NES and suggested
‘Democratic Decentralisation’ to make these programmes successful.
• National Development Council also endorsed this proposal and asked each State
Government to implement the idea.
• To implement the three-tier plan recommended by the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee,
Rajasthan Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad Act, 1959 was passed with effect from
October 2nd,1959.
• On October 2, 1959, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru inaugurated first Panchayati Raj
system in Bagdari Village in Nagaur district of Rajasthan.
• 73rd Amendment Act of 1992, gives a constitutional status to the Panchayati raj
institutions.
• It added Part-IX to the Constitution of India which is named as ‘The Panchayats’ and
consists of provisions from Articles 243 to 243 O and added a new 11th Schedule which
contains contains 29 subjects

• By article 243 D, Proportionate seat reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes.

• Reservation of minimum 33% seats for women.

• On the basis of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, Rajasthan passed the Rajasthan
Panchayati Raj Act, 1994. In terms of this Act, "Rajasthan Panchayati Raj Rules, 1996"

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was made which enforced from 30 December 1996. For extending these provisions to
scheduled areas, the Rajasthan Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) (PESA) Act,
1999 was enacted.

• The act provides for 3-tier system of Panchayati Raj with Panchayats at village,
intermediate and district level. In Rajasthan District Panchayat called zila Parishad,
intermediate panchayat called Panchayat Samiti, and village panchayat called gram
panchayat.
• Every Panchayati Raj Institution, unless sooner dissolved under this Act, shall continue for
five years from the date of the first meeting and in the case of dissolution, before the
expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.
• Rajasthan has 33 Zila Parishads, 352 Panchayat Samities and 11,341 Panchayats
• In gram Panchayats - A Sarpanch, and Directly elected Panchs from wards.
• In Panchayat Samitis - Directly elected members from territorial constituencies,
Chairpersons of all the Panchayats falling within the Panchayat Samiti, all members or
the Legislative Assembly of the State representing constituencies which comprise
whole or partly the Panchayat Samiti area.
• In Zila Parishad - Directly elected members from territorial constituencies All members
of the Lok Sabha and of the State Legislative Assembly representing constituencies
which comprise wholly or partly the Zila Parishad area; All members of the Rajya Sabha
registered as electors within the Zila Parishad; Chairpersons of all Panchayat Samities
falling within the Zila Parishad area
• Qualification of elected members - - Every person registered as a voter in voters list of a
Panchayati Raj Institution shall be qualified for election as a Panch; Minimum age is 21
years and there should be toilets in the house.
• There shall be at least two meetings of the Gram Sabha every year, one in the first and
the other in the last quarter of the financial year.
o Vikas Adhikari of the concerned Panchayat Samiti or his nominee shall attend all
meetings of the Gram Sabha. He is responsible for the correct recording to the
minutes of such meetings by the Secretary of the Panchayat.
o Presiding Officer of Gram Sabha meeting - Sarpanch of the Panchayat or, in his
absence, by the Up-Sarpanch
• Pradhan Shall- convene, preside, and conduct meetings of the Panchayat Samiti.
o A Panchayat Samiti shall hold a meeting for the transaction at least once a month
be held at the headquarters of the Panchayat Samiti.
o State Government shall appoint for each Panchayat Samiti a Vikas Adhikari
• Pramukh - convene and preside over and conduct meetings of the Zila Parishad.
o Every Zila Parishad shall hold meetings at least once in every three months.
• Elected Members Number –
o In gram panchayat – minimum = 5 if the population is more than three thousand,
2 additional Panchs per one thousand or any part thereof.
o In Panchayat Samiti - Minimum - 15, if there is a population of more than one
lakh, 2 additional members for every additional 15 thousand or part thereof.

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o In Zila Parishad - Minimum - 17, if the population is more than 4 lakhs, 2

additional members for every additional 1 lakh or part thereof.
• Resignation by elected members –
o In gram Panchayat - To Vikas Adhikari
o In Panchayat Samiti – Pradhan of the Panchayat Samiti resign to the Pramukh
o In Zila Parishad – Pramukh resign to the Divisional Commissioner.

Urban Local Government

After Independence, Rajasthan Town Municipalities Act was promulgated in 1951 by
repealing the existing princely States’ municipal laws.

Due to reorganisation of the State of Rajasthan, all the existing municipal laws were
replaced by the Rajasthan Municipalities Act, 1959 (Act).

74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 came into force on 1st June 1993. It added
New Part IX-A which is entitled as ‘The Municipalities’, Articles 243- P to 243-ZG and New
Twelfth Schedule (contains 18 items of municipalities) in constitution.
Three types of Municipalities: It provides for the constitution of 3 types of Municipalities
depending upon the size and area namely:

• Municipal Corporation (Nagar Nigam) – for a larger Urban area.

• Municipal Council (Nagar Parishad)– for smaller Urban area
• Nagar Panchayat (Nagar Palika)– for a transitional area

There are 10 Corporations, 34 Councils and 152 Municipalities. Total 196 ULBs in Rajasthan

Composition of Municipal Bodies

• All the seats shall be filled by direct elections from wards. (each municipal area
divided into territorial constituencies known as wards. Each ward elects its Ward
Councillors)
• Member of the Rajasthan Legislative Assembly representing a constituency
which comprises wholly or partly the area of a Municipality.
• Three persons or ten percent of the number of elected members of the
Municipality, whichever is less, having special knowledge or experience in
municipal administration, to be nominated by the State Government by
notification in the Official Gazette.
• Member of the House of the People representing a constituency which
comprises wholly or partly the area.
• Minimum Age for contesting election – 21 years
• By Article 243 U, Every Municipality, unless sooner dissolved under any law for the
time being in force, shall continue for five years from the date appointed for its first
meeting.
• Regular elections should be held after every 5 years by State Election Commission
of Rajasthan. State election commissioner appointed by the governor.

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• By article 243 T, Proportionate seat reservation for Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes.
• Reservation of not less than 33% seats for women.

• Finances –
Levy and collect Property tax, Entertainment tax, water tax, pilgrim tax etc
Usage fees for utilities (Bus Ticket),
Grants
Loans from state govt

• Each Municipality has three authorities:

• The Council
• consists of the councillors which are directly elected by the people.
• The Council is headed by a Mayor who is elected for 1 year. He presides the
meetings of the council.
• The Standing Committees
• The standing committees are created to facilitate the working of the
council, which is too large in size. They deal with public works, education,
health, public vaccination, taxation, finance, budget and so on.
• The Chief Executive Officer
• Also known as the municipal commissioner
• CEO is responsible for day-to-day administration. He is the executive head.
• He/She is appointed by State government.
• Responsible for the implementation of the decisions taken by the council
and its standing committees.

District Collector

District Collector position was created and developed during the British rule.

On 14th May, Warren Hastings created the office of Collector with respect to revenue and
judicial functions united in the same person.

With change in time, his roles and responsibilities have changed and multiplied.

it plays bridge between union-state and local government.

DC acts as chief agent and representative of the state and serves as channel of
communication between the government and residents of the district.

Duties and functions of DC’s duties -

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• As a Collector
Collection of nearly all government dues including government loans, excise
revenue, mining cess, royalties etc.
Assessment and collection of land revenue.
Supervision of treasury & sub-treasury.
All matters related to land reforms, land records and land acquisition.
Management of government estates.
• As a District Magistrate
responsible for the maintenance of law and order in the district.
District police force headed by the District Superintendent of Police is kept
under the control, supervision and direction of the district magistrate.
Supervises of the police and jails.
Issues certificates of domicile scheduled and backward classes.
Issues orders when there is threat to public peace and order under section
144 of the Criminal Procedure Code.
• Disaster Management
Acts as the crisis administrator-in-chief during natural calamities and other
emergencies.
Chairs the District Disaster Management Committee (DDMC), which is
responsible for making advance plan to mitigate the effect of impending
disasters and provide assistances for protection, relief, and rehabilitation in
the face of such disasters.
• Conduct of Election
Responsible for holding of free and fair elections in the district.
preparation/updation of electoral roles
DC is designated as District Election Officer (DEO) and function as Returning
Officer (RO) in Parliamentary elections.
In other elections, all RO’s function under DC’s superintendence.

High Court

• First time in India in 1862 when the high courts were set up at Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras
• Articles 214 to 231 in Part VI of the Constitution

• At Present 24 High Courts

• Delhi is the only union territory that has a high court of its own.
• 7 High Court Jurisdiction in more than one state/UT
• All High Court judges and Chief Justice are appointed by President.
• Their strength is also decided by President.
• President can transfer a judge from one high court to another after consulting the
Chief Justice of India
• Qualification of High Court Judge
• Indian Citizen
• Atleast 10-year advocate in any High Court, or,
• Atleast 10-year legal office experience

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• No minimum age for High Court Judge

• Oath – by governor
• Tenure
• Upto age of 62
• Can resign his office by writing to the president.
• He can be removed from his office by the President on the recommendation
of the Parliament
• Salary of judges charged from Consolidated Fund of State
• Pension of the judges charged from Consolidated Fund of India

Jurisdiction of High Court

1. Original Jurisdiction

• High Court accept the cases in first instance, not by way of appeal.
• Subject of Original jurisdiction-
o Matters of will, marriage, divorce, company laws and contempt of court.
o Disputes relating to the election of members of Parliament and state
legislatures.
o Regarding revenue matter or an act ordered or done in revenue collection.
o Enforcement of fundamental rights of citizens.

2. Writ Jurisdiction

• Article 226 of the Constitution empowers a high court to issue writs including habeas
corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo-warrento for the enforcement
of the fundamental rights of the citizens.

3. Appellate jurisdiction

• A high court is primarily a court of appeal. It hears appeals against the judgements
of subordinate courts functioning in its territorial jurisdiction. It has appellate
jurisdiction in both civil and criminal matters.

Rajasthan High Court was established on 21 June 1949 in a function presided by Maharaja
Sawai Man Singh

Rajasthan has its High court Jodhpur which has its principal seat at Jodhpur and a bench at
Jaipur. There are district courts as well in Rajasthan.

The high court has its principal seat at Jodhpur and a bench at Jaipur.

• The first Chief Justice was: Kamala Kant Verma

• The Current Chief Justice is: Indrajit Mahanty
• Rajasthan High Court is presently having sanctioned strength of 50 judges.

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Subordinate Courts/Lower Courts

• Articles 233 to 237 in Part VI of the Constitution

• Control over district courts and other subordinate courts like posting, promotion and
leave of persons is vested in the high court.
• Appointment of District Judges - By the governor of the state in consultation with the
high court.
• Qualifications:
o He should not already be in the service of the Central or the state government.
o He should have been an advocate or a pleader for seven years.
o He should be recommended by the high court for appointment.
• District judge is highest judicial authority in district.
• He possesses original and appellate jurisdiction in both civil as well as criminal
matters. In other words, the district judge is also the sessions judge.
• When deals with civil cases - district judge and
• When deals with criminal cases - sessions judge?
• Power of sessions judge- impose any sentence including life imprisonment and
capital punishment (It is subject to confirmation by the High Court, whether there is
an appeal or not)
• The munsiff Court possesses limited jurisdiction and decides civil cases of small
pecuniary stake.
• The judicial magistrate tries criminal cases which are punishable with imprisonment
for a term up to 3 years.
• The chief judicial magistrate decides criminal cases which are punishable with
imprisonment for a term up to seven years.

Lok Adalat

• ‘Lok Adalat’ means ‘People’s Court.’

• objective is to ensure justice for the weaker sections of the society.
• The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 was amended in 2002 to provide for the
establishment of the Permanent Lok Adalats to deal with cases pertaining to the
public utility services.
• Lok Adalats have been constituted by the state high court by the district level
authorities and have wide jurisdiction which can include civil, criminal, revenue
courts or any matters falling under tribunals.
• It consists of a Chairman who is or has been a district judge or additional district
judge or has held judicial office higher in rank than that of the district judge and
two other persons having adequate experience in public utility services.

Gram Courts

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The Gram Nyayalaya Act has been passed with effect from October 2, 2009 for the
purpose of providing speedy justice to the villages. The Village Court has the right to
accept all criminal, civil cases, claims and disputes. The village court has all the powers of
the civil court. First village court in Rajasthan was established in Bassi (Jaipur).

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UNDERSTANDING MEDIA AND ADVERTISING

• In today’s era, media and advertising are playing an indispensable role in the lives
of youth.
• The media tries to catch the attention of the viewers towards neglected or
overridden issues.
• The word ‘Media’ is the plural form of the word ‘Medium’ which means the
ways by which we communicate in the society. For example: phone call, news
on television and article in magazine etc.
• The various forms of media are television, radio, magazine, newspaper etc. Since
these medium can reach a millions of people at the same time, hence these are
known as mass media.
Media and Technology
• With the help of technology, the mass media is developing on a fast pace. Now,
one cannot imagine the world without television and internet.
• By using technologies, the media can reach to millions of people. Newspapers and
magazines form the print media while radio as well as television is an electronic
media.
• With the changing technology, media is becoming accessible to more and more
people and quality of sound and image is also improving day by day.
• Media, especially television, has tried to connect people from all over the world
and it has brought the world closer to us. The images travel large distances with
the help of cables and satellites, as a result, we are able to see the programmes
that are broadcasted in different parts of the world.
Media and Money
• The technologies that the mass media use are very costly as it uses variety of
equipments and accessories such as lights, camera, satellites etc. which makes it
an expensive affair.
• Even one needs money to get the latest technology in hands so that the media
doesn’t lose its popularity.
• Media needs lot of money to do its work. Hence, most of the newspapers and
television channels are part of big business houses.
• There are various ways by which mass media can make money. But one of the
ways is to earn money by advertising different things such as cars, mobiles,
chocolates etc. The advertisement tries to convince the buyer to purchase a
particular product or positions the product in the minds of the consumer.
Media and Democracy
• In a democracy or in a democratic government which is prevalent in country like
India, media plays a very important role.
• It provides news and discusses various events that are taking place in the country
and the world.
• With the help of the information that media provides, people learn many new
things. They can also take actions on certain things basis on the news stories.
• People can take action by organizing public protests, writing letters to the
concerned minister, starting a signature campaign etc. With the help of these
methods, people can force the government to rethink about its programme or
decision.

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• Although media plays a vital role in providing information but it is necessary that
the information needs to be balanced. A balanced report is a report which
presents or discusses all viewpoints of a particular story. It then depends on
the readers to form opinion of their own without getting influenced.
• But balanced report is usually written by an independent media which
means media does not comes under the control and influence while covering any
news.
• An independent media is very much significant in the democracy. No one should
tell the media what should be or what should not be included in the news.
• Citizens form opinions on the basis of information presented by the media. The
only thing is that information needs to be non-biased and, reliable and authentic.
• But the reality is entirely different. Media is not independent at all. The
government influences the media lot. When a government avoids or prevents
any news items or movie clip not be shared by larger public, it is known as
censorship. There have been many times, when media was censored by
government. For instance: at the time of emergency between 1975-1977
government censored media.
• The government has continued to censor the films, but it does not censor the
news covered by media.
• In the present times, newspapers do not provide balanced news because of the
fact that big business houses control the media. It is a fact that at times business
houses wants media to present information which focus only on one side of the
story.
• Media cannot write or present anything against the people or companies who gave
them advertisements. As these advertisements are their sources of income.
• Even to make the news or any particular story interesting, media presents only
one side of the story.
Setting the agendas
• It is the responsibility of the media to decide on which story it should focus on and
which story is newsworthy, and which is not.
• When the media focus on particular issues, then it directly or indirectly influences
the viewers or readers opinions, thoughts, feelings, actions etc.
• As it plays a significant role in shaping our opinions, actions, it is said that the
media ‘sets the agenda’.
• But there are certain situations in which media fail to cover and discuss the issues
that are very important in our lives. Moreover, it covers such issues which have
least importance in one’s life.
• As citizens of democratic government, the media needs to play influential role in
our lives, as because of media only we become aware of the issues that are related
to the working of the government.
• It is important for the citizens to focus on the factual information and analyse the
information as the news that media provides is usually one-sided and not complete.
• Advertising is a paid form of media which communicates about certain
products or services. There are many types of advertising but Social advertising
is related to the society and its concerns. It is the advertising that is made by the
government or private agencies to share a message for society.

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JUDICIARY
SUPREME COURT
The Supreme Court is the apex court of India and the highest court of justice in
India. The Supreme Court was inaugurated on 28th January 1950. The Supreme
Court is mentioned in the part V of the Constitution of India and articles 124 to
147 deals with the Supreme Court of India.
The Supreme Court of India at present consists of 34 judges (1 Chief Justice and
33 other judges); originally the Supreme Court of India when started consists of
total 8 judges including the Chief Justice.
The judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of India. The
Chief Justice of India is appointed by the president after the consultation with
the other judges of Supreme Court and the High Court if the President of India
thinks it is necessary. The other judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by
the President after the consultation of the Chief Justice of Supreme Court of
India and it is obligatory for the President to consult.
The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the President but he
should be the senior most judge of the Supreme Court as it was ruled by the
Supreme Court in the Supreme Court Advocates on Record Association vs the
Union of India in the year 1993.
Qualification
In order to become the judge of the Supreme Court the person should possess
following qualification
1. A person must be a citizen of India
2. He/she must have been, for at least five years, a Judge of a High Court or
of two or more such Courts in succession
3. Or an Advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in
succession for at least ten years
4. Or the person must be, in the opinion of the President, a distinguished
jurist.
Oath, Affirmation & Tenure
The judges of the Supreme Court take OATH in the presence of the President of
India. The judges of the Supreme Court hold the office up to the age of 65
years. The judges of the Supreme Court can give their resignation to the
president of India and they can be removed by the Parliament.
Salary and Allowances

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The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court gets the monthly salary of Rs 2,80,000/-
pm and other judges gets the monthly salary of Rs 2,50,000/- pm.
The judges of the Supreme Court get 50% of the last drawn salary as the
pension.
The judges of the Supreme Court cannot practice in any court of law after the
retirement.
Removal of the judges of Supreme Court
Article 124(4) of the Indian Constitution provides for the removal of a judge of
the Supreme Court. The President shall pass the order of removal in the same
session in which the Parliament passed the resolution.
The judges of the Supreme Court is removed by the President upon an address
by both the Houses of the Parliament supported by a majority of not less than
2/3rd of members present and voting and a majority of total strength of the
House on the ground of misbehavior or incapacity.
Article 124(5) says that the Parliament passed Judges Inquiry Act 1968 which
states that a resolution seeking the removal of a judge of Supreme Court can be
introduced in either House of Parliament.
• It should be supported by not less than 100 members of Lok Sabha.
• If it is to be introduced in Rajya Sabha it should be supported by no less
than 50 members of Rajya Sabha.
• Once the resolution is initiated in either house of the parliament, the
presiding officer of that House shall appoint a three member Judicial
Committee to investigate into charges and provide proof of misbehavior
or incapacity.
• The judicial committee shall be headed by a serving judge of the Supreme
Court. Second member can be a serving judge of the High Court and the
third member can be an eminent jurist.
The removal process of the judges started in India three times in 1992 against
Justice V. Ramaswami, 2011 against Justice Soumitra Sen and Justice
Dinakaran but none of the proceedings could be completed due to some reasons
and till date no judges of Supreme Court or High Court have been removed in
India.
Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court
The jurisdictions of the Supreme Court can be classified into

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1. Original Jurisdiction
2. Writ Jurisdiction
3. Appellate Jurisdiction
4. Advisory Jurisdiction
5. Revisory Jurisdiction
6. Court of Record
7. Power of Judicial review
8. Other powers
Original jurisdiction
It is mentioned under article 131 on the Constitution of India
The Supreme Court has exclusive original jurisdiction over:
• Dispute between the Government of India and one or more States
• Dispute between the Government of India and any State or States on one
side and one or more States on the other
Writs jurisdiction
The Supreme Court of India has the power to issue five types of writs in order
to enforce the fundamental rights
Type of Writs

HABEAS CORPUS

Habeas corpus literally means ‘you may have the body'. It is the most valuable
writ for personal liberty. It is a remedy available to a person who is confined
without legal justification. Through this writ, the court let it know the reasons
for detention of the person and if there is no justification, order the authority
concerned to set the person free. The writ of Habeas Corpus, thus, entails the
authority to produce the person before the court. The applicant of this writ may
be the prisoner or any person on his behalf to safeguard his liberty. It seeks
immediate relief from unlawful detention whether in prison or private custody.

MANDAMUS

Mandamus literally means a command. This writ of command is issued by the

Supreme Court or High court when any government, court, corporation or any
public authority has to do a public duty but fail to do so. The writ may also be
filed to stop the mentioned parties from doing a particular act that may be
detrimental to the general public. It must be noted that a writ of mandamus or
command may not be issued against the Indian President or Governor.

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QUO-WARRANTO

The word Quo-Warranto literally means "by what warrants?" It is a writ issued
with a view to restraining a person from acting in a public office to which he is
not entitled. Quo Warranto writ is issued against the person of public who
occupies the public seat without any qualification for the appointment. It is
issued to restrain the authority or candidate from discharging the functions of
public office. For example, a person of 65 years has been appointed to fill a
public office whereas the retirement age is 60 years. Now, the appropriate High
Court has a right to issue a Writ of Quo-Warranto against the person and declare
the office vacant.

The writ of Quo-Warranto to issue when:

a) The office is public and of substantive nature;

b) The office is created by the State or by the Constitution itself; and

c) The respondent must have asserted his claim to the office.

CERTIORARI

If any lower court or a tribunal gives its decision but based on wrong
jurisdiction, the effected party can move this writ to a higher court like Supreme
Court or High Court. The writ of certiorari issued to subordinate judicial or
quasi- judicial body when they act:

a) Without or in excess of jurisdiction;

b) In violation of the prescribed procedure;

c) In contravention of principles of natural justice;

d) Resulting in an error of law apparent on the face of record.

PROHIBITION

A writ of prohibition is a writ directing a subordinate to stop doing something

that they may not do, according to law, but are doing. This writ is normally
issued by a superior court to the lower court asking it not to proceed with a case
which does not fall under its jurisdiction. The writ lies in both for access of
jurisdiction or absence of jurisdiction. It is generally issued before the trial of
the case or during the pendency of the proceeding but before the order is made.

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The writs of prohibition and certiorari are of the same nature, the only
difference being that the writ of prohibition is issued at an earlier stage,
before the order is made and the writ of certiorari is available on a later
stage i.e. after the order has been passed.

Appellate jurisdiction

The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be invoked by a certificate

granted by the High Court in a case that involves substantial questions of law as
to the interpretation of the Constitution - Articles 132(1), 133(1), 134

Appeals also lie to the Supreme Court in civil matters if the High Court
concerned certifies
The case involves a substantial question of law of general importance, and in
High Court’s opinion, it needs to be decided by the Supreme Court.
In criminal cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme Court if the High Court
Has reversed an order of acquittal of an accused on appeal and sentenced him to
death or life-imprisonment for more than 10 years
Has withdrawn any case for trial from any subordinate Court and has convicted
the accused and sentenced him to death or life-imprisonment for more than 10
years
Certified that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court
Parliament is authorized to confer on the Supreme Court any further powers to
entertain and hear appeals from any judgment, final order or sentence in a
criminal proceeding of a High Court.

Advisory jurisdiction
Under Article 143 of the Constitution of India the Supreme Court has special
advisory jurisdiction in matters which may specifically be referred to it by the
President of India.
Revisory Jurisdiction
Under Article 137 of Constitution of India the Supreme Court of India has the
power to review the judgment which it has made earlier in order to remove the
error or mistake which might have come while making the judgment.
Court of Record

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The Supreme Court in India is the court of record and the judgment made by the
Supreme Court cannot be practiced in any court of law.
The Supreme Court has the power to punish for its contempt either with the
simple imprisonment of 6 months or with the fine up to Rs 2,000/- or both.
Power of Judicial Review
The Supreme Court has the power to examine the constitutionality of the
legislative amendments and the executive orders of the both central and the state
government. If the Supreme Court during the examination found that they have
violated the Constitution of India the Supreme Court of India has the power to
declare it illegal, unconstitutional and invalid.
Others
The Supreme Court of India looks over all the disputes of the election of the
President and the Vice President.
The Supreme Court of India gives the recommendation to the president of India
in case of the removal of the members of the UPSC.
The laws made by the Supreme Court are binding on all the courts of India.
HIGH COURT

The High Courts are mentioned in the part VI of the Constitution and the
articles 214 to 231 deals with the High Courts
The High Court is the highest court of justice in the state it functions below the
Supreme Court and above the Subordinate Courts.

Under the provisions of the Constitution of India it says that all the state will
have the High Court but by the 7th Amendment Act 1956 there can be a
common High Court for two or more States or Union Territories.

At present there are total 25 High Courts in India and out of which three have
been started in the year 2013 Manipur, Meghalaya and Tripura . Delhi is the
only Union Territory which is having its own High Court since 1966.

Calcutta High Court is the oldest High Court of India started in the year 1862
followed by the Bombay and the Madras High Court

The High Court consists of the Chief Justice and the other judges but unlike the
Supreme Court the numbers of judges in the High Court are not fixed.

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The Chief Justice and the other judges of the High Court are appointed by the
President of India. The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the
President after the consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor
of the concerned state. In case of the appointment of the other judges the chief
justice of the concerned high court is consulted in addition to the Chief Justice
of India and the Governor of the state concerned.

The judges of the High Court can be transferred from one High Court to the
other by the President of India without his consent after consultation with the
Chief Justice of India and the opinion given by the Chief Justice is binding on
the President of India.

Qualification

In order to become the judge of the High Court the person should posses
following qualification

1. He should be the citizen of India

2. He should have held the judicial office in the territory of India for 10
years or should have been the advocate of the High Court (or high courts
in succession) for 10 years.
Oath, Term and Salary

The judges of the High Court take Oath in the presence of the Governor of the
concerned state or any other person appointed by the Governor.
The Judges of the High Court holds the office up to the age of 62 years.
The Chief Justice gets the monthly salary of Rs 2,50,000/-pm and other judges
get the monthly salary of Rs 2,25,000/-pm and 50% is the pension after the
retirement.

The judges of the High Court after the retirement cannot practice in the same
High Court but he can practice in the Supreme Court and the other High Courts
where he was never appointed.

The judges of the High Court before the expiry of their term can resign by
writing to the President of India.

The Judges of the High Court can be removed by the President on the
recommendation of the parliament of India.
Removal of the judges of High Court

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Article 217(1) of the Indian Constitution provides for the removal of a judge of
the High Court. The President shall pass the order of removal in the same
session in which the Parliament passed the resolution.
The judges of the High Court is removed by the President upon an address by
both the Houses of the Parliament supported by a majority of not less than 2/3rd
of members present and voting and a majority of total strength of the House on
the ground of misbehaviour or incapacity.
In order to remove the judge of High Court a resolution can be introduced in
either House of Parliament.
• It should be supported by not less than 100 member of Lok Sabha.
• If it is to be introduced in Rajya Sabha it should be supported by no less
than 50 members of Rajya Sabha.
• Once the resolution is initiated in either house of the parliament, the
presiding officer of that House shall appoint a three member Judicial
Committee to investigate into charges and provide proof of misbehavior
or incapacity.
• The judicial committee shall be headed by a serving judge of the Supreme
Court. Second member can be a serving judge of the High Court and the
third member can be an eminent jurist.
Jurisdiction of the High Court
The jurisdictions of the High Court can be classified into
1. Original Jurisdiction
2. Writ Jurisdiction
3. Appellate Jurisdiction
4. Supervisory Jurisdiction
5. Control over Subordinate Courts
6. Power of Judicial Review

Original Jurisdiction
The High Court has the power to hear the disputes of will, marriage, divorce,
company laws, contempt of court, election of the Member of Parliament and
state legislature, revenue collection etc.

Writ Jurisdiction
Like the Supreme Court the High Court also has the power to issue the writs
under article 226 of Indian Constitution. The only difference is that the Supreme

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Court issues the writs only in order to enforce the fundamental rights but the
High Court can issue the writs for other purpose also.

Appellate Jurisdiction

The High Court is basically the court of appeal as it hears the appeal on the
judgments made by the subordinate courts in the state. The High Court has the
power of appellate jurisdiction in the both the civil and the criminal cases.

Supervisory Jurisdiction

The High Court has the power to supervise all the courts and the tribunals in the
state within the territorial jurisdiction.
Control of Subordinate Courts

The High Court has the power to control the subordinate courts functioning in
the state and makes the rules and the regulations for the subordinate courts. The
laws made by the High Court are binding on all the subordinate courts in the
state.
Power of Judicial Review
The High Court has the power to examine the constitutionality of the legislative
amendments and the executive orders of the both central and the state
government. If the Supreme Court during the examination found that they have
violated the Constitution of India the Supreme Court of India has the power to
declare it illegal, unconstitutional and invalid.
SUBORDINATE COURT

The Subordinate Courts are mentioned in the part VI of the Constitution of

India and the articles 233 to 237 deals with it. The Subordinate Courts works
under the High Courts at district and the lower level.
There are two types of law courts in every district i.e. Civil and the Criminal
Court. The highest civil court in the district is the court of the District Judge
which decides the civil and the criminal cases, when the judge decides the civil
cases he is known as the District Judge and when he decides the criminal cases
he is known as the Session Judge.
The District Judge is appointed by the Governor of the State after consultation
with the Chief Justice of the High Court of the concerned state.
The Civil court consists of the District Judge under him there are two other
courts known as Subordinate Judge Court and Munsiff Judge Court.

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The Criminal Court consists of the Session’s judge under him there are two
other courts known as Chief Judicial Magistrate Court and Judicial Magistrate
Court.
In the big metropolitan cities the civil judges are known as Chief Judges and
criminal judges are known as Metropolitan Magistrates.

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WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN?

Timeline
• BC means ‘Before Christ’
• BCE (Before Common Era) can also be used for BC
• AD comes from two Latin words, ‘Anno Domini’, means ‘the year of the Lord’
(i.e. Christ) and
• CE (Common Era) can be used for AD
• These terms BC and AD are used because the Christian Era is used in most
of the countries of the world
• And sometimes, the letters BP meaning ‘Before Present’ are used which
means before AD 1950

Sources of History
1. Literary Sources –
➢ These includes the earliest writings (Vedic literature) which were
written by hands called manuscripts
➢ Manuscripts were written on palm leaves or on specially prepared
bark of tree called birch
➢ Some of the manuscript were also engraved on stone or metals.
➢ Subject of Manuscripts - religious beliefs, practices, lives of kings,
medicine, science, epics, poems, plays.
➢ Examples - Ramayana, Mahabharata, Upanishad, Grammar of Panini,
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra, Manusmriti, Buddhist and Jain literature like
Mahavamsa and Deepavamsa, etc
➢ Language used in Manuscripts – Sanskrit, Prakrit (languages used by
ordinary people) and Tamil

2. Archeological Evidences –
➢ Archaeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and
analysis of material and culture.

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➢ Those who explore, excavate, study the things that made and used in
past, are called archaeologists.
➢ Alexander Cunningham is known as the Father of Indian Archeology.
➢ He excavated the ruins of ancient sites India
3. Inscription
➢ Inscriptions are the writings on hard surfaces like stone or metal
about historical, religious, or other information, as of a book or a work
of art.
➢ Most of them are written in Brahmi and Kharosthi script.
➢ James Princep was the first to decipher the Brahmi script.
➢ An old inscription dated 2250 years ago was found in Kandahar,
present day Afghanistan. It was inscribed on the orders of Ashoka.
4. Coins
➢ Various Indian Coins have been discovered from different sites of
India.
➢ These coins give the information about economic condition, currency
system, metallurgical developments during different reign of
kingdoms
5. Accounts of Foreigners
➢ Many foreigners who visited India have written about India, its rulers
and their administration in their works in their literary works. Some of
the example of foreigners with their books
➢ Writers Books
❖ Megasthenes – Indica
❖ Fa-Hien – Record of Buddhist countries
❖ Ptolemy -- Geography
❖ Pliny – Naturalist Historia

6. Survey
➢ Britishers believed that a country had to be properly known before it
could be effectively administered.
➢ Hence the practice of surveying become common under the British
administration.
➢ In the early 19th century, detailed survey was carried out to map the
entire country.

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➢ The efforts were made to know the topography, soil quality, flora,
fauna, cropping pattern, etc.
7. Official Records
➢ Example of records of past are - Plans, Policy, Decisions, Agreements,
Instructions, etc.
➢ Britishers used to kept all these records in writing and now these
records can be found in archives
➢ Archive: A place where historical manuscript and documents are
kept.
➢ These are the excellent source for understanding that period.
➢ These records were prepared by official working for British
Government hence give official perspective. It does not give the
common peoples view.
8. Newspaper, Magazine, and Literature
➢ After the invention of printing press, Newspapers, Magazines,
Autobiographies, etc. became common
➢ Newspapers & Magazines gives us the idea about the life and culture
of the common people of that time
➢ But all these sources were produced by literate people and does not
give details about lives of the tribal and peasants.

Periodization of Indian History

• James Mills, a Scottish economist published a work ‘A History of British
India’
• He divided the history of India into 3 periods – Hindu, Muslim and British
• This division was not accepted by many people as many religions exist in
India apart from Hindus and Muslims
• Later some historians divided Indian history into - Ancient, Medieval and
Modern
• Problem with this division is - It is a periodization that is borrowed from the
west where the modern period is associated with the growth of science,
reason, democracy, liberty, and equality and these things were not
available to Indians in the British rule.

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PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
Earliest people
• About two million years ago, people were used to be hunter-gatherers. It means they used to hunt
the animals, caught fish, birds etc and gathered fruits, seeds, leaves and stalks for their food
• Hunters-gatherers always moved from one place to another place, because
❖ staying at one place would deplete all the plant and animal resources
❖ animals move from one place to another so humans used to follow them for hunting
❖ different plants bear fruits in different season, so many people make seasonal movements in
search of food and plants.
❖ In search of water as water is found in lakes, streams and rivers and some of them are perennial
(with water throughout the year) while others are seasonal. People made movements for water
during the dry seasons
How do we Know these people?
❖ Through archaeological sources that have been found at various sites such as tools and artifacts
of hunters and gatherers.
❖ These archaeological sites include caves and rock shelters.
❖ Natural caves and rock shelters are mainly found in the Vindhyas and the Deccan plateau and
mainly near Narmada Valley.
Art and language of early people
❖ Many of the caves have wall paintings which were made with accuracy and skill.
❖ Best examples of this paintings are found in Madhya Pradesh (Bhimbetka) and Uttar Pradesh.
❖ A lot of the sites of this age were also found in European countries like France.
❖ These ancient rock paintings were made between 20000 to 10000 years ago and include animals
such as horses, reindeers, bears etc.
❖ The colours that were used in paintings were made from Ochre or iron ore and charcoal.
❖ It might be a possibility that these paintings were made on some special occasions such as
ceremonies or ritual done before hunters used to go out in search of prey.
Finding about fire
❖ People were aware of the fire as traces of ash have been found near Kurnool caves.
❖ Fire could be used by them for cooking, lighting and to scare away animals.
Pre-Historic Period
Stone Age is divided into three periods:
Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age and Neolithic Age
Palaeolithic Age –
❖ longest period – extends from 2 million to 12000 years ago
❖ Palaeolithic term - combination of two Greek words - Paleo (means old) and Lithos (means
stone). Thus, it is known as the Old Stone Age.
❖ Palaeolithic age is further divided into 3 ages- Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic age
❖ A number of early Palaeolithic sites were found at Hunsgi
❖ Ostriches were found in India during Palaeolithic period.
❖ Large quantities of ostrich eggshells were found at Patne in Maharashtra.
❖ Archaeological sites in India during Palaeolithic age - Hunsgi (Karnataka), Kurnool Caves (Andhra
Pradesh), Bhimbhetka (Madhya Pradesh), Bagor (Rajasthan) and Belan valley (Uttar Pradesh).
Mesolithic Age

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❖ Extends from (12000 to 10000 years ago)

❖ Mesolithic term - combination of two words – Meso (means middle) and Lithos (means stone).
Thus, it is known as the Middle Stone Age.
❖ This age seen many Environmental changes and climate of the world shifted to relatively warmer
side which leads to development of grasslands and increase in the number of herbivores.
❖ Natural growth of grain bearing grasses such as wheat, barley and rice in different parts of the
Indian sub-continent.
❖ Fishing became important this time
❖ Stones of this age were very small and called as microliths
❖ Archaeological sites - Langnnaj (Gujarat), Damdama (Uttar Pradesh) and Patne (Maharashtra).
Neolithic Age
❖ Extends from 10000 years ago onwards
❖ Neolithic term - combination of two words - Neo (means new) and Lithos (means stone). Thus,
it is known as the new Stone Age.
❖ Stone tools were more refined and metals tools also being used.
❖ Archaeological sites - Hallur (Karnataka), Burzahom and Gufkral (Jammu and Kashmir),
Mehrgarh (Baluchistan), Chirand (Bihar) and Daojoli Hading (Assam).

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Harappan Civilization
• The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization in the Indian sub-continent.
• It was a Bronze Age civilization, extended from Afghanistan to Pakistan and North-west India.
• Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Indus Valley Civilization was one of the three
early civilizations in the world.
• This civilization is known as Harappan Civilization.
• In 1856, East Indian Railway lines were being laid down and engineers found readymade
bricks.
• General Alexander Cunningham visited Harappa, where railway line was connecting cities of
Karachi and Lahore.
• In 1921, the first Harappan sites were excavated by Sir John Marshall.
• Harappan sites developed 4700 years ago. The cities were developed and divided into two
parts: citadel (higher part, smaller area and western direction) and lower town (eastern
direction, lower height and larger area).
• Walls made up of baked bricks can be seen and these were stacked in interlocking pattern
which makes wall strong.
• In some cities, some special structures were found on the citadel, such as Great Bath (special
tank) in Mohenjodaro was built.
✓ This was lined with bricks, coated with plaster and made water tight with a layer of
natural tar.
✓ The steps were leading down to this tank from two sides and rooms were also
constructed surrounding all the sides.
✓ It might be possibility that people used to take dip in the tank on special occasions.
For this reason, water must have been brought from a well and drained after use.
• Another important construction was fire altars. These were found in cities of Kalibangan and
Lothal and were used for sacrifices.
• Houses, drains and streets were constructed with great skill and accuracy.
✓ Houses were one or two storeys high with rooms built around courtyard. Most houses
have separate bathing areas while some houses have well also to supply water.
✓ Cities had covered drains which were laid out in straight lines. Each drain have gentle
slope so that water can flow easily.
✓ Smaller drains were connected with bigger drains and inspections holes were
provided at regular distance to clean the drains.
• Large number of Harappan sites was found in Gujarat.
• Life in the Harappan Civilization
✓ It was a busy place and society was matriarchal.
✓ Rulers used to plan the construction of important buildings and they used to send
people to distant places to get metal, precious stones and other things.
✓ The most dominant group of the society was of merchants.
✓ There were labourers, farmers, doctors, priests and officers present in the civilization.
✓ Slavery system was also present in this civilization.

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✓ There were scribes, who knew how to write, prepare seals and wrote on materials
that might have not survived.
✓ Men and women were fond of ornaments which include necklace, finger rings,
bangles, bracelets, anklets etc.
✓ Gambling was famous pastime for elder people and people enjoyed by dancing,
singing, fishing, playing etc.
✓ Crafts persons were used to make all kind of things either at home or workshops.
✓ Terracotta toys were found. Long time ago, children might have played with these
toys.
• New Crafts
✓ Copper and bronze were used to make tools, ornaments, vessels and weapons.
✓ Gold and silver were also used that time for making ornaments and vessels.
✓ Beads, blades and weights were also found that time. Pots were made with black
designs.
✓ The Harrapans were also made seals during that time which were rectangular in shape
and have animal carvings.
✓ About 7000 years ago, cotton was probably grown in Mehrgarh.
✓ At Mohenjodaro, pieces of cloth were found attached to the lid of silver vase and
some copper objects.
✓ Spindle whorls made of terracotta and faience were found here which were used to
spin thread.
• Raw Materials
✓ Some of the raw materials were available locally, while others were brought from
distant places. Copper was brought from Rajasthan and Oman, Tin was brought from
Afghanistan and Iran, Gold from Karnataka and precious stones from Gujarat, Iran and
Afghanistan.
✓ Copper and tin were used to make bronze.
• Food
✓ Farmers have supplied grains to people such as wheat, barley, rice, sesame, linseed
and mustard.
✓ Plough was used to dig the earth for turning soil and planting seeds.
✓ Harappans reared sheep, goat, buffalo and cows.
✓ They hunted animals, caught fish and collected fruits like ber.

• Harappan Sites
✓ Dholavira –It is located on Khadir Beyt in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat and it is
divided into 3 parts and each part was surrounded by massive stone walls with
entrance through gateways. Large open area for public ceremonies was also found
here. Harappan writing has been found on small seals and large letters of Harappan
script were found which were carved out of white stone and inlaid in wood.

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✓ Lothal –It was found near Sabarmati river in Gujarat near Gulf of Khambat. Raw
materials such as precious stones were easily available. It was an important center for
making objects of shell, stone, and metal. Dockyard and store house were also found
here.

• End of Harappan Civilization – Reasons

✓ 3900 years ago people stop living in cities and writing, seals and weight were not used
anymore.
✓ Probably the rivers dried up.
✓ Deforestation might have taken place as wood was required for fuel, baking bricks
and smelting of copper.
✓ Heavy floods might have occurred.
✓ Green cover might have destroyed due to grazing,

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THE EARLY STATES

• Since the time of independence, the leaders have been chosen by voting system.
• But 3000 years ago, some men were recognized as rajas by performing very big sacrifices such as
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice ritual to become king)
• Ashvamedha – Process of Horse Sacrifice
✓ A horse was let loose to roam freely, and it was escorted by king’s men.
✓ If the horse enters into another kingdom and they had stopped the horse, then they
need to fight but if the horse is allowed to pass, than it is the acceptance that the raja
performing the sacrifice was stronger than them.
✓ Once the horse is back after the fight, if any has fought, then a sacrifice was organized
honoring and recognizing the King as the most powerful king.
✓ This sacrifice was done by trained priests and all kings were invited who allowed horse
to pass.
• Apart from Ashvamedha, some men became rulers when priests performed the rituals including
sprinkling of sacred water on the king. The charioteer of the king chants the tales of his glory.
Kind sits on special seat either a throne or tiger skin. The wives and sons of the King also had to
perform minor rituals and other kings who were invited had to bring gifts for the King. Some
people like Vaishyas and vish also brought gifts but shudras were excluded.
• Varna system has been prevalent in India since ancient times.
✓ Varna system has been mentioned in Rigveda.
✓ Books which are composed after Rigveda are Yajurveda, Sama Veda and Atharvaveda.
✓ The priests divided people into four groups, on the basis of birth of people, called
Varnas – Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras.
✓ Brahmins study and teach Vedas, perform sacrifice, and receive gifts, Kshatriya fought
battles and protect people, Vaishyas were farmers, herders and traders and Shudras
could not perform any rituals and not allowed to study Vedas. At times, women were
also grouped in Shudras. Shudras were expected to pollute the society and were
considered untouchables.
• Varna System was criticized on many points. Some felt that birth could not be a deciding factor
for people inclusion in different varnas while others felt that people should not be differentiated
on the basis of occupation. There was also notion that everybody should be able to perform
rituals and practice of untouchability should be condemned.

Janpadas
• The Rajas who performed big sacrifices were recognized as being ‘Rajas of Janpadas’.
• The word Janpada is made up of two words: Jana (tribe) and pada (foot), which means land
where king set its foot and settled.

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• Examples of Janpadas include Purana Quila (Delhi), Hastinapur (Meerut), Atranjikhera near Etah
(Uttar Pradesh).
• People grew variety of crops such as rice, wheat, barley, sugarcane, sesame, mustard and
pulses.
• They also made earthen pots which were either of grey or red color.
• A special type of pottery known as Painted Grey Ware was found here. It consists of special
designs (simple lines or geometric patterns).

Mahajanapadas
• 2500 years ago, some Janpadas became more important than others and came to be known as
Mahajanapadas.
• Most of the Mahajanapadas have a capital city and others were fortified.
• There were 16 Mahajanapadas which were mentioned in ancient literature and scriptures.
• Forts were built as people were afraid of attacks from other kings and needed protection.
• It might be possibility that Rajas made forts to display their power and richness.
• Moreover, if the forts were fortified than managing subjects were easy.
• Since the construction of forts require lot of labour and construction, kings started inventing
money on maintaining armies rather.
• Soldiers were paid regular salaries and payments were made using punch marked coins.
• Since the Mahajanapadas require resources for maintaining armies and construction of forts,
they cannot be solely dependent on occasional gifts. So they have started collecting taxes from
farmers, herders, traders, crafts persons as per their skills.
✓ Taxes on crops were the important tax among all taxes. It was fixed at 1/6th of the
produce – known as bhaga or share.
✓ Taxes on crafts persons were in the form of labour.
✓ Herders paid taxes in the form of animal and animal produce.
✓ Taxes were paid on trading of goods as well.
✓ Hunters and gatherers had to give forest produce to the King.

Agricultural Changes
• Two major changes in agriculture were seen during this time.
✓ Firstly, the use of iron ploughshares which helped in increasing the productivity of the
grains.
✓ People began transplanting paddy. This means that plants were grown from saplings
instead of scattering seeds on the ground. This has increased production as many plants
were survived.
• Agricultural work is usually done by landless agricultural labourers and slaved men and women.

Magadha Mahajanpada

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• In 200 years, Magadha became an important Mahajanapadas.

• Magadha lies in the Southern side of River Ganga.
• Ganga and Son which flows through Magadha helped in increasing water transportation and
making the land fertile.
• Animals, for example, elephants were captured and trained for army.
• Wood from trees was used for making chariots, houses and carts.
• Tools and weapons were made from iron which was taken from iron ore mines in that region.
• Two powerful rulers of Magadha were Bimbisara and Ajatshatru. Bimbisara was the first ruler of
Magadha in sixth century BC.
• Another important ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who took control on north-west part.
• The first capital of Magadha was Rajagriha in Bihar and second one was Pataliputra in Patna

Vajji Mahajanpada
• Vajji Mahajanpada was under the Gana or Sangha Government with Vaishali as its capital.
• In Gana or Sangha Government, there were many rulers of the Janapadas which were known as
Rajas. These Rajas met in assemblies and performed rituals together. Women, Dasas and
Kammakaras could not participate in these assemblies.
• Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Ganas or Sanghas.
• The last of Ganas or Sanghas were conquered by Gupta Rulers around 1500 years ago.
• Sanghas were briefly described in Buddhist books. For example: Digha Nikaya written down
2300 years ago.
• Ajatshatru wanted to attack Vajjis and sent his minister Vassakara to Buddha to get some advice
on this matter.

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VEDIC AGE
Vedas-
• The word “Veda” is derived from Sanskrit word “vidi” meaning “to know”.
• There are 4 Vedas:
❖ Rig Veda
❖ Sama Veda
❖ Yajurveda
❖ Atharvaveda

Rigveda
• Oldest Veda composed around 3500 years ago.
• Includes more than 1000 hymns called sukta or “well-said” and were written in old or
Vedic Sanskrit
• These hymns are in praise of gods and goddesses and were composed by sages (rishis).
• Initially, Rigveda was only recited and heard and not read.
• It was written down several centuries after it was first composed and printed less than
200 years ago.
• Priests taught students to recite and memorise each syllable, word, and sentence, bit
by bit, with great care.

Topic of Hymns-
i. Gods and Goddesses
• 3 most important Gods in Rigveda:
❖ Agni, the god of fire
❖ Indra, a warrior god
❖ Soma, a plant used to prepare special drink
• Few of the hymns are in the form of dialogues.
• Example: - dialogue between a sage Vishvamitra, and 2 rivers called Beas and Sutlej.
These rivers were worshipped as goddesses.
• Other rivers, like the Indus and its tributaries, and the Sarasvati, are named in the hymns

*Ganga and Yamuna are named only once.

ii. Cattle, Horses and chariots
• In Rigveda, many prayers are for - cattle, children (especially sons), and horses.
• Horses were attached to chariots that were used in battles, which were
❖ fought to capture cattle
❖ fought to capture people

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❖ fought for land to grow hardy crops that ripe quickly such as barley which used as
pasture
❖ fought for water
• Wealth that was collected in battles –
❖ Leaders kept some of it
❖ Some was given to priests
❖ Some was used in yajnas or sacrifices in which offerings (like ghee, grain, or
animals) were made into the fire which were meant for Gods and Goddesses
❖ Rest was distributed amongst the people.
• No regular army was there, but there were assemblies where people met and
discussed matters of war and peace. They also chose leaders, who were brave and
skilful warriors.

Words to describe people

People are described in terms of - work they do, language they speak, place they belong
to, their family, their communities and cultural practices.
Some of the words that were used in Rigveda for people
❖ Two groups that are described according to their work
1. Priests or brahmins - performed various rituals
2. The rajas – not usual ones, they neither had capital cities, palaces, armies, nor
they collected taxes and their sons did not automatically succeed as rajas.
❖ Two words were used to describe the people or the community as a whole.
1. Jana - still use in Hindi and other languages.
2. Vish – the word Vaishya comes from vish.
Several vish or jana are mentioned by name, like Puru jana or vish, the Bharata jana or
vish, the Yadu jana or vish, and so on
*The name Bharata was used for a group of people who lived in the North-West. Later
it was used for the country.

❖ Sometimes, the people who composed the hymns described themselves as Aryas and
called their opponents as Dasas or Dasyus
❖ Dasas
They did not perform sacrifices and spoke different languages.
Later, the term dasa, meant slave
Slaves were women and men who were often captured in war and treated as
property of their owners, who could make them do whatever work they
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Sanskrit and other languages

Sanskrit
• Part of a family of languages called Indo-European.
• This family includes – some Indian languages like Assamese, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri
and Sindhi, and many European languages such as English, French, German, Greek,
Italian and Spanish

Other languages
• Other languages used in the subcontinent belong to different families like,
❖ Tibeto-Burman family - Languages used in the north-east
❖ Dravidian family -Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam
❖ Austro-Asiatic family - languages spoken in Jharkhand and parts of central India

Other Developments in this period

Megaliths
• The big stone boulders are known as megaliths
• These were carefully arranged by people and used to mark burial sites
• Making of megaliths began about 3000 years ago.
• It was common in the Deccan, south India, in the northeast and Kashmir.
• Indication of burial beneath - circle of stone boulders or a single large stone standing
on the ground.
• The dead were buried with distinctive pots called Black and Red Ware, tools and
weapons of iron and sometimes, skeletons of horses, horse equipment and ornaments
of stone and gold.
*Iron was not used in the Harappan cities. During the LATER VEDIC PERIOD the Iron
was first used and called as SHYAMYAS. SHYAMYAS means Black in colour.
• Sometimes more objects found in one grave than in another.
• Example - At Brahmagiri, one skeleton was buried with 33 gold beads, 2 stone beads, 4
copper bangles, and one conch shell while Other skeletons have only few pots.
• This suggest that status difference amongst the buried people like Some were rich,
others were poor, some were chiefs and others were followers
• Sometimes, megaliths contain more than one skeleton which indicates that people
who belonged to the same family were buried in the same place though not at the
same time.

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Special Burial at Inamgaon

• Site on the river Ghod, a tributary of Bhima which was occupied between 3600 and
2700 years ago.
• Here, Adults were generally buried in the ground with head towards the north and
Sometimes burials were made within the houses.
• Vessels that might contain food and water were placed with the dead.

Occupations at Inamgaon
• Seeds of wheat, barley, rice, pulses, millets, peas and sesame were found by
archaeologists
• They have found bones of a number of animals like cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep, dog,
horse, ass, pig, sambhar, spotted deer, blackbuck, antelope, hare, and mongoose,
besides birds, crocodile, turtle, crab and fish, and many of them were bearing cut marks
which show that they may have been used as food
• There is evidence that fruits such as ber, amla, jamun, dates and a variety of berries
were collected.

Studies of skeletal
• No major differences in the bones of a girl and a boy.
• If a skeleton is found with jewellery, it is thought to be that of a woman, but this have a
problem as often men also wore ornaments.
• Better way to figure out the sex of a skeleton - bone structure. The hip or the pelvic
area of women is generally larger to enable childbearing.
• About 2000 years ago, physician named Charaka, wrote a book on medicine known as
the Charaka Samhita in which he states that human body has 360 bones which is a
much larger number than the 206 bones that are recognised in modern anatomy.
• Charaka arrived at this figure by counting the teeth, joints and cartilage.

Other than India

• Around 3500 years ago, first evidence of writing in China are found
• These writings were on animal bones called oracle bones as they were used to predict
the future.
• Kings got scribes to write questions on the bones and then bones were put into the fire,
and they cracked because of the heat.
• Then fortune-tellers studied these cracks and tried to predict the future.

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NEW IDEAS
Gautama Buddha
• Founder of Buddhism - Born about 2500 years ago as Siddhartha who is also known as
Gautama
• He was a kshatriya and belonged to a Sakya gana
• At age of 29, he left his home in search of knowledge and wandered for several years and
finally attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya in Bihar after meditating under a peepal
tree.
• After this, he was known as the Buddha or the Wise One
• He taught for the first time at Sarnath, near Varanasi.
• Rest of his life, he travelled on to teach people and finally passed away at Kusinara

Teachings of Buddha
• Buddha taught that life is full of suffering and unhappiness which is caused due to our
cravings and desires.
• Sometimes we want more even if we get what we want as we are not satisfied with what
we have. Buddha described this as thirst or tanha and this constant craving could be
removed by following moderation in everything.
• Buddha taught people to be kind, and to respect the lives of others, including animals.
• Buddha believed that the results of our actions (called karma), whether good or bad,
affect us both in this life and the next.
• Teaching of Buddha was in Prakrit language, language of the ordinary people
• 3 Jewels of Buddhism
1. Buddha
2. Dhamma
3. Sangha

Jainism
• Vardhamana Mahavira, the last and 24th tirthankara of the Jainas, was the most famous
among all thinkers of Jainism.
• He was a contemporary of Buddha.
• He was a kshatriya prince of the Lichchhavis, a group that was part of the Vajji sangha
• He left his home at the age of 30 and got the enlightenment after 12 years.

Teachings of Mahavira-
• Men and women who wished to know the truth must leave their homes.

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• Must follow the rules of ahimsa strictly, which means not hurting or killing any living
beings.
• Language used – Prakrit, ordinary people’s language
• Teachings of Mahavira and his followers were transmitted orally for several centuries.
• Over hundreds of years, Jainism spread to different parts of north India, and to Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
• They were written down at a place called Valabhi, in Gujarat, about 1500 years ago.

Jains
• Followers of Mahavira, known as Jainas, had to lead simple lives and beg for food.
• They had to be completely honest, and were asked not to steal
• Men had to give up everything, including their clothes.
• It was very difficult for most men and women to follow these strict rules.
• Jainism was supported mainly by traders
• Farmers, who had to kill insects to protect their crops, found it more difficult to follow
the rules

Sangha
• Mahavira and Buddha both felt that to gain true knowledge, one must leave their home
• Sangha- an association of those who left their homes,
• An arrangement was made for them to stay together.
• The rules made for the Buddhist sangha were written down in a book called the Vinaya
Pitaka

Rules of Sangha
• There were separate rules for men and women.
• Anyone could join the sangha and both men and women had to led simple lives
• Permission had to be taken by -
o Women from their husband; Children from their parents; slaves from their
masters; Those who worked for the king from the king and; debtors from their
creditors
• They meditated for most of the time and went to cities and villages to beg for food during
fixed hours and were known as bhikkhus (the Prakrit word for beggar) and bhikkhunis.
• They taught others and helped one another.
• The sangha included brahmins, kshatriyas, merchants, labourers, barbers, courtesans and
slaves

Monasteries
• Jain and Buddhist monks went from one place to another place throughout the year to
teach people.

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• In rainy season they stayed together as difficult to travel during that time. So, their
supporters built temporary shelters for them in gardens, or they lived in natural caves in
hilly areas.
• With the time, need for more permanent shelters was felt and therefore, monasteries
were built.
• These were known as viharas and the earliest ones were made of wood
• Some viharas were in caves that were dug out in hills, especially in western India.
• Land on which viharas were built were donated by a rich merchant or a landowner, or the
king.
• The local people came with gifts of food, clothing and medicines for the monks and nuns
and in return, they taught the people.

Ashrams
• When Jainism and Buddhism were becoming popular, brahmins developed the system of
ashramas
• The word ashrama is used for a stage of life
• 4 ashramas were recognized:
Brahmacharya - During this stage of life, Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya men were
expected to lead simple lives and study the Vedas in their early years of lives
Grihastha - During this stage of life, they had to marry and live as householders
Vanaprastha - During this stage of life, they had to live in the forest and meditate
Samnyasa - During this stage of life, they had to give up everything and become
sanyasis

• This system made men to spend some part of their lives in meditation.
• Women were not allowed to study the Vedas and had to follow the ashramas chosen by
their husbands

Upanishads
• Upanishads were part of the later Vedic texts.
• Upanishad means ‘approaching and sitting near’.
• Upanishads are also called Vedanta (or the end of Vedas), because they reveal the final
aim of Vedas.
• Main aim of Upanishads - to generate a desire among people for knowledge to achieve
Moksha
• There are 108 Upanishads, of which 11 are predominant and called Mukhya Upanishads
• The text in the Upanishads contain the conversations between teachers and students.
• They described the atman (or the individual soul) and the brahman (or the universal
soul) were ultimately one.
• Most Upanishadic thinkers were men, mainly brahmins and rajas.

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• Few were women thinkers like Gargi, who was famous for her learning, and she
participated in debates held in royal courts
• No Poor thinkers were there except for Satyakama Jabala who was named after his
mother, the slave woman Jabali. He had a deep desire to learn about reality, was accepted
as a student by a brahmin teacher named Gautama, and became one of the best-known
thinkers of the time.
• Many of the ideas of Upanishads were later developed by famous thinker
Shankaracharya

Panini
• He prepared grammar for Sanskrit.
• He arranged the vowels and the consonants in a special order, and then used these to
write down the rules of the language in short formulae

Zoroaster
• He was an Iranian prophet
• His teachings are contained in a book called the Avesta
• The practices described in it are very similar to those of the Vedas.
• The basic teachings of Zoroaster are contained in the maxim “Good thoughts, Good
Words and Good Deeds.”
• For more than 1000 years, Zoroastrianism was a major religion in Iran and later Some
were migrated to coastal towns of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• They were the ancestors of today’s Parsis.

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THE FIRST EMPIRE

Empires are different from kingdoms
Empires are larger than kingdoms so,
❖ Emperors need more resources
❖ Need to be protected by big armies.
❖ Need a larger number of officials who collect taxes.

Mauryan empire
• The Mauryan empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya more than 2300 years ago.
Mauryan empire was a dynasty because When members of the same family become rulers
one after another, the family is often called a dynasty and Mauryan were a dynasty with 3
important rulers:
❖ Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC)
❖ Bindusara (Chandragupta’s son)(298-273 BC)
❖ Ashoka (Bindusara’s son) (273-232 BC)

• Chandragupta was supported by Chanakya or Kautilya.

• Many of the Chanakya’s ideas were written down in a book called the Arthashastra.
• Mauryan Empire includes –
❖ Several cities like capital Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjain
❖ Some areas were villages of farmers and herders
❖ Some areas such as central India, there were forests where people gathered
forest produce and hunted animals for food
• Merchants, officials, and crafts persons probably lived in cities as Ujjain lay on the route
from north to south India while Taxila was a gateway to the northwest, including Central
Asia.
• People in different parts of the empire spoke different languages.

Ruling the empire

• Due to large size of empire, different parts of the empire were ruled differently
• Area around Pataliputra was under the direct control of the emperor and officials were
appointed to collect taxes who lived in villages and towns in the area and they also
punished those who disobeyed the ruler’s orders.
• Many of these officials were given salaries.
• The emperor supervised them with the help of members of the royal family, and senior
ministers.

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• Royal princes were often sent as governors of other provinces which were ruled from a
provincial capital such as Taxila or Ujjain and had some amount of control from
Pataliputra॰
• The roads and rivers, which were important for transport, were controlled by Mauryas
to collect whatever resources were available as tax and tribute
• For example, the Arthashastra tells us that
❖ north-west was important for blankets
❖ south India for its gold and precious stones
So, might be these resources were collected as tribute

• People of forested regions were more independent, but may have been expected to
provide elephants, timber, honey and wax to Mauryan officials

Megasthenes Description of the Mauryan Empire

• He was a Greek Ambassador sent to the court of Chandragupta Maurya by Greek ruler,
Seleucus Nicator.
• His book `Indica' gives accounts for Mauryan Empire.
• Some extracts from his book are given below:
❖ The emperor appears in public with grand royal processing and his guards ride
elephants which are decorated with gold and silver.
❖ He is surrounded by armed women.
❖ He has special servants to taste the food before he eats and never sleeps in the
same bedroom for two nights.
❖ Pataliputra is a large and beautiful city and has 570 towers and 64 gates.
❖ The houses, of two and three storeys, are built of wood and mud brick
❖ The king's palace is also of wood and decorated with stone carving

Ashoka
• Kalinga is the ancient name of coastal Orissa and It was one of few parts of India which
was not part of the Mauryan empire till about eight years after Ashoka's reign started.
• In 261 BC, Ashoka fought a war to conquer Kalinga.
• But he got so upset on seeing violence and bloodshed that he decided not to fight any
more wars and become the only king in the history of the world who gave up conquest
after winning a war

Ashoka’s Dhamma
• He was so inspired by the teachings of the Buddha that he started propagating Dhamma
(‘Dhamma’ - Prakrit word for the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’).
• Ashoka’s dhamma did not involve worship of any god, or performance of any sacrifice.
• He felt that he had a duty to instruct his subjects just like a father tries to teach his children
• There were number of problems that troubled him. For ex-

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❖ People in the empire followed different religions which sometimes led to conflict.
❖ Sacrificing of Animals.
❖ Ill treatment of Slaves and servants
❖ Quarrels in families and amongst neighbours.
• Ashoka felt it was his duty to solve these problems, so he appointed dhamma mahamatta,
officials who went from place to place to teach people about dhamma
• Ashoka got his messages inscribed on rocks and pillars, instructing his officials to read his
message to those who could not read it themselves.
• He became the First ruler who tried to take his message to the people through
inscriptions.
• Most of Ashoka’s inscriptions were written in Prakrit language and were written in
Brahmi script.
• His inscriptions describe various ideas of his dhamma in great detail, as well as the results
of the Kalinga war.
• Ashoka sent messengers to spread ideas of dhamma to other lands, such as Syria, Egypt,
Greece and Sri Lanka.
• His inscriptions were sent at prominent places all over his empire including the present-
day countries of Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Nepal.
• The lions that we see on our notes and coins were carved in stone, and placed on top of
a massive stone pillar at Sarnath on Ashoka’s instructions
• He also built rest houses, roads, dug wells and made arrangement for medical treatment
of both human beings and animals

Ashoka’s message to his subjects

In the main tenets of dhamma, as given by Ashoka in his inscription, were as follows

• Winning people over through dhamma is better than conquering them through force.
• People perform a variety of rituals when they fall ill or children get married or, children
are born. These rituals are not useful. Instead, people should observe other practices
which would be more fruitful.
• These practices are as follow
o Being gentle with slaves and servants
o Respect the elders.
o Treat all creatures with compassion
o Give gifts to Brahmins and monks.
o Each one should respect the other's religion rather than Praising one’s religion
and criticising other’s religion

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Contact with distant land

After the fall of Mauryan empire, many new kingdoms arose. Many changes start
to took place during this period like growth of new towns, spread of agriculture,
craft production and increase in trade as traders explored the new land and sea
route in search of new market for the products within and outside the
subcontinent.

Contribution of traders

➢ Traders carried goods from one place where they are made to sell
them at other places where they would have used or consumed.

➢ South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and
precious stones.

➢ Pepper was so much valued in the Roman Empire that it was known as
black gold

➢ Many Roman gold coins have been found in South India, so we can say
there was lot of trade done here.

➢ Traders explored many sea routes. For example, to cross the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal, sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds and
to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia,
they sail with the south-west monsoon

New Kingdoms along the coasts

➢ Southern part of the subcontinent has a long coastline, with hills, plateaus,
and river valley (Kaveri river valley was the most fertile)

➢ Kings and Chiefs who controlled the river valleys and the coasts
became rich and powerful

➢ Sangam poems mention the muvendar, a Tamil word meaning three chiefs,
used for the heads of three ruling families, Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. They
became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.

➢ Each of these chiefs had two centres of power - One inland, and one on
the coast

➢ Among these 6 cities, 2 were most important:

▪ Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas

▪ Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas

➢ Instead of collecting taxes, these chiefs demanded and received gifts from
the people and they went on military expeditions and collected tribute
from neighbouring areas

➢ They kept some of this wealth and distributed the rest amongst their
supporters, which included their family members, soldiers, and poets.

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➢ in Sangam collection, composition of many poets is found. They

composed poems in praise of chiefs and then they were rewarded with
precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth by
chiefs.

➢ 200 years later, Satavahanas dynasty became powerful in western India

and the most important ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni

➢ This is known from the inscription written by his mother, Gautami Balashri.

➢ Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the Dakshinapatha, which

means route leading to the south, or the entire southern region

➢ He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts

Silk Route

➢ Silk is smooth fabric having rich, glossy colours and is a highly valued fabric
in most societies.

➢ Silk making is a complicated process. First raw silk has to be extracted

from the cocoons of silk worms, then these spun into thread and in the last
woven into cloth.

➢ Around 7000 years ago, techniques of making silk were first invented
in China but Chinese kept it secret for thousands of years

➢ Some people from China went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on
camels and carried silk with them and the paths they followed become Silk Route

➢ Knowledge of silk spread towards west through Chinese rulers who sent gifts
of silk to rulers in Iran and west Asia

➢ About 2000 years ago, wearing silk became the fashion amongst rulers
and rich people in Rome

➢ Silk was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, which
includes dangerous roads, mountains and deserts. So, the people living along this
route often demanded payments for allowing traders to pass through

➢ Some kings tried to control large portions of this route to collect taxes, tributes
and gifts brought by traders travelling along the route and in return, they
protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms by robbers

➢ Kushanas, who ruled central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years
ago, were one of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route

➢ Taxila was included in their kingdom but their two major centres of power
were Peshawar and Mathura

➢ During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route was extended from Central
Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk
was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire

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➢ Kushans were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue

gold coins which were used by traders along the Silk Route

Spread of Buddhism

• Kanishka was the most famous Kushana ruler who ruled around 1900 years
ago.

• He organized a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important

matters.

• In his court there was a poet named Ashvaghosha who composed biography
of the Buddha called Buddhacharita.

• During this period, Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars began

writing in Sanskrit and a new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana
Buddhism was developed.

• Mahayana Buddhism had two distinct features-

1. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs
but in this Statues of the Buddha were made especially in Mathura and
Taxila

2. Belief in Bodhisattvas - There were supposed to be persons who had attained

enlightenment and after that they could live in complete isolation and meditate in
peace. But now Instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach
and help other people.

The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout

Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan

• Buddhism also spread to western and southern India.

o Dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills on the orders of kings and
queens by merchants and farmers for monks to live in. These were often located
near passes through the Western Ghats

o Traders probably halted in these cave monasteries during their travels

• Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand,

and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia (older form of
Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these
areas).

Quest of Pilgrims

• When traders journeyed to distant lands, pilgrims also travelled with them. Some
of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims are

• Fa Xian - came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago.

• Xuan Zang - came around 1400 years ago. He took the land route back to
China (through the north-west, and Central Asia) from Bengal. He carried
statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600

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manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses. Out of which more than 50

manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus. He
spent the rest of his life translating the remaining manuscripts from
Sanskrit into Chinese

• I-Qing - came about 50 years after Xuan Zang.

They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well
as famous monasteries

• Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers
they encountered during travels, of the countries and the monasteries that they
visited, and the books they carried back with them.

• Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar) the
most famous Buddhist monastery of the period

Bhakti

• The word, Bhakti, comes from the Sanskrit term ‘bhaj’ which means ‘to
divide or share.

• It suggests the two-way relationship between the deity and the devotee

• During post Mauryan period the worship of certain deities (like Shiva,
Vishnu, and goddesses such as Durga) gained importance which then became
a central feature of Hinduism

• These deities were worshipped through Bhakti which is generally understood as

a person’s devotion to his or her chosen deity.

• Anybody, whether rich or poor, high caste or low caste, man or woman, could
follow the path of Bhakti.

• Idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred book of the Hindus,
which is included in the Mahabharata

• Those who followed Bhakti emphasized devotion and individual worship of a

god or goddess, rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices

• According to this belief, if a devotee worships deity with a pure heart, the deity
will appear in the form in which he or she may desire. So, the deity could be
thought of as a human being, lion, tree or any other form.

• Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these deities

• Bhakti literature tells us that riches, learning and high status do not
automatically ensure a close relationship with the deity like in a poem
composed in Tamil by Appar, a devotee of Shiva. Who lived about 1400 years ago.

Christianity

• About 2000 years ago, Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, which was then part
of the Roman empire.

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• He taught people to treat others with love and trust others, just as they
themselves wanted to be treated

• The Christians of Kerala, known as Syrian Christians because they probably

came from West Asia, are amongst the oldest Christian communities in the
world.

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Political Development
Many new kingdoms arose after the fall of Mauryan Empire. For example –
Gupta dynasty, Vardhanas, Chalukyas etc.

Gupta Dynasty
➢ Gupta dynasty emerged in Magadh during the AD 4th century. They
established a large kingdom over the greater part of Northern India
➢ Gupta age (between 320 - 540 AD) is referred as classical age or Golden
Age of ancient India because rapid development in the field of art,
architecture literature, philosophy, trade, science, and agriculture took
place in India during this time.
➢ Prayaga (Allahabad), Ujjain and Pataliputra (Patna) were important
centres of the Gupta rulers.
➢ Gupta Dynasty Rulers
1. Srigupta – He founded the Gupta dynasty in the AD 3rd century.
2. Chandragupta I 320-335 AD)
❖ He was the first Independent ruler of the Gupta dynasty. He adopted the
grand title of 'Maharaja Adhiraja’
3. Samudragupta (335 to 380 AD) –
❖ Samudragupta, son of Chandragupta, became the ruler of Gupta Empire
after Chandragupta.
❖ His mother’s name is Kumara Devi and she belonged to the Lichchhavi
gana
❖ He also adopted the grand title of 'Maharaja Adhiraja'.
❖ He always believed in policy of war and conquests so known as Napoleon of
India.

Samudragupta’s Prashasti
➢ Prashasti is a Sanskrit word meaning 'praise’
➢ Samudragupta's inscription is known as Prashasti which was composed by
his court poet, Harisena around 1700 years ago and it contains very long
sentences.
➢ In Prashasti, the poet praised the king in terms as:
A warrior

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A king who won victories in battles

The best of poets
He is also described as equal to the Gods.
➢ This description tells us about the king and also about how kings fought
wars in those days.
➢ Harisena described 4 different kind of rulers and tells about
Samudragupta’s policies towards them
1. The Rulers of Aryavarta – they were nine rulers who were
uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta's
empire.
2. The Ruler of Dakshinapatha – they were twelve rulers and they
surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and then he
allowed them to rule again.
3. The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal
Bengal, Nepal and a number of Gana Sanghas in the North-West - They
brought tribute, followed his orders and attended his court.
4. The rulers of the outlying areas, the descendants of Kushanas and
Shakas and the ruler of Sri Lanka- They were submitted to him and
offered their daughters in marriage.
➢ Some other qualities of Samudragupta are shown on coins like one in which
he is shown playing the veena.

Chandragupta II
➢ After Samudragupta, his son Chandragupta II become ruler.
➢ He was the first Gupta Ruler to issue Silver coin.
➢ He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the
Shakas.
➢ He adopted the title of Vikramaditya
➢ His court was full of learned people, including Aryabhatta (the
astronomer), Kalidasa (the poet)
➢ Kalidasa wrote many famous plays. Abhijnana Shakuntalam (the story of
the love between Dushyant and Shakuntala) was one of them
➢ First Chinese traveller in India was Fa-Hien, who visited India in
Chandragupta's reign

Vikram Samvat

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➢ Vikrama Samvat, is an Indian calendar era beginning in 58 BCE and is

associated with the legendary Vikramaditya. The Vikram Samvat Calendar is
a civil calendar that is widely used in Nepal and India
➢ The Vikram Samvat has also been adopted alongside the Gregorian
calendar as the national calendar by independent India

Vardhana Dynasty
➢ Vardhana Dynasty was founded by Pushyabhuti Vardhan.
➢ They ruled in northern India during 6th and 7th centuries AD.
➢ The dynasty reached its peak under its last ruler Harshavardhana.

Harshavardhana
➢ He was son of Prabhakar Vardhana.
➢ He was not the eldest son of his father but became king of Thanesar after
both his father and elder brother died.
➢ Xuan Zang, the Chinese traveller, spent a lot of time at Harsha's court and
wrote a detailed account of what he saw.
➢ Banabhatta, his court poet wrote his biography known as Harshacharita in
Sanskrit.
➢ Harshavardhana was successful in the east and conquered both Magadha
and Bengal, but he was not as successful elsewhere.
➢ He tried to cross Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped by
Pulakeshin II, Chalukyan dynasty ruler.

Pallavas and Chalukyas

➢ Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in South
India during 6th and 7th century AD.
➢ Kingdom of Pallavas spread from Kanchipuram (their capital) to the
Cauvery Delta
➢ Kingdom of Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the
rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra
➢ Chalukya dynasty was founded by Pulakeshin I.
➢ Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading centre and
later on developed as a religious centre with a number of temples.
➢ The best-known and important Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II and we get
to know about him by the prashasti composed by his court poet `Ravikriti'

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➢ According to Ravikirti, Pulakeshin’s II led expeditions along both the west

and the east coasts.
➢ The Chalukyas and Pallavas were great rivals. They frequently raided one
another’s lands, especially their capital cities which were the prosperous
towns
➢ Pulakeshin II attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls
of Kanchipuram, but the Chalukya’s victory was short-lived and both the
dynasties were weakened by fighting.
➢ Finally, Pallavas and Chalukas were defeated by Rashtrakuta and Chola
dynasties.

Administration of these Kingdoms

➢ In this period, village was the basic unit of administration and land
revenue was important for these rulers
➢ Some important administrative posts were become hereditary. For
Example – Harisena, Samudragupta’s Court Poet, was a maha - danda -
nayaka or chief judicial officer, like his father.
➢ Sometimes, one person held many offices. For Example- Harisena was
maha-danda-nayaka and also Kumar-Aamatya, meaning an important
minister, and Sandhi-Vigrahika, meaning a minister of war and peace
➢ Besides, important men had a say in local administration like the nagara-
shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city, etc.

A new Kind of Army

➢ During this period, the kings maintained a well organised army with
elephants, chariots, cavalry and foot soldiers.
➢ There were military leaders who provided the king with troops whenever
he needed them, and they received grants of land instead of regular
salaries. They were known as samantas.
➢ Whenever the ruler was weak, samantas tried to become independent.

Assemblies in Southern Kingdoms

➢ The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies, like
sabha which was an assembly of Brahmin landowners and the Ur which
was a village assembly found in areas where the landowners were not
Brahmins.

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Rise of Islam
➢ Arabia is a desert place, but it was at the hub of communications for
centuries as Arab merchants and sailors played an important role in the sea
trade between India and Europe.
➢ Other people who lived in Arabia were the Bedouins, pastoral tribes that
depended mainly on hardy animals like camels that could survive in the
desert.
➢ Prophet Muhammed introduced a new religion, Islam, in Arabia, around
1400 years ago.
➢ Islam is a religion that laid stress on the equality and unity of all before
Allah, the one supreme God and The Quran is the sacred book of Islam
➢ Arab sailors conquered Sind (in present-day Pakistan) about 1300 years
ago and spread the new religion there.

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Culture and Science

Archaeological excavations show that the Harappans were master craftsmen
and had knowledge of copper metallurgy (technique or science of making and
compounding alloys). They manufactured bronze by mixing copper and tin.
While the Harappans belonged to the Bronze Age, their successors belonged
to the Iron Age.

Iron Pillar
The iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi was made about 1500 years ago. It is made of
iron, 7.2m high, and weighs over 3 tonnes. We know the date because name of
Gupta dynasty ruler Chandragupta Vikramaditya was mentioned in an
inscription on the pillar.
*The pillar has not rusted even till today due to Addition of phosphorous in
iron that has prevented it from rusting.

Buildings in Bricks and Stones

➢ Indian crafts person (or architecture) were very skilled which can be seen
from the buildings they made such as stupas and temples.
➢ Stupa –
It means a mound
This is a place for Buddhists to meditate
Stupas can be round and tall, big and small.
There is a small box called relic casket, which was placed at the
centre or heart of the stupa
This box may contain - Bodily remains (like teeth, bone or ashes) of
the Buddha or his followers or the things they used or precious
stones and coins
The path around the stupa known as pradakshina path and it was
surrounded by railings.
Many of the stone carvings for decorating this stupa were made
about 2000 years ago
Example of stupa can be seen at Amaravati.

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➢ Temples-
The earliest Hindu temples were also built during this time where
Deities such as Vishnu, Shiva, and Durga were worshipped
Garbhagriha – This room was the most important part of the Hindu
temple. It contains the image or idol of the chief deity. A tower,
called shikhara, was built on top of the garbhagriha, to mark this out
as a sacred place. Example at Bhitargaon, Uttar Pradesh
Most temples also had a space known as the mandapa, which was a
hall where people could assemble
Some finest stone temples were built in Mahabalipuram and Aihole
Temples at Mahabalipuram were carved out of a huge, single piece of
stone, so, they are known as monoliths
➢ Kings or queens used to decide whether to build stupa / temple or not as it
was an expensive thing
➢ Kings and queens might spend money from their treasury to pay the crafts
persons and Devotees used to brought gifts, to decorate the temple, while
visiting the temple or the stupa
➢ Merchants, farmers, garland makers, perfumers, smiths, and hundreds of
men and women were also paid for decorations
➢ Several stages were there in building a stupa or a temple. But the first and
most important step was to find good quality stone than has to be quarried
and transported to the temple place

Paintings at Ajanta
➢ Ajanta is a place where several caves were hollowed out of the hills
➢ Most of these were monasteries for Buddhist monks and some of them
were decorated with paintings.
➢ As the caves are dark Inside, most of these paintings were done in the light
of torches. These colors are vivid even after 1500 years and these Colors
were made of plants and minerals

✓ The artists who created these splendid works of art remain unknown.

Books and Epics

➢ Epics are grand, long compositions, about heroic men and women, and
include stories about gods. Some of the best-known epics were written
during this period.

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1. Tamil epic, the Silappadikaram, was composed by a poet named Ilango,

around 1800 years ago. It is the story of a merchant named Kovalan, who lived
in Puhar and fell in love with a courtesan named Madhavi, neglecting his wife
Kannagi.
2. Another Tamil epic, the “Manimekalai” was composed by Sattanar around
1400 years ago. It is the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi.
➢ Another important writer during this period is Kalidasa, who is in Court of
Chandragupta II or Chandragupta Vikramaditya. He wrote in Sanskrit. His
best-known poem is the Meghaduta, in which a monsoon cloud is imagined
to be a messenger between lovers who are separated from one another.
➢ A number of Hindu religious stories were written down around the same
time like Puranas.

Puranas
➢ It means old. The Puranas contain stories about gods and goddesses, like
Vishnu, Shiva, Durga or Parvati and about how they were to be
worshipped.
➢ They were written in simple Sanskrit verse and heard by everybody,
including women and shudras (who were not allowed to study the Vedas).
➢ They were recited in temples by priests, and people came to listen to them
➢ Two Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana are popular from a
very long time

Mahabharata - Mahabharat was written down about 1500 years ago. The
Mahabharata is about a war fought between cousins, the Kauravas and
Pandavas, to gain control of the throne of Hastinapura. Bhagavad Gita was
also included in the Mahabharata.
Both the Puranas and the Mahabharata are supposed to have been
compiled by Vyasa.

Ramayana - The Ramayana is about Rama, a prince of Kosala, who was

sent into exile. There his wife Sita was abducted by the king of Lanka, named
Ravana so, Rama had to fight a battle to get her back. He won and returned to
Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, after his victory
Valmiki is the author of the Sanskrit Ramayana.

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Stories told by ordinary people

Ordinary people also told stories, composed poems and songs, sang, danced,
and performed plays. For Example - Stories such as the Jatakas (stories shown
on the railings of stupas and in paintings in places such as Ajanta) and the
Panchatantra were written down around this time.

Writing books on Science

This was the time when Aryabhata, a mathematician and astronomer, wrote a
book Aryabhatiyam in Sanskrit
❖ He stated that day and night were caused by the rotation of the earth on
its axis, even though it seems as if the sun is rising and setting everyday.
❖ He gave a scientific explanation for eclipses
❖ He found a way of calculating the circumference of a circle, which is nearly
as accurate as the formula we use today.
Some other mathematicians and astronomers were - Varahamihira,
Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya .
Invention of Zero
Mathematicians in India invented a special symbol for zero. The Romans used
a system of counting without using zero till then.

Discovery of Ayurveda
Ayurveda is a system of health science that was developed in ancient India.
Two famous practitioners of Ayurveda in ancient India were
1. Charaka (1st-2nd centuries C.E.) – he wrote Charak Samhita, a book on
medicine
2. Sushruta (4th century C.E.) - In his treatise, Susruta Samhita, Sushruta
speaks about elaborate surgical procedures

Invention of Paper
➢ Paper was invented in China about 1900 years ago, by Cai Lun
➢ He beat plant fibres, cloth, rope and the bark of trees, soaked these in
water and then pressed, drained and dried the pulp to create paper.
➢ Today’s hand-made paper is made through a similar process.

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➢ Manuscripts in early India were usually written on palm leaf, or on the

specially prepared bark of a tree known as the birch, which grows in the
Himalayas

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New Kings and Kingdoms

After 7th century, many new dynasties were emerged and
there were big landlords or warrior chiefs known as king’s
subordinates or samantas
When Samantas gained power and wealth, they declared
themselves to be maha-samanta, maha-mandaleshvara (the
great lord of a “circle” or region) and sometimes they asserted
their independence from their overlords.
Examples of Samantas becoming independent from their
overlords
1. Rashtrakutas in Deccan – Earlier they were subordinate to
the Chalukyas of Karnataka but in mid-8th century
Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta chief, overthrew his Chalukya
overlord and performed a ritual called hiranya-garbha
(means, the golden womb)
*Hiranya-garbha ritual was thought to lead to the
“rebirth” of the sacrificer as a Kshatriya.
2. The Kadamba Mayurasharman and the Gurjara-Pratihara
Harichandra – They were Brahmanas who gave up their
traditional professions and took to arms, successfully
establishing kingdoms in Karnataka and Rajasthan
Administration in the Kingdoms
• Many of these new kings adopted titles like
❖ Maharaja-adhiraja (great king, overlord of kings),
❖ Tribhuvana-chakravartin (lord of the three worlds),
and so on

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• Generally, they shared power with their samantas as well

as with associations of peasants, traders and Brahmanas
• Resources were obtained from the producers (like
peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans) in the form of rent.
• They also collected revenue from traders.
• Taxes in Chola Period– Inscriptions of Cholas who ruled in
Tamil Nadu tells that there were more than 400 terms for
different kinds of taxes and the most frequently mentioned
tax is
❖ vetti which is taken in the form of forced labour
❖ kadamai, or land revenue
Prashastis
• Generally, Prashastis contain details about how rulers
wanted to depict themselves – as valiant, victorious
warriors like by Samudragupta and they were written by
learned Brahmanas
• One of the prashastis which is written in Sanskrit and found
in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, describes the exploits of
Nagabhata, a Pratihara king
*A long Sanskrit poem written by Kalhana, contained the
history of kings who ruled over Kashmir. Unlike the writers
of prashastis, he was often critical about rulers and their
policies.
Land Grants
• Kings usually rewarded Brahmanas by grants of land which
were recorded on copper plates and given to those who
received the land.

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• The ring holding the plates together is secured with the

royal seal, to indicate that this is an authentic document.
Warfare for Wealth
• Each of ruling dynasties were based in a specific region and
tried to control other areas.
• One of the important areas was: City of Kanauj in the Ganga
valley
❖ Rulers belonging to the Gurjara-Pratihara,
Rashtrakuta and Pala dynasties fought for its control
for centuries.
❖ As there were 3 “parties” in this conflict, historians
describe it as the “tripartite struggle”.
• Rulers demonstrated their power and resources by
building large temples. So, during attack of one another’s
kingdoms, they often target temples.
• For Example - Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan
❖ He ruled from 997 to 1030 and had control over parts
of Central Asia, Iran and the north-western part of the
subcontinent. In attacks, his targets were wealthy
temples like that of Somnath temple of Gujarat.
❖ He used his wealth to create a splendid capital city at
Ghazni.
❖ He entrusted a scholar named Al-Biruni to write an
account of the subcontinent which is called Kitab ul-
Hind. It is an important source for historians as he
consulted Sanskrit scholars to prepare this account.

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• One more example of king who engaged in warfare was the

Chahamanas, later known as the Chauhans, who ruled
over the region around Delhi and Ajmer.
❖ They attempted to expand their control to the west
and the east, where they were opposed by the
Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Gahadavalas of western
Uttar Pradesh.
❖ The best-known Chahamana ruler was Prithviraja III
(1168-1192), who defeated an Afghan ruler, Sultan
Muhammad Ghori in 1191, but lost to him the very
next year, in 1192.
Chola Empire
• Family called Muttaraiyars, were subordinate to the
Pallava kings of Kanchipuram. They held power in the
Kaveri delta
• In the mid- 9th century, Vijayalaya who belonged to the
family of the Cholas from Uraiyur, captured the delta from
the Muttaraiyar in the middle of the ninth century.
• He built the town of Thanjavur and a temple for goddess
Nishumbhasudini there.
• His successors expanded their kingdom by conquering the
Pandyan and the Pallava territories
• Rajaraja I - Most powerful Chola ruler. He became king in
985 and expanded control over most of these areas and
reorganised the administration of the empire.
• Rajendra I, Rajaraja’s son- He continued his policies and
raided the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka and countries of

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Southeast Asia. He developed a navy for these

expeditions.
Chola Temples
• The big temples of Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram, built by Rajaraja and Rajendra I.
• Chola temples often became the nuclei of settlements
which grew around them. These became centres of craft
production.
• Temples were also given with land by rulers as well as by
others.
• The produce of this land went into maintaining all the
specialists who worked at the temple and very often lived
near it.
• In other words, temples were not only places of worship;
they were the hub of economic, social and cultural life as
well
• Amongst the crafts associated with temples, the making of
bronze statues was the most distinguishing.
• Chola bronze images are considered amongst the finest in
the world.
• Most images were of deities and few were of devotees as
well.
Agriculture
Kaveri river branches off into several small channels and these
channels overflow frequently, depositing fertile soil on their
banks. Water from these channels provides the required
moisture for agriculture like for cultivation of rice.

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From 5th or 6th century this area had started large-scale

cultivation. To do this
❖ Forests were cleared in some region
❖ Land was levelled
❖ Embankments were made to prevent flooding
❖ Canals were constructed and wells were dug for irrigation
❖ Tanks were made for rainwater collection
Administration in Cholas:
• Ur: Settlement of peasants
• Nadu: Group of villages formed larger units were known as
Nadu. They had administrative functions like providing
justice & collecting taxes. Affairs of Nadu were Controlled
by Vellala caste (rich peasants)
• Rich landowners’ titles -In respect Chola kings gave some
titles to rich landowners like muvendavelan (velan or
peasant serving three kings), araiyar (chief)
Types of Land in Chola Empire
❖ Brahmadeya: land which was gifted to Brahmanas
❖ Vellanvagai: land of non-Brahmana peasant proprietors
❖ Shalabhoga: land for the maintenance of a school
❖ Devadana, tirunamattukkani: land which was gifted to
temples
❖ Pallichchhandam: land which was donated to Jaina
institutions
• Brahmanas received land grants or brahmadeya leads to a
large number of Brahmana settlements emerged in the
Kaveri valley

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• Each brahmadeya was looked after by an assembly or

sabha of prominent Brahmana landholders. Their decisions
were recorded in detail in inscriptions on the stone walls of
temples.
• Inscriptions from Uttaramerur in Chingleput district, Tamil
Nadu, provide details of the way in which the sabha was
organised.
❖ The sabha had separate committees to look after
irrigation works, gardens, temples, etc.
❖ Eligible to be members’ name were written on small
tickets of palm leaf and young boy took out the tickets
one by one for each committee
• Requirements for Members of Sabha
❖ Owners of land from which land revenue is collected.
❖ Person should Owned homes.
❖ Age should be 35 to 70 years
❖ Person must have Knowledge of the Vedas.
❖ Person must be Well-versed in administrative matters
and honest.
❖ If anyone has been a member of any committee in the
last three years, he cannot become a member of
another committee.
❖ Anyone who has not submitted his accounts, as well as
those of his relatives, cannot contest the elections

• Nagarams, associations of traders, occasionally performed

administrative functions in towns.

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*Periyapuranam, a twelfth century Tamil work, informs us

about the lives of ordinary men and women.

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Delhi Sultanate
Rulers of Delhi
RAJPUT DYNASTIES
Tomaras Early 12th century-1165
Ananga Pala 1130-1145
Chauhans 1165-1192
Prithviraj Chauhan 1175-1192

EARLY TURKISH RULERS 1206-1290

Qutbuddin Aybak 1206-1210
Shamsuddin Iltutmish 1210-1236
Raziyya 1236-1240
Ghiyasuddin Balban 1266-1287

KHALJI DYNASTY 1290-1320

Jalaluddin Khalji 1290-1296
Alauddin Khalji 1296-1316

TUGHLUQ DYNASTY 1320-1414

Ghiyasuddin Tughluq 1320-1324
Muhammad Tughluq 1324-1351
Firuz Shah Tughluq 1351-1388

SAYYID DYNASTY 1414-1451

Khizr Khan 1414-1421

LODI DYNASTY 1451-1526

Bahlul Lodi 1451-1489

Delhi

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• Delhi became an important city in the 12th century.

• First time Delhi became the capital of a kingdom was under the Tomara Rajput.
• But they were defeated by the Chauhan’s (Chahamanas) of Ajmer in mid-12th century.
• Delhi became an important commercial centre under the Tomaras and Chauhan’s.
• The rich Jaina merchants lived in the city and they constructed several temples.
• Coins that were minted here were known as dehliwal
• Delhi became a capital that controlled vast areas after the foundation of the Delhi
Sultanate
• The Delhi Sultans built cities in Delhi like Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri and Jahanpanah

Raziyya Sultan
• Raziyya, Sultan, Iltutmish’s daughter, became Sultan in 1236.
• Minhaj-i Siraj, chronicler of the age, acknowledged that she was more able and
qualified than all her brothers, but she was removed from the throne in 1240.
• According to Minhaj-i Siraj, queen’s rule went against the ideal social order created by
God, in which women should be subordinate to men.

Facts about some Queen Rulers

• Razia mentioned on her inscription and coins that she was the daughter of Sultan
Iltutmish.
• Queen Rudramadevi (1262- 1289) of the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, changed her
name on her inscriptions and pretended to be a man.
• Queen Didda, who ruled in Kashmir (980- 1003), had title which comes from “didi” or
“elder sister” given to the loved ruler by her subjects

Finding Out about the Delhi Sultans

• A lot of information is found from inscriptions, coins and architecture
• But Special valuables are - “histories”, tarikh (singular)/tawarikh (plural), which were
written in Persian, the language of administration under the Delhi Sultans.
Authors of Tawarikh

• They were learned men like secretaries, administrators, poets and courtiers
• They gave advice on governance and emphasised the importance of just rule
• They lived in cities (mainly Delhi) and rarely in villages.
• They often wrote their histories for Sultans in the hope of rich rewards.
• They advised rulers on the need to preserve an “ideal” social order based on birth right
and gender distinctions

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The Masjid
In Arabic, mosque is called a masjid which means a place where a Muslim prostrates in
reverence to Allah.
“Congregational mosque” (masjid-i-jami or jama masjid) - Muslims read their prayers
(namaz) together here
Leader (imam) of this congregation is most respected, learned male who is chosen by
members of the congregation for the rituals of prayer.
He delivers the sermon (khutba) during the Friday prayer.
*During prayer, Muslims stand facing Mecca. In India this is to the west. This is called the
qibla.
Some Famous Masjid built by Delhi Sultans

1. Quwwat al-Islam mosque and minaret – congregational mosque of the first city built
during last decade of the 12th century by Delhi Sultans. It is described in the chronicles as
Dehli-i-Kuhna (the old city).
➢ It was enlarged by - Iltutmish and Alauddin Khalji.
➢ Minar was built by - Qutbuddin Aybak and Iltutmish.

2. Begumpuri mosque - built under the rule of Muhammad Tughluq. It was the main
mosque of Jahanpanah (“Sanctuary of the World”) his new capital in Delhi.
3. Moth ki Masjid - built under the rule of Sikandar Lodi by his minister.
4. Mosque of Jamali Kamali - built in the late 1520s.

Expansion of Delhi Sultanate

• In early 13th century, Delhi Sultans controlled just heavily fortified towns occupied by
garrisons (A fortified settlement, with soldiers).
• They rarely controlled the hinterland, which is land adjacent to a city that supple it with
goods and services, which makes them dependent upon trade, tribute or plunder for
supplies.
Administration
➢ Reliable governors and administrators were needed for such vast kingdom. So, Delhi
Sultans especially Iltutmish, preferred their special slaves, called bandagan in Persian,
which were purchased for military service,
➢ Khaljis and Tughluqs also continued to use bandagan and also raised people of humble
birth, who were often their clients, to high political positions.
➢ But these slaves and clients were loyal to their masters and patrons, but not to their
heirs.

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➢ Persian tawarikh authors criticised the Delhi Sultans on appointment of “low and base-
born” to high offices.
➢ The Khalji and Tughluqs appointed military commanders as governors of territories of
varying sizes.
➢ These lands were called iqta and their holder was called iqtadar or muqti.
➢ Duty of Muqtis
To lead military campaigns
To maintain law and order in their iqtas.
➢ Their salary was collection of the revenues of their assignments and pay their soldiers
from these revenues
➢ Control over muqtis was most effective if their office was not inheritable and iqtas were
assigned for a short period of time
➢ Accountants checked the amount of revenue collected by the muqtis
Taxes

• When Hinterland of the cities came under Sultan’s control then landed chieftains – the
samanta aristocrats – and rich landlords were forced to accept their authority.
• The rights of the local chieftains to collect taxes were cancelled and instead were forced
to pay taxes.
• There were three types of taxes:
1. on cultivation which was known as kharaj which amounted to about 50 per cent
of the peasant’s produce,
2. on cattle
3. on houses

Difference between administration of Alauddin Khalji and

Muhammad Tughluq
• Under Genghis Khan, Mongols invaded Transoxiana in north-east Iran in 1219 and after
this their on slaughter was faced by Delhi Sultanate during Alauddin Khalji and in early
years of Muhammad Tughluq’s rule
• During Alauddin Khalji’s rule, Delhi was attacked twice, in 1299/1300 and 1302-1303 and
to defend, Alauddin Khalji raised a large standing army whereas In Muhammad
Tughluq’s reign the Sultanate was attacked in his early years and They defeated
Mongols. In confidence, Muhammad Tughluq planned an attack on Transoxiana. So, he
raised a large standing army.
• For soldiers - Alauddin constructed a new garrison town named Siri whereas Tughluq
emptied the oldest city of Delhi (Dehli-i Kuhna) for the soldiers and the residents of
there were sent to the new capital of Daulatabad
• Feeding of soldiers- Alauddin’s soldiers were fed through the produce collected as tax
from lands between the Ganga and Yamuna and Tax was fixed at 50 per cent of the

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peasant’s yield whereas Tughluq levied additional taxes to maintain army which
coincided with famine in the area.
• Alauddin paid his soldiers salaries in cash rather than iqtas and controlled the prices of
goods in Delhi whereas Muhammad Tughluq also paid his soldiers in cash, but instead
of controlling prices, he used a “token” currency
• Alauddin’s administrative measures were successful whereas Muhammad Tughluq’s
administrative measures were a failure.
Muhammad Tughluq’s campaign into Kashmir was a disaster.
He gave up his plans to invade Transoxiana
Shifting of people to Daulatabad was resented.
Rebellion due to - raising taxes and famine in the Ganga-Yamuna belt. So,
“token” currency had to brought back.
Sultanate in the 15th and 16th Centuries

• Tughluqs, Sayyids and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526.
• After them, Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the entire south India had
independent rulers
• New ruling groups like the Afghans and the Rajputs arrived
• Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545) - started as the manager of a small territory for his uncle in
Bihar and eventually challenged and defeated the Mughal emperor Humayun (1530-40,
1555-56).
• He captured Delhi and established his own dynasty but Sur dynasty ruled for only 15
years (1540-1555). His administration had borrowed elements from Alauddin Khalji
and he became the model which was followed by Akbar (1556-1605)
Three Orders

• Idea of “Three Orders” first formulated in - France in 11th century.

• Divided society into 3 classes:
❖ Those who prayed
❖ Those who fought
❖ Those who tilled the land.
• This division of society into “Three Orders” was supported by the Church to consolidate
its dominant role in society.
• A new warrior group called Knights were emerged

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Architecture
• In the medieval period there were several developments in the field of architecture and
with arrival of Muslims in India, various new features were introduced in buildings
• Kings and their officers built 2 kinds of structures between 8th and 18th centuries
1. Forts, garden residences, palaces and tombs – They were safe, protected and
grandiose places of rest for king and their successors
2. Temples, mosques, tanks, caravanserais, wells and bazaars – These were the
structures meant for public activity
• Example - Qutb Minar
It has five storeys, out of which 1st floor was constructed by Qutbuddin Aybak around
1199 and the rest of the structure was constructed by Iltutmish around 1229.
• The architecture of medieval period can be divided into two main categories.
1. Delhi Sultanate type architecture (Indo - Islamic type Architecture)
2. Mughal Architecture

Indo – Islamic Architecture

• Between the 7th and 10th centuries, more rooms, doors and windows were added in
buildings by the architects.
❖ “Trabeate” or “corbelled” style of architecture was used in which, horizontal beam
was placed across two vertical columns to make roofs, doors and windows
❖ This trabeate style was used between 8th and 13th centuries for the construction of
temples, mosques, tombs and in buildings that were attached to large stepped-
wells (called baolis).
❖ For example - Quwwat al-Islam mosque in Delhi made in late 12th century used
Corbelled technique in the construction of the screen.
• In 12th century two technological and stylistic developments were made.
1. Arcuate – in this architectural form, weight of the superstructure above the doors
and windows was carried by arches. The “keystone” at the centre of the arch
transferred the weight of the superstructure to the base of the arch. Example - Alai
Darwaza of Quwwat al Islam mosque, Delhi.
2. Use of Limestone cement in construction. It was a high-quality cement, which, on
mixing with stone chips hardened into concrete. Large structures’ construction was
made easier and faster with its usage

Temple construction in 11th century

Temples were used as a symbol of power, wealth and devotion of the patron. All of the
largest temples were constructed by kings. Temples were like a miniature model of the
world which was ruled by the king and his allies. Some of the Examples are –

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1. Kandariya Mahadeva temple (Shiva Temple) at Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh: It was

constructed by King Dhangadeva of the Chandela dynasty in 999. The chief deity
was kept in the main shrine (garbhagriha) where only king, his immediate family
and priest gathered for worship. There was Khajuraho complex here which
contained royal temples and commoners were not allowed here also. Temple was
constructed in such a way that an ornamental gateway led to an entrance & to
main hall (mahamandapa) where dances were performed
2. Rajarajeshvara temple at Thanjavur: King Rajarajadeva built this for the worship of
his god, Rajarajeshvaram. The king had a god’s like name because of
auspiciousness and he wanted to appear like a god. This temple had tallest
shikhara amongst temples of its time. No cranes were there at that time so to lift
90-ton stone for top of shikhara, architects built an inclined path of 4 km which was
not too steep & boulders were rolled to the top.
*inclined plane was dismantled after temple’s construction, but residents of that area
remembered this experience for a long time and there was village near the temple
which is known as Charupallam, means “Village of the Incline”.

Mosques
• Muslim Sultans and Padshahs did not claim to be incarnations of god but Sultans were
described as the “Shadow of God” in Persian court chronicles
• At Quwwat al-Islam mosque, there was an inscription which described that God chose
Alauddin as a king because he had the qualities of Moses and Solomon, which were the
great lawgivers of the past.

Importance of water in Kings

• Persian terms abad, which means populated, & abadi, which means flourishing, are
derived from ab, which means water. It was believed that just king’s rule would be an
age of prosperity and it would bring sufficient rainfall. Construction of tanks and
reservoirs by king were highly praised. For Example -
Sultan Iltutmish constructed large reservoir just outside Delhi-i kuhna known as hauzi
Sultani or the “King’s Reservoir”. For this he received wide respect.

Why were temples destroyed

• Kings built temples because of
i. Devotion to God
ii. To demonstrate their power and wealth
• So, temples were targeted in attacks. For Example -
a. In 9th century, Shrimara Shrivallabha, a Pandyan king attacked Sri Lanka and
defeated king, Sena I. There he captured all valuables and gold statue of Buddha. In
avenge, the next Sinhalese ruler, Sena II, attacked Madurai which was the capital of
Pandyas and special effort were made to find & restore gold statue of Buddha.

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b. In 11th century, Rajendra I, a Chola king-built Shiva temple & filled it with statues
that he captured from defeated rulers. Some of them were –
❖ Sun-pedestal, Ganesha, Durga, Nandi from Chalukyas;
❖ Image of Bhairava and Bhairavi from Kalingas of Orissa;
❖ Kali statue from Palas of Bengal
c. Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni – He was the contemporary of Rajendra I. He tried to win
credit as a great hero of Islam by destroying temples – especially the one at
Somnath .

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Mughal empire

Ancestors of Mughals in ascending order

Timur → Miran Shah → Sultan Muhammad Mirza → Abu Said → Umar

Shaikh (Babar’s father) → Babur (1st Mughal emperor)

• Mughals from their mother’s side were successor of Genghis Khan (who
died in 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes who ruled over China and Central Asia.
But Mughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol because Genghis
Khan was associated with the massacre of numerous people.

• Mughals from their father’s side were descendent of Timur (who died in
1404). He was the ruler of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. Mughals were
proud of Timurid ancestry because their ancestors had captured Delhi in
1398.

Mughals tradition of succession

• Primogeniture-where the eldest son inherited his father’s estate was not
followed by Mughals

• Coparcenary inheritance, which was the division of the inheritance amongst

all the sons, was followed by Mughals which was a Timurid custom

Mughal rulers

Babur → Humayun → Akbar → Jahangir → Shah Jahan → Aurangzeb

Babur

• Babur was the first Mughal emperor

• At the age of 12, he inherited throne of Ferghana in 1494 but forced to leave
due to invasion of Uzbegs (Mongol group)

• In 1504 he captured Kabul and in 1526, he captured Delhi and Agra after
defeating Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi, at Panipat. Babur used canons at
the first battle of Panipat, which were important addition in sixteenth
century warfare

• In 1527, at Khanua, Babur defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers, and their allies

*For warfare, Gun powder technology was brought to India in 14th century

Humayun

• According to his father’s will, he divided Mughal territories and gave one
province to each brother

• But ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran, weakened Humayun’s

position against Afghan competitors.

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• Humayun got defeated by Sher Khan 2 times, the first time at Chausa (1539)
and the second time at Kanauj (1540), which forced him to flee to Iran.

• With the help of Safavid Shah in Iran, Humayun recaptured Delhi in 1555 and
died the next year

Akbar

• With help of Bairam Khan, Akbar became emperor at the age of 13

• His reign is divided into three periods –

1. 1556-1570

❖ Akbar became independent of Bairam Khan (his regent) and other

domestic staff.

❖ Military campaigns were launched against

▪ Suris

▪ Malwa and Gondwana

▪ His half-brother Mirza Hakim to suppress his revolt

▪ Uzbegs.

❖ In 1568 he captured Chittor, capital of Sisodiya, and in 1569 he

captured Ranthambhor

2. 1570-1585

❖ He launched military campaigns first in Gujarat then in the east in Bihar,

Bengal and Orissa.

❖ Due to support of Mirza Hakim’s revolt against him in 1579-80, these

campaigns got complicated

3. 1585-1605

❖ Akbar’s empire expanded

❖ Campaigns were launched in northwest like Qandahar, Kashmir and

Kabul were captured

Akbar Nama

• Abul Fazl, close friends and courtier of Akbar, wrote a 3-volume history of
Akbar’s reign known as Akbar Nama.

❖ First volume was about Akbar’s ancestors

❖ Second volume registered the events under reign of Akbar

❖ Third volume is the Ain-i Akbari which is mainly about

administration, army, revenues and geography of Akbar’s
empire. It provides details about the traditions and culture of the people

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of India. It also gives statistical details about diverse things such

as crops, yields, prices, wages and revenues.

Akbar’s Policies

• As mentioned in Ain – i – Akbari, Akbar’s empire was divided into provinces

known as subas

• Suba was governed by a subadar who performed both political and military
functions.

• Each province had a financial officer or diwan.

• Other officers in province –

❖ Subamilitary paymaster known as bakhshi

❖ Minister in charge of religious and charitable patronage known as

sadr

❖ Military commanders known as faujdars

❖ Town police commander known as kotwal

• At Fatehpur Sikri in 1570s, Akbar started discussions on religion with the

ulama, Brahmanas, Jesuit priests (Roman Catholics), and Zoroastrians because
he was interested in religion and social customs of different people

• They did discussions in ibadat khana

• Their discussions gave him realisation that religious scholars and their
teaching created divisions and disharmony amongst his subjects.

• These realisations gave him the Idea of sulh-i kul or “universal peace” and in
this idea of tolerance people were not discriminated on the basis of
religion

• Idea of sulh-i kul focused on a system of ethics – honesty, justice, peace –

which were universally applicable

• Akbar was helped by Abul Fazl in formulating a vision of governance

around the idea of sulh-i-kul

* Jahangir and Shah Jahan also followed this principle of governance.

• Many Sanskrit works were translated on the order of Akbar like

Mahabharata, Ramayana, Lilavati and Yogavashisht

* The Razmnamah is the name of Persian translation of Mahabharata

• Maktab Khana (translation bureau) was established at Fatehpur Sikri for

translation

Jahangir (Salim)

• Continued military campaigns that were started by Akbar.

• Amar Singh, Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, accepted Mughal service.

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• But campaigns against the Sikhs, the Ahoms and Ahmadnagar were less
successful

• Jahangir married Mehrunnisa in 1611 and she received the title of Nur
Jahan. She was loyal and supportive to Jahangir and in her honour Jahangir
made silver coins which contained his own titles on one side and on the other
side was the inscription “struck in the name of the Queen Begum, Nur Jahan”.

• Prince Khurram, or future Shah Jahan, rebelled in the last years of his reign.

Shah Jahan

• He launched campaigns against Ahmadnagar and in 1632, Ahmadnagar was

seized and the Bijapur forces sued for peace.

• In 1657-1658, there was dispute over succession amongst Shah Jahan’s

sons and Aurangzeb was victorious amongst them and his three
brothers, including Dara Shukoh, were killed.

• For the rest of his life, Shah Jahan was imprisoned in Agra.

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

• Ahoms in the north-east were defeated in 1663 but they rebelled again in 1680s.

• Mughals intervened in the succession and internal politics of the Rathor

Rajputs of Marwar, which led to their rebellion.

• He faced rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the
north-east of the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas

• Shivaji was insulted by Aurangzeb and then Shivaji escaped from Agra and
declared himself an independent king and restarted his campaigns against the
Mughals.

• Aurangzeb faced rebel by Prince Akbar who received support from the
Marathas and Deccan Sultanate and finally Prince Akbar fled to Safavid Iran.

• After the rebel of Akbar, Aurangzeb sent armies against the Deccan Sultanates
and he conquered Bijapur in 1685 and Golcunda in 1687

• When Marathas started guerrilla warfare, then Aurangzeb himself managed

campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathas from 1698

• After his death, dispute for succession started amongst his sons

Mughals relations with other rulers

• Many other rulers joined Mughals voluntarily when Mughals became

powerful. For Example - Rajputs who also married their daughter into
Mughals and in return received high positions. Some of the examples are-

• The mother of Jahangir was a Kachhwaha princess, daughter of

Rajput ruler of Amber (Now Jaipur).

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• The mother of Shah Jahan was a s Rathor princess, daughter of

the Rajput ruler of Marwar (Jodhpur).

• But there were many rulers who refused to join Mughals like Sisodiya Rajputs
of Mewa. They refused to accept Mughal authority for a long time. But even
on defeating them, Mughals honourably treated them and gave their
lands (watan) back as assignments (watan jagir).

• This balance between defeating but not humiliating the opponents made
the Mughals to increase their influence over many kings and chieftains

• But all Mughals were not same like Aurangzeb who insulted Shivaji when he
came to accept Mughal authority

Mansabdars and Jagirdars

• Mansabdars - Those who joined Mughal services. Mansabdar means a

person who hold a position/rank

• Mansabdari was a grading system to fix -

(1) rank

(2) salary

(3) military responsibilities

• Zat, a numerical value determined the Rank and salary of a person

• Higher the zat, more prestigious was the position in court and larger the
salary.

• Military responsibiltities of Mansabdar- to maintain a specified number of sawar

or cavalrymen

• Salaries of Mansabdars - as revenue assignments called jagirs (like

iqtas). But Mansabdars differ from muqtis as they did not actually
reside in their jagirs and only their servants collected the revenue of
their assignments

• These jagirs were carefully assessed during Akbar’s reign, so that their revenues
became equal to the salary of the mansadar

• But During Aurangzeb’s rule, the actual revenue collected was often less than
the granted sum due to increased number of mansabdars which led to shortage
of jagirs

Zabt and Zamindars

• Main source of income of Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the
peasantry

• Taxes were paid by peasants through rural elites like headman or local chieftain

• Zamindars were all the intermediaries like local headmen of villages or

powerful chieftains.

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• Todar Mal (Akbar’s revenue minister) did a survey of crop yields, prices and
areas cultivated between 1570-1580, i.e. of ten-year period.

• Tax was fixed on each crop in cash based only on this data

• Each province was divided into revenue circles and had different revenue
rates for individual crops and this revenue system was known as zabt.

• This system was common in those areas where survey the land could be done
by Mughal administrators but not possible in provinces like Gujarat and
Bengal.

• Sometimes Zamindars exploited the peasants which led to their rebel and
sometimes the same caste zamindars and peasants unite and rebelling against
Mughals.

• The stability of the Mughal Empire was disturbed by these peasant revolts from
the end of the seventeenth century.

Mughal empire in seventeenth century and after

• Mughal Empire seen great economic and commercial prosperity due to their
administrative and military efficiency and International travellers
described it fabled land of wealth

• But the same visitors were shocked to see the state of poverty and the
inequalities

• As it was seen in 20th year of Shah Jahan’s rule where the highest ranking
mansabdars were less (only 445) out of total (8,000) which led to only 5.6%
of total mansabdars who received 61.5% of total estimated revenue of empire
as salaries for themselves which made them too wealthy

• When the authority of the Mughal emperor started declining, their

servants made powerful centres of power in the regions.

• They constituted new dynasties and controlled provinces like Hyderabad

and Awadh but they still continued to recognise the Mughal emperor in Delhi
as their master till 18th century

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Architecture
Mughal Architecture
Architecture became more complex under Mughals as they personally had interest
in Arts, Literature and Architecture
Gardens, Tombs and Forts
• Babur laid out plan of formal gardens which were placed within
rectangular walled enclosures and garden was divided into four quarters
by artificial channels.
• These Gardens were known as Chahar Bagh (4 gardens with symmetrical
division into quarters) They were started during Akbar’s rule and later built by
Shah Jahan & Jahangir in Kashmir, Agra and Delhi).
• Some of the Mughal chahar bagh sites-
❖ In Humayun tomb, Delhi
❖ Terraced chahar bagh at Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir,
❖ Chahar Bagh adapted as a river front garden at Lal Mahal Bari .
• Akbar's architects drew their inspiration from the tomb of his Central Asian
ancestor, Timur.
• Humayun Tomb: -
❖ It has Central towering dome & tall gateway (pishtaq)
❖ It was placed in centre of chahar bagh.
❖ It was built in tradition of “eight paradises” or hasht bihisht. In this the
central hall is surrounded by eight rooms.
❖ Red sandstone edged with white marble were used in constructing it.
• Shah Jahan:
❖ In his reign different Mughal architectural elements were fused
❖ Majority of the construction was done in Delhi & Agra,
❖ Planning of Ceremonial halls for public and private audience (diwan-i
khas or am) which were placed within a large courtyard. These courts were known
as Chihil Sutun or 40-pillared halls.
❖ Audience hall was built to resemble a mosque. Its aim was to tell that
king’s justice would treat high & low as equals where all could live together in
harmony.
❖ Pedestal where his throne was placed was called qibla, which is a
Muslim’s prayer direction
❖ These architectural features suggested that the king was the representative of
God on earth.
❖ Red Fort in Delhi was Shah Jahan’s court
❖ Behind the emperor's throne was a series of inlay work of Pitra-dura (It is a
Style of decoration of buildings), depicting the mythical Greek god Orpheus
playing the lute.
❖ Initially Shah Jahan’s capital was at Agra where nobles constructed their
homes on the banks of the Yamuna and they were set in the middle of
gardens, which were constructed in the format of chahar bagh.
❖ Variation of chahar bagh was river front garden. In this abode was located
at edge of the garden, close to bank of river and not in the middle of the
bagh
❖ River front garden adopted in Taj Mahal to control the access of river. Taj
Mahal was completed in 1643.

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❖ He constructed the new city of Shahjahanabad in Delhi where Imperial

palace was situated on the river front.
❖ Only specially favoured nobles, like his eldest son Dara Shukoh, were given
access to the river and rest had to construct their homes in the city away
from Yamuna.
Region and Empire
• With the increase of construction, ideas were shared across the region and one
region’s traditions were adopted by another. Example –
❖ In Vijayanagara-elephant stables of rulers were influenced by
architecture of Bijapur and Golcunda Sultanates.
❖ In Vrindavan, near Mathura, styles of temples were similar to
Fatehpur Sikri’s Mughal palaces
❖ Govind deva temple in Vrindavan used architecture which was from NE
Iran (Khurasan). In this form of architecture two (out of four) intersecting
arches made high ceiling roof and this was used in Fatehpur Sikri. It is made
up of red sandstone.
• Cross-fertilisation of artistic forms and architectural styles was happened
due to the creation of large empires as they brought different regions
under one rule. For example –
❖ Bengal – local rulers developed roof that resembled a thatched hut. Mughals
used this Bangla Dome in their architecture.
❖ At Fatehpur Sikri, capital of Akbar, influence of architecture of Gujarat and
Malwa can be seen

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Social Change
In medieval times, there were different types of towns such
as temple town, an administrative centre, a commercial
town
Example of Administrative centre - Thanjavur
• It was the capital of Cholas and it was near the Kaveri
River
• There were Palaces with mandapas or pavilions. King hold
their court here and issue orders to their subordinates
• There is Rajarajeshvara temple which was built by King
Rajaraja Chola. Architect of the temple was
Kunjaramallan Rajaraja Perunthachchan, he carved his
name on temple wall. The temple had Massive Shiva linga
inside
• Barracks for army were made there
• Water supply for the town came from wells and tanks
• Saliya weavers of Thanjavur and Uraiyur made
I. Cloth for flags which were used in temples
II. Fine cotton for king and nobles
III. Coarse cotton for common people
• A little far away from Thanjavur was Svamimalai where
exquisite bronze idols and tall, ornamental bell metal
lamps were made by sthapatis or sculptors
(Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Bell metal contains
greater proportion of tin than other kinds of bronze. This

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produces a bell-like sound. The “lost wax” technique was

used in Chola bronze statues)
Temple Towns
• Thanjavur is an example of a temple town which
emerged around temples
• A very important pattern of urbanisation, which was the
process of city development, was represented by Temple
towns
• Temple towns were centre of economic activity
• Temples were built by Rulers to show their devotion to
God. Rulers provided temples with grants of land & money
to carry rituals
• Pilgrims also made huge donations
• This wealth was used by Temple authorities for Finance,
trade & banking
• Temple towns grew because a large number of priests,
workers, artisans, traders, etc. settled near the temple to
cater to its needs and those of the pilgrims
• Examples of temple towns – Thanjavur, Bhillasvamin
(Bhilsa or Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh), Somnath in
Gujarat. Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu, Madurai in Tamil
Nadu, Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
• Some pilgrimage centres developed into tonwships such
as
Varanasi (UP),
Tiruvannamalai (Tamil Nadu),
Ajmer (Rajasthan)
• Temple Town – Ajmer

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❖ In 12th century, it was the capital of the Chauhan

kings and it became the suba headquarters under
the Mughals.
❖ It shows the example of religious coexistence as
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti settled here in 12th
century and there is Pushkar lake near Ajmer which
attracted many pilgrims
Small towns
• From 8th century, many small towns were emerged from
large villages
• They had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) which was
used to sell produce.
• They had hatta (haat) which were market streets lined
with shops.
• Samanta(zamindar) built a fortified palace near such
towns to levy taxes on traders, artisans and articles of
trade
• Sometimes these rights to collect taxes were donated to
local temples by Samanta and these “rights” were
recorded in inscriptions
Traders
• There were many types of traders
• Horse traders –
❖ They formed associations with headmen
❖ While selling horses to warriors these headmen
negotiated on the behalf of horse traders
❖ Traders travelled in caravans

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❖ To protect their interests, they formed guilds. There

were many guilds in South India but the most famous
ones were - Manigramam and Nanadesi.
❖ These guilds traded within the peninsula and with
Southeast Asia and China
• Principal trading groups –
❖ Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal
❖ Gujarati traders-Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras -
They traded on the ports of the Red Sea, in Persian
Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China
❖ Indians sold textiles and spices on these ports and in
exchange, brought
▪ gold and ivory from Africa
▪ spices, tin, Chinese blue pottery and silver
from Southeast Asia and China.
(Spices grown in tropical climates became an important part
of European cooking which drew European traders to India
Kabul and Qandahar were linked to Silk Route and used for
trading Horses)
Crafts
• Craftspersons of Bidar were known for their inlay work in
copper and silver and there were so good in their work
that this artform was named after them and known as
Bidri.
• Panchalas or Vishwakarma community which consist of
goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and
carpenters. They were essential for building temples,

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construction of palaces, big buildings, tanks and

reservoirs.
• Weavers community like Saliyar or Kaikkolars became a
prosperous community
Hampi
• It is located in Krishna-Tungabhadra basin.
• It was the nucleus of the Vijayanagara Empire which was
founded in 1336.
• It was a well-fortified city.
• In walls, no mortar or cementing agent was used here but
the Technique was used which was to wedge them
together by interlocking.
• Temples in Hampi were hub of cultural activities
❖ Devadasis, temple dancers, performed before the
deity, royalty and masses in Virupaksha temple
❖ Mahanavami festival (now known as Navaratri in
South) was one of the most important festivals which
was celebrated at Hampi.
❖ Mahanavami platform –From here King used to
receive guests, accept tribute from subordinate
chiefs, watch dance and music performances as well
as wrestling bouts.
Surat
• Surat along with Cambay (present day Khambat) was the
emporium of western trade during the Mughal period
• It was the gateway for trade with West Asia via the Gulf
of Ormuz.

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• It was also called the gate to Mecca

• This city was cosmopolitan as people from all castes and
creeds lived here
• This city had factories and warehouses of Portuguese,
Dutch and English
• Ovington, an English chronicler, wrote in 1689 that at any
given time, an average of hundred ships of different
countries were found anchored here.
• Textiles of Surat - famous for gold lace borders (called
zari) and this had a market in West Asia, Africa and Europe.
• Banking house at Surat were of The Kathiawad seths or
mahajans (moneychangers)
• Surat hundis (it is a note recording a deposit made by a
person) were known in Cairo in Egypt, Basra in Iraq and
Antwerp in Belgium.
• Decline of Surat- In seventeenth century.
o Decline of Mughal empire leads to loss of markets
and productivity
o Portuguese controlled the sea routes
o Competition from Bombay where English East India
Company shifted its headquarters in 1668.
Masulipatnam
• It lies on the delta of the Krishna river in seventeenth
century
• As it became most important port on the Andhra coast so
both the Dutch and the English East India Company tried to
control it

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• Dutch built the fort here

• The governor of Mughals, Mir Jumla, who was also a
merchant, made the Dutch and the English fight against
each other.
• In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb conquered
Golconda.
• Decline of Masulipatnam - in the eighteenth century as
European Companies found other alternatives in Bombay,
Calcutta and Madras
New Towns and Traders
• In 16th and 17th century, European countries were
searching for spices and textiles due to the popularity in
Europe and West Asia.
• To expand commercial activities in east, the English,
Dutch and French formed East India Companies
• Initially Indian traders like Mulla Abdul Ghafur and Virji
Vora competed with them but naval power of European
Companies gave them upper hand and finally English
became most successful commercial and political power in
the subcontinent
• Independence of craft persons were declined in this
period. They only had to produce what were told by the
Company agents
• Bombay, Madras & Calcutta rise in 18th century which are
today nodal cities.
• In 18th century, merchants and artisans moved into Black
Towns which were established by European companies
within the new cities

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STUDY NOTES – TRIBES, NOMADS AND SETTLED COMMUNITIES

The social, political and economic developments were taking place over the centuries. Social change was
the change that was developing at different pace in different areas and societies. In the Indian
subcontinent the society was already divided into five varnas.

Tribal Societies
• Tribes are the societies which neither follows the social rules and rituals set by Brahamanas
nor they were alienated into separate unequal classes.
• Some tribes were engaged in agriculture while some were engaged in hunting-gathering or
herding.
• Some of the tribes were nomadic as well, that is, they moved from one place to another. A tribal
group controlled land and pastures and divided these among different households as per the
rules set by them.
• Tribes usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places which were not easily accessible.
• Sometimes, tribes clashed with powerful class based societies. Tribes also retained their
freedom and culture.

Tribal People
• The information about tribal people which was given by contemporary historians and travelers
is very scarce.
• Tribal people did not keep written records but they preserve customs and these were usually
passed down from one generation to another orally.
• Contemporary historians have started using these oral traditions to write histories of tribes.
• Tribal people were found in every corner of the subcontinent and some powerful tribes
controlled large territories.
• In Punjab, the Khokhar tribe was very powerful in 13th and 14th centuries. In later centuries,
Gakkhars became more important. The chief of this tribe, Kamal Khan Gakkhar, was made a
mansabdar by Emperor Akbar.
• The Langahs and Arghuns dominated Multan and Sind regions before they were subdued by the
Mughals.
• In the north-western region, the Balochis were large and powerful tribe. They were divided into
many smaller clans (small families which have common ancestor).
• The Gaddis were the shepherd tribes of the Himalaya while the Nagas and Ahoms dominates
the north-eastern part of the subcontinent.
• In the twelfth century, Chero chiefdoms emerged in the Bihar and Jharkhand regions. But Raja
Man Singh (Akbar’s general) defeated Cheros in 1591. A large amount of booty was taken from
them and under Aurangzeb rule, Mughal forces captured numerous Chero fortresses and
conquered the tribe.

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• The Mundas and Santhals were also important tribes found in Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and
Bengal.
• Kolis and Berads tribes inhabited Maharashtra region and Kolis occupied Gujarat region as
well.
• Koragas, Vetars and Maravars were found in southern region.
• Bhils have spread across western and central India. By the 16th century, they were involved in
agriculture and some became zamindars. While some of them remained hunter-gatherers.
• The Gonds inhabited regions such as Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra.

Nomads and Mobile People

• Nomadic pastoralists are the people who move from one place to another over long distances.
• They survive on milk and other pastoral products and they exchange ghee, milk, wool etc. with
settle agriculturists on their way for utensils, cloth etc.
• The most important trader-nomads were Banjaras and their caravan called tanda. This tribe
was used by Alauddin Khilji for transporting grains to the city markets.
• Even Jahangir has written about Banjaras in his memoirs and mentioned that they used to
transport food grains for the Mughal army during military campaigns.
• Many of the tribes used to rear and sell the animals such as horses, cattle etc.
• The petty pedlars of different castes used to travel from village to village and sold wares like
ropes, straw matting, straw etc.
• There were also castes of entertainers who used to give performances to earn their livelihood.

New castes and Hierarchies

• As the society grew, demand for new skills was emerged.
• The new class among Brahamanas was recognized while many tribes were included in the caste-
based society and given the status of jatis. It includes smiths, carpenters, masons etc.
• Even among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans emerged such as Hunas, Chandelas and
Chalukyas etc.
• With the help of Brahamanas, many tribes became part of the caste system but only foremost
tribal families can be included in ruling class.
• Many of the important tribes of Sind, Punjab and the north-west frontier adopted Islam and
rejected caste system.

The Gonds
• The Gonds lived in an area known as Gondwana (country inhabited by Gonds). It was a large
tribe which was divided into smaller clans. Each clan has its own Raja. They practiced shifting
cultivation.

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• The Akbarnama mentioned about the Gond Kingdom of Garha Katanga that included 70,000
villages.
• The kingdom was divided into garhs and each garh was controlled by Gond clan. This was
further divided into 84 villages known as Chaurasi, which were subdivided into Barhots (group
of 12 villages).
• The Gond chiefs wished to be recognized as Rajputs. Hence, Aman Das, the Raja of Garha
Katanga, assumed the title of Sangram Shah.
• In 1565, the Mughals attacked the Garha Katanga under Asaf Khan but strong resistance was
shown by Rani Durgawati. She was wife of Dalpat (son of Sangram Shah) and mother of Bir
Narain. Later, she was defeated and died.
• When Mughal defeated the Gonds, they capture booty of precious coins and elephants. They
conquered part of the kingdom and granted the rest part to the Chandra Shah who was uncle of
Bir Narain.
• Gradually, Gonds become weaker and struggle unsuccessfully with Bundelas and Marathas.

The Ahoms
• The Ahoms are the tribes who migrated from Myanmar to Brahmaputra valley in the 13th
century.
• In 16th century, they conquered kingdoms of the Chhutiyas (1523) and Koch-Hajo (1581) and
many other tribes.
• The Ahoms used firearms, high quality gun-powder and cannons.
• Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked Ahom kingdom in 1622 and defeated them.
• The Ahoms used to depend on forced labour which was called paiks. These paiks were sent by
villages on rotation basis.
• Ahoms introduced new methods of rice cultivation and they were also engaged in irrigation
system, public works and building dams.
• Ahom society was divided into clans or khels. A khel controlled many villages.
• Village community gave land to the peasants and even king could not take away this land
without taking community’s permission.
• Originally, the Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods but in the reign of Sib Singh, Hinduism
became the main religion.
• In Ahom society, poets and scholars used to be given land grants. During this period, Sanskrit
works were translated into local languages. Famous work such as Buranjis, were also written
originally in Ahom language and then in Assamese.

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STUDY NOTES – DEVOTIONAL PATHS

• Before the emergence of the large kingdoms, different people worshipped different gods and
goddesses. Slowly and gradually, people also understood that living things pass through vicious
circle of birth and rebirth.
• Many people believed in the teachings of Buddhism or Jainism which states that cycle of birth
and rebirth can be overcome through personal efforts while others believed in the idea of
Supreme God who can relieve people from all bondages.
• Durga, Shiva and Vishnu were considered as supreme deities. Local myths and legends became
part of the puranic stories.
• The Puranas stated that devotes can receive the grace of God without discriminating them on
the basis of caste.

Nayanars and Alvars

• The Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) are the new
religious movements that emerged in the seventh to ninth centuries. They include even the
untouchables like Panars and Pulaiyar.
• They preached the values of Bhakti and drew ideas of love and heroism from Sangam literature
(the earliest Tamil literature).
• They used to compose poems in praise of the deities while wandering from one place to
another.
• Between 10th and 12th centuries, the kings of Chola and Pandya Empire built highly structured
temples which strengthen the links between temple worship and bhakti tradition. In this period
only, hagiographies (writing about saints’ lives) were also written.

Philosophy and the Bhakti

• Shankara was the most significant philosopher of India. He was born in Kerala and an advocate
of Advaita (oneness of individual soul and Supreme God).
• He preached that Brahman was formless and without any attributes and considered the world
as maya (illusion). He also taught that renunciation of the world and knowledge should be
adopted in order to understand the nature of Brahman and attain salvation.
• The other influential philosopher was Ramanuja, who was born in Tamil Nadu in 11th century.
He was influenced by the Alvars and promoted the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita. He preached
that the only means to attain salvation was intense devotion to Vishnu.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

• Basavanna with his associates like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi started the Virashaiva
movement in Karnataka in mid-twelfth century.
• They were against the idol worship and any rituals. Moreover, they argued for the equality of
all human beings.

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The Saints of Maharashtra

• The period between thirteenth and seventeenth centuries saw many saint poets in
Maharashtra who inspired people by singing songs in Marathi language.
• The most significant were Jnaneshwar, Eknath, Tukaram and Namdev. It also includes women
such as Sakhubai and family of Chokhamela. They used to worship Vitthala (form of Vishnu).
• These saint-poets rejected the idea of renunciation and all forms of ritualism. They prefer to live
with their families and earn their livelihood like any other human being does.
• They also emerged a new idea of sharing of pain of others which was a part of Bhakti.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis advocated renunciation of the world and salvation can be
attained by meditating on the formless Ultimate Reality and unity of oneness with it.
• They believed that to attain salvation, one must practice yoga, exercises and meditation to
train mind and body.

Islam and Sufism

• The Sufis were the Muslim followers who laid emphasis on love and devotion to God and
kindness towards other people. They rejected ritualism.
• Islam promoted monotheism strictly. The theology of Islam was developed in 8th and 9th
centuries.
• Like other saint poets, even Sufis composed and sang poems to express their feelings. They also
wrote anecdotes and fables.
• Some of the famous Sufi saints are Ghazzali of Central Asia, Rumi and Sadi.
• Under the leadership of master, Sufis developed methods of training by using sama, discussion
of parables, zikr (chanting of name), contemplation etc.
• Rishi order of Sufism developed in Kashmir and it was established by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali.
• With the establishment of Delhi Sultanate, the settlement of the Sufis from Central Asia also
strengthened and it led to the development of the Sufi centers.
• The most significant order was Chishti Silsila which includes teachers such as Khwaja Moinuddin
Chishti of Ajmer, Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya and Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki of Delhi, Baba Farid
of Punjab and Bandanawaj Gisudaraz of Gulbarga.
• Hospices were the resting place for devotees, and it is the place where Sufi Saints held their
assemblies. Discussions also took place regarding spiritual matters and dance and music sessions
also conducted.
• The tomb of Sufi saints became place of pilgrimage where thousands of devotees of all faiths
used to collect.

New Religious Developments in North India

• The period after 13th century saw some religious developments in North India.

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• Some prominent saints were Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak who rejected all the orthodox
religions while Tulsidas and Surdas believed in existing practices but want to make them
accessible to all.
• Tulsidas was a devotee of Rama and composed Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi language. It was
considered both as literary and devotional work.
• Surdas was a devotee of Krishna and his compositions include Sursagara, Sahitya Lahari and
Surasaravali.
• Shankaradeva, devotee of Vishnu, composed plays and poems in Assamese language. He
started the tradition of setting up house of prayers and this practice is still continued.
• Other saints were Mirabai, Dadu Dayal and Ravidas. Mirabai was a Rajput princess and was
married in the Mewar family. She was a disciple of Ravidas, a saint who was considered as
untouchable. She was devotee of Krishna and composed bhajans which were popular in
Rajasthan and Gujarat.
• All the works of the saints were composed in regional languages and passed down orally from
one generation to another.

Know about Kabir

• Kabir was one of the influential saints of the 15th-16th century.

• He was brought up in a Muslim family who lived near Benaras.
• One can known about the Kabir from verses which are commonly known as sakhis. Kabir used to
compose pads which were sung by bhajan singers. Many of his bhajans are conserved in Guru
Granth Sahib, Bijak and Panch Vani.
• Kabir believed in formless Supreme God and preached that one can attain salvation by bhakti
or devotion.

Know about Guru Nanak

• Baba Guru Nanak was born in Talwandi (Nankana Sahib in Pakistan) and established a center
at Kartarpur.
• The followers of Guru Nanak used to eat together (langar) in the common kitchen. The sacred
place for followers where they used to pray and sing hymns came to be known as dharmsala or
Gurudwara.
• Baba Guru Nanak died in 1539. He appointed his successor whose name was Lehna, came to
be known as Guru Angad.
• Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak in his own script known as
Gurmukhi.
• Guru Angad had three successors and they also wrote under the name of ‘Nanak’. Their
compositions were compiled by Guru Arjan in 1604.
• To these compilations, some Gurus like Shaikh Farid, Bhagat Namdev and Guru Tegh Bahadur
added their writings and in 1706, this compilation was authenticated by Guru Gobind Singh (son
of Guru Tegh Bahadur).

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• This book of compilations now came to be known as Guru Granth Sahib, the sacred book of
Sikhs.
• The number of followers of Baba Guru Nanak increased and they belong to different caste,
creed and consists of artisans, traders and agriculturists.
• As the time passed, the Mughal emperor Jahangir looked Sikhs as potential threat and ordered
to execute Guru Arjan in 1606. This initiated the Sikh movement which finally ended up with
the establishment of Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699.
• Baba Guru Nanak used the terms nam, dan and isnan in his teachings which means right
worship, welfare of others and purity of conduct. His teaching are now known by the names
nam-japna, kirt-karna and vand-chhakna.

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STUDY NOTES – REGIONAL CULTURE

The term regional culture itself defines its meaning that it is the culture which is prevalent in a particular
region.

The Chera and the Development of Malayalam

• The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in ninth century in the present-day
Kerala and it is a possibility that Malayalam was the language that was spoken in this area.
• Malayalam is considered as the earliest known regional language.
• At the same time, the Sanskrit language was also prominent as the temple theatre of Kerala
borrowed stories from Sanskrit epics.
• The famous text of 14th century Lilatilakam which was composed in Manipravalam referred two
languages: Sanskrit and the regional language.

Rulers and Religious Traditions of the Jagannatha Cult

• In many regions, religious traditions were the center point of regional cultures. The cult of
Jagannatha at Puri depicts that regional culture revolves around religious traditions.
• Till this time, people of Jagannatha make wooden statue of deity to whom they earlier regarded
as local god. But this god was later associated with Vishnu.
• Anantavarman, the ruler of Ganga dynasty, decided to build a temple for Purushottam
Jagannatha at Puri.
• In 1230, king Anangabhima III announced himself as the ‘deputy’ of the God.
• All the empires who have attacked Orissa, such as Marathas, Mughals, tried to establish control
over this temple.

The Rajput’s and Traditions of Heroism

• In the 19th century, the major part of the present-day Rajasthan was known as Rajputana. There
were many different groups who identify themselves as Rajput’s and inhabited northern and
central India.
• From the 8th century onwards, various Rajput families ruled Rajasthan. One such Rajput ruler
was Prithviraj.
• Women found following their husbands in the case of both life and death. Practice of sati was
prevalent.

The Story of Kathak

• The word Kathak is derived from the Sanskrit word Katha which means story. From 15th
century, Kathak is a famous dance of north India.

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• Originally, Kathaks were story tellers in the temples of north India who used to give
performances with gestures.
• Under the Mughals, this dance was performed in the courts and gradually it became a dance
form with unique style.
• It developed into two gharanas: one in Rajasthan and other in Lucknow.
• Kathak grew into a major art form in the reign of Wajid Ali Shah who was the last nawab of
Awadh.
• British administrators used to criticize Kathak, but it survived, and courtesans continued to
perform it. After independence, this dance form was recognized as one of the six classical
forms of dance in India.

Miniature Painting for Patrons

• Apart from dance, the tradition of miniature painting was developed. Miniature paintings are
small sized paintings which are done on cloth or paper using water colours.
• The earliest miniature paintings were done on palm leaves.
• Miniature paintings found in western India illustrated Jaina texts.
• Even the Mughal emperors such as Akbar, Shah Jahan and Jahangir hired painters who
illustrated their manuscripts using brilliant colours. They used to depict court scenes, battle
scenes and social life.
• Another region where miniature paintings were of value are Himalayan foothills (around
Himachal Pradesh).
• In the late 17th century, a bold and intense style of miniature painting was developed which was
known by the name Basohli.
• Bhanudatta’s Rasamanjari was the important text that was painted in this region.
• The invasion of Nadir Shah and conquest of Delhi in 1739 led the painters to move to hilly areas.
There they developed the Kangra School of Painting.
• Inspired from Vaishnavite traditions, the Kangra artists given a new dimension to the miniature
paintings.

Bengal – Regional language

• People of the Bengal spoke Bengali. Bengali was recognized as a language which was derived
from Sanskrit.
• From third century, there was a close bond between Magadha and Bengal which have led to
growth of Sanskrit.
• In the 7th century, when Xuan Zang came to India, he observed that many languages that were
used in Bengal were related to Sanskrit.
• From 8th century, Palas made Bengal the center of regional kingdom.
• In 1586, Bengal was conquered by Akbar and it formed Bengal Suba. The regional language was
Bengali while administration language was Persian.

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• Early Bengali literature was divided into two categories: one indebted to Sanskrit (translation of
Sanskrit epics and bhakti literature) and other was independent of this language (Nath
literature, fairy tales, folk tales etc.). The first category texts can be dates easily while the second
category was not precisely dated and they were circulated orally.

Pirs and Temples

• From 16th century onwards, people began to move from less fertile areas of western Bengal to
forested areas of the southeast Bengal.
• While towards eastern side, they cultivated rice after clearing the land.
• Mughal control was established over Bengal and they made Dhaka as their capital.
• Officials used to receive land and set up mosques which were considered as the religious
transformation center.
• As the people were trying to settle, there were some community leaders who assured some
order in the unstable conditions. The people used to give respect to the leaders and treated
them with affection just like pirs (spiritual guide).
• The cult of pirs became popular in Bengal and they include religious personalities, defied
soldiers, daring colonizers and animistic spirits (attributing living soul to plants, natural
phenomena etc.).
• Bengal had seen the construction of temples by either individuals or groups. They construct
temples to show their power and proclaim their goodness.
• The brick and terracotta temples were built with the help of low class people such as Kolu and
Kansari.
• Earlier local deities were worshipped in thatched huts but later these were recognized as
Brahamanas and were shifted to temples.
• Temples were double roofed or four roofed and were made on square platform. The interiors of
the temple used to be plain but outer walls were decorated with paintings and terracotta
tablets.

Fish as Food

• Bengal has an abundant production of rice and produces plenty of fish as well.
• Fish has been mentioned in Bengali literature and fishing is an important occupation of Bengalis.
• Brahamanas were not allowed to eat non-vegetarian food but there is some relaxation of Bengal
Brahmanas as the fish was popular in local diet.
• The permission to eat fish to Bengal Brahmanas was given by a 13th century Sanskrit text,
Brihaddharma.

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STUDY NOTES – POLITICAL FORMATION IN 18TH CENTURY

• In the first half of the eighteenth century, the boundaries of the Mughal Empire were reshaped
with the emergence of the numerous independent kingdoms.
• By 1765, the British had successfully grabbed the major territories in eastern India.

Later Mughals

• Towards the end of the seventeenth century, the Mughals have started facing a variety of crises.
• There were many factors that contributed towards this crisis. Aurangzeb has exhausted the
financial and military resources of the empire as he was engaged in long war in the Deccan.
• And under the successors of the Aurangzeb, the efficiency of the imperial administration
weakened.
• Moreover, it became difficult for the emperors to monitor the powerful mansabdars.
• The offices of revenue (diwani) and military administration (faujdari) were controlled by Nawabs
who were appointed as governors.
• As the governors set their control over the provinces, the periodic remission of revenue of the
capital declined.
• The rebellions which were taking in many parts of northern and western India fuelled the crisis.
• At other times, powerful chieftains tried to consolidate their own positions.
• The Mughal rulers after Aurangzeb were unable to control the gradual shifting of economic and
political power into the hands of local chieftains, provincial governors and other groups.
• As the position of Mughal was weakening, Nadir Shah, the ruler of Iran sacked and plundered
the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away enormous amount of wealth from India. This invasion
was followed by raids of Afghan ruler, Ahmad Shah Abdali, who invaded north India five times in
the years between 1748 and 1761.
• The empire got further weakened by competition amongst group of nobles. They were divided
into two groups: Iranis and Turanis. The worst happened when two Mughal emperors, Farrukh
Siyar and Alamgir II were assassinated, and two others Ahmad Shah and Shah Alam II were
blinded by their nobles.

Emergence of new states

• As the authority of the Mughal emperors declined, the big zamindars and subadars consolidated
their authority in different parts of the subcontinent.
• The states of the 18th century divided into three groups which were overlapping each other:
states that were old Mughal provinces like Bengal, Hyderabad and Awadh, states that includes
Rajput principalities and watan jagirs who enjoyed considerably under Mughals and the last
group was under the control of Sikhs, Jats and Marathas.

The Old Mughal Provinces

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• All the three states of the Old Mughal Provinces were founded by high Mughal nobility who had
been governor of large provinces and had occupied high mansabdari positions – Saadat Khan
(Awadh), Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal) and Asaf Jah (Hyderabad). Both the Murshid Quli Khan and
Asaf Jah held a zat rank of 7,000 while Saadat Khan zat rank was 6,000.
• Hyderabad
✓ The founder of Hyderabad was Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah. He was the powerful member
in the court of Mughal Emperor Farukh Siyar.
✓ He was first made the governor of Awadh and later made the in charge of Deccan.
✓ As he hold the position of Mughal Governor, he already had controlled political and
financial administration but taking advantage of some disorder in the Deccan and the
competition amongst the court nobility, he took power in his hands and became
governor.
✓ Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from Northern India, appointed
mansabdars and granted jagirs.
✓ Although he was working under the Mughal Empire but he does not seek any direction
from the emperor.
✓ The Hyderabad was constantly engaged in the struggle against the Marathas towards
west and Telugu warrior chiefs of the plateau.
✓ But the hope of Asaf Jah to control the textile producing areas of the Coromondal Coast
was checked by the British who were becoming increasingly powerful in the region.
• Awadh
✓ In 1722, Burhan-ul-Mulk Saadat Khan was appointed as the Subadar of Awadh. He
founded the state that emerged after the break-up of the Mughal Empire.
✓ Awadh was region with rich alluvial Ganga plain and was the main trade route between
north India and Bengal.
✓ Saadat Khan was responsible for financial (diwani), military (faujdari) and political
(subadari) affairs of the province of Awadh.
✓ Saadat Khan tried to decrease the influence of the Mughal Empire by reducing the
number of jagirdars appointed by the Mughals. He also reduced the size of the jagirs
and appointed his own loyal servants.
✓ The accounts of jagirdars were assessed and the revenues of all districts were
reassessed by officials appointed by the Nawab’s Court to prevent cheating.
✓ Number of Rajput zamindars and agriculturally fertile lands of Afghans of Rohilkhand
were seized.
✓ The state was dependent on mahajans and local bankers for the loans. The right to
collect tax was sold to the highest bidders.
✓ The ‘revenue farmers ‘(ijaradars) agreed to pay fixed amount of money to state. Local
bankers guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to the state.
✓ In turn, the revenue officers were given the freedom in the assessment and collection
of taxes. This helped money lenders and bankers to influence the state’s revenue
system’s management.

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• Bengal
✓ Under Murshid Quli Khan, the Bengal broke away from the Mughal control.
✓ Murshid Quli Khan was appointed as the naib, deputy to the governor of that province.
✓ He commanded the revenue administration of the state like rulers of Hyderabad and
Awadh.
✓ In order to reduce the influence of the Mughal empire in Bengal he transferred the
Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered the major reassessment of the revenues of
Bengal.
✓ Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all the zamindars. As a result,
zamindars had to borrow money from bankers and moneylenders. Those who were
unable to pay were forced to sell their lands to larger zamindars.
✓ Under the rule of Alivardi Khan, the connection was seen between the state and
bankers. During his reign, the banking house of the Jagat Seth became extremely
prosperous.
• Three common features were found to be common amongst three states. These were:
✓ Many of the larger states were established by Mughal nobles but they were suspicious
because of some administrative systems that they had inherited.
✓ Their tax collection method was different. Instead of relying on the officers of the state,
all three states had contracted with revenue farmers for the revenue collection. The
practice of ijaradari was spread all over India in the 18th century but it was rejected by
the Mughals.
✓ The emerging relationship between merchants and bankers in the new political order.
These people lent money to revenue farmers, took land as security and collected taxes
from these lands through their own agents.

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The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs

• Some of the Rajput Kings such as those who belong to Amber and Jodhpur have ruled under the
Mughals and in turn they were given freedom to enjoy significant autonomy in their watan
jagirs.
• Ajit Singh, the ruler of Jodhpur, was involved in the factional politics at the Mughal Court.
• These Rajput rulers claimed the subadari of the rich provinces such as Gujarat and Malwa.
• Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Raja Jai Singh of Amber held the governorship of Gujarat and
Malwa respectively.
• In 1713, these offices were renewed by the Jahandar Shah.
• These Rajas have tried to extend their territories by annexing or seizing the portions of
neighbouring majestic territories.
• Nagaur was annexed and conquered and added with Jodhpur. On other hand, Bundi was
annexed and added to the Amber.
• Raja Jai Singh was given the subadari of the Agra in 1722 and he also founded his new capital at
Jaipur. He constructed five astronomical laboratories in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura and
Varanasi. These observatories were commonly known as Jantar Mantar.
• From 1740s Marathas organized various campaigns in Rajasthan to put pressure on these
principalities and monitor their expansion.
• Many Rajput rulers accepted the suzerainty of the Mughals but Mewar was the only Rajput
state which did not came under the control of Mughals. In 1572, Rana Pratap ascended the
throne at Mewar and controlled Udaipur and large part of Mewar.

Group under the control of Sikhs, Marathas and Jats

The Sikhs

• As the Sikhs organized themselves into political community during the seventeenth century, it
helped in regional state building of the Punjab.
• Before and after the institution of Khalsa in 1699, the Guru Gobind Singh fought many battles
against Rajput and Mughal rulers. He died in 1708 and after this Khalsa revolted against
Mughals under the leadership of Banda Bahadur. They declared their independent rule by
releasing coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.
• Moreover, they established their own administration between the rivers Sutlej and Jamuna.
• In the year 1715 Banda Bahadur was captured and in 1716, he was executed.
• The Sikhs organized themselves into number of bands called Jathas, which were later known as
misls. The grand army was known as Dal Khalsa. This body was used to meet at Amritsar during
Baisakhi and Diwali to take decisions which were known as “resolutions of the Gurus
(gurmatas).”
• They also introduced the system of rakhi. It offered protection to cultivators on the payment of
a tax of 20 percent of the produce.

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• Sikhs were able to resist against Mughal governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali who seized the
Punjab and the Sarkar of Sirhind from Mughals.
• In 1765, the Khalsa declared their independent rule by striking their own coin.
• The territories of Sikhs were extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they were divided
under different rulers. One of them was Maharaja Ranjit Singh who reunited these groups and
established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas

• The Maratha kingdom was another powerful kingdom that fought against Mughals.
• Shivaji built a stable kingdom with the support of warrior families which includes deshmukhs.
• The backbone of the Maratha army was the groups of highly mobile, peasant pastoralists
(kunbis).
• After the death of Shivaji, family of Chitpavan Brahmanas served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa.
• Poona became the capital of Maratha kingdom.
• Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a very successful military organization. They
bypassed the fortified areas of Mughals by raiding various cities and engaging armies in the
areas where their supply lines could be easily disturbed.
• As the Marathas expanded their empire between 1720 and 1761, they seized Gujarat and
Malwa from the Mughals. By 1730s the Maratha king was recognized as overlord of Deccan
peninsula.
• He possessed right to levy Chauth (25 percent of the land revenue claimed by Marathas) and
Sardeshmukhi (9 to 10 percent of the land revenue paid to the head revenue collector) in the
whole region.
• Marathas raided Delhi in 1737 and then expanded themselves in Rajasthan and the Punjab in
the north, Bengal, and Orissa in the east and Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Telugu countries in the
South.
• Military campaigns by Marathas made other rulers hostile towards Marathas. As a result, they
did not support the Marathas in the third battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Besides these military campaigns, the Marathas were able to develop an effective
administration system. As soon as the conquest gets completed, the Maratha rule was secure
and revenue was demanded according to the local conditions.
• Both agriculture and trade were encouraged and this led various Maratha chief such as Sindhia
of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpur to accumulate resources to raise armies.
• Ujjain and Indore expanded under Sindhia and Holkar respectively.
• New trade routes were developed in the areas that were under the control of Marathas.
• The Silk produced in Chanderi region was now found a new outlet in Poona, which was the
capital of Maratha. Burhanpur included Poona and Nagpur in the south and Lucknow and
Allahabad in the east.

The Jats

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• The Jats consolidated their power during late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
• Under Churaman, they acquired control over territories which were situated to the west of Delhi
and by 1860s they begun dominating the areas between Delhi and Agra.
• For some period they have become the virtual custodians of Agra.
• Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centers in the areas controlled by Jats.
• Under Suraj Mal, the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state. When Nadir Shah sacked
Delhi in 1739, many of city’s notables took refuge and his son Jawahar Shah had 30,000 troops
of his own and hired another 20,000 Marathas and 15,000 Sikh troops to fight the Mughals.
• The fort of Bharatpur was built in traditional style but Jats built a highly structured garden
palace by combining architectural styles that were used in Agra and Amber.

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STUDY NOTES – THE COMPANY ESTABLISHES POWER

• The East Indian Company acquired a charter from the Queen Elizabeth I (ruler of England) in
1600, which granted them the whole and sole right to trade with the east.
• That means the East India Company need to worry about any competition from other English
trading companies. They could freely buy goods at low rates and sell at higher prices.
• Before the English ships could cross the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese have already established
their base in Goa. It was the Portuguese explorer, Vasco-da-Gama, who has explored the sea
route to India in 1498.
• After the Portuguese, Dutch and French traders also explored opportunities to trade in the
Indian Ocean.
• The demand of good quality Indian cotton and silk was very high in Europe. Other demanded
products were cardamom, cinnamon, pepper and cloves.
• Since the products that trading companies wants to deal in were same, it reduced the profits
and even created rivalry among the trading companies. As a result, the companies sank each
other’s ships, blocked ship movement and routes.

East India Company begins trade in Bengal

• In 1651, the English set up its first factory on the bank of river Hugli. This factory had
warehouse where goods were kept for export purpose and offices where company officials sat.
• As the expansion of trade was taking place, company asked its traders and merchants to settle
near the factory only.
• In the year 1696, the company started building a fort that covers the settlement area.
• After two years, the company demanded from the Mughal officers the zamindari rights over
three villages that include even Kalikata (present day Kolkata) and they also influenced
Aurangzeb to issue a farman that will give the right to the company to trade duty free.

Trade leading to battles

• After the death of Aurangzeb, the Nawabs of Bengal strengthened their positions.
• The Nawabs of Bengal such as Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan and Sirajuddaulah refused
company officials to give any concessions.
• They demanded tributes to give the rights to the company to trade and denied to mint the coins
and extend fortifications. They also claimed that the company was undermining their authority
and company is creating huge loss to the Bengal government.
• On the other hand, company said that the unrealistic demands of the local officials and duty
taxes restricting the trade to flourish.
• These conflicts led to the confrontation which finally ended up in the Battle of Plassey.

The Battle of Plassey

• In the year 1756, Alivardi Khan died and Sirajuddaulah became the Nawab of Bengal.

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• But the company wants a puppet ruler who would give them concessions and other liberties, as
a result, they tried to make rival of Sirajuddaulah the Nawab of Bengal.
• As the Sirajuddaulah understood the strategy of the Company, he asked them to pay the
revenues and stop fortifications.
• In 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive, company’s army fought against Sirajuddaulah in
Plassey.
• The Company won the battle and Sirajuddaulah defeated as one of the commanders of the
army, Mir Jafar, never fought the battle. He supported Robert Clive as the latter have promised
him to make Nawab of Bengal after Sirajuddaulah.
• This battle was famous as this was the first battle which was won by the company in India.
• The Company kept his promise and made Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal. But then also, the
company was not satisfied as the puppet ruler also could not grant them all the privileges.
• When Mir Jafar started protesting, he was replaced by Mir Qasim and when Mir Qasim
complained, the position was again given to Mir Jafar by defeating Mir Qasim in battle of
Buxar in 1764.
• The Nawab had to pay Rs. 500,000 to the Company but they were never satisfied with this
amount.
• As the Mir Jafar died in 1765, the Robert Clive declared that thought that instead of making
someone Nawab, they should themselves become Nawab. And finally, in the same year the
company was appointed as the Diwan of the Bengal provinces by the Mughal Emperor.
• This helped the company to expand the trade in India but they need to buy goods in India with
the gold and silver that was imported from Britain.
• After the battle of Plassey, the Nawabs of Bengal need to give gifts and handsome money to the
company officials.
• In 1764, Robert Clive was appointed as Governor of Bengal, where he was given the
responsibility of removing corruption from the administration but in 1772 he was only cross
examined as he became suspicious in the eyes of British Parliament because of his vast
wealth. After sometime, he was acquitted and committed suicide in 1774.

Company Rule Expands

• For the expansion purpose, the company never attacked the territory directly; rather they used
economic and political methods to extend its influence.
• After the Battle of Buxar, the company appointed Residents in various Indian states. Through
they started interfering in the internal matters of the Indian States.
• The company forced the States to adopt Subsidiary Alliance which means that Indian rulers
cannot have their own armed forces. They were protected by the company forces for which they
need to pay to the company.
• In case, the Indian rulers were not able to pay, then the part of their territory was annexed. One
such instance was seen when Richard Wellesley was the Governor-General, the Nawab of
Awadh has to give his half of the territory as he failed to pay the amount.

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British and Tipu Sultan

• In the reign of Haider Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan, Mysore has strengthened its position as it
controlled the trade of the Malabar Coast.
• In 1785, Tipu Sultan did not permit the local merchants from trading with the company and also
stopped the exports of products such as cardamom, pepper and sandalwood.
• They also modernized their army with the help of French.
• The Company fought four wars with Mysore starting from 1767 and ending in 1799. The
Company won only the last battle which was known as Battle of Seringapatam.
• After Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle of Seringapatam, the Wodeyars controlled the Mysore
and subsidiary alliance was imposed.

War with the Marathas

• Marathas were divided into states which were controlled by chiefs who belonged to different
dynasties such as Bhonsle, Holkars, Gaekwads and Sindhia.
• These chiefs worked with common alliance under a Peshwa who was based in Pune.
• The Marathas were subdued in various wars. The first Anglo-Maratha war ended in 1782 with
the treaty of Salbai. The Second war resulted in annexation of Orissa, areas that lied in north of
Yamuna which includes Delhi and Agra. The Maratha power was crushed in Third Anglo-Maratha
power. As a result, Peshwa was removed and now Company has full control over the territories
to the south of Vindhyas.

The Claim to Paramountcy

• New policy of ‘Paramountcy’ was initiated by Lord Hastings, who was governor-general from
1813 to 1823. This policy stated that Company has supreme power and it lies above Indian
States.
• Following this policy, the Company could annex any Indian kingdom but this policy was
challenged by some Indian rulers.
• For instance, when British tried to annex the Kitoor (in Karnataka), Rani Channamma and
Rayanna led an anti-British resistance movement.
• In the 1830s, Company started worried about Russia as it might expand across Asia and may
enter India through north-west.
• As a result, the British fought wars with Afghanistan and established company rule. After this,
Sind was annexed in 1843 and then Punjab. Due to resistance by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the
Company could not fully establish its control in Punjab. It was only after the death of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh, that in 1849, they annexed Punjab.

The Doctrine of Lapse

• The Doctrine of Lapse policy was announced by Lord Dalhousie, who was governor-general from
1848 to 1856.

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• This policy declared that if an Indian ruler died without a male heir than his kingdom would be
annexed by Company. Satara (1848), Sambalpur (1850), Udaipur (1852) and Jhansi (1854) was
annexed by following policy of Doctrine of Lapse.
• In 1856, the Company annexed Awadh with an added statement that they took Awadh to make
it free from the mismanagement of the Nawab of Awadh.
• Being felt humiliated by the company, the people joined the revolt of 1857.

Setting up New Administration

• The Governor General who played an important role in the expansion of company’s rule was
Warren Hastings (1773-1785).
• At this time, British territories were divided into 3 presidencies (administrative units): Madras,
Bombay and Bengal. Each presidency was ruled by a Governor.
• From 1772, the new system of justice was initiated. According to this system, the district has
two courts: criminal (faujdari) court and civil (diwani) court. European district collectors
presided civil court while criminal courts were supervised by collectors but worked under qazi
(judge) and a mufti (jurist of Muslim community).
• Pandits interpreted laws based on various schools of Dharamshastra for European district
collectors. To bring out uniformity, Hindu laws were compiled by 11 pandits in 1775.
• This digest was translated in English by N.B Halhed and similarly a digest of Muslim laws was
also prepared for European judges.
• According to the Regulating Act of 1773, a Supreme Court was established, while a court of
appeal was set up at Calcutta.
• The important figure in district was Collector whose job is to collect revenue and maintain law
and order in the district. His office was known as Collectorate.

The Company Army

• The Mughal army was consists of cavalry (soldiers on horseback) and infantry (foot soldiers)
with cavalry dominating the army.
• But the local rulers had armed peasants and slight changed occurred when Awadh and Benaras
started recruiting peasants in their armies. The East India Company followed the same
methodology and its army was known as ‘Sepoy Army’.
• With the changes in the warfare technology, the infantry became dominating army rather
cavalry.
• In early nineteenth century, the soldiers were given European style training and life became
more disciplined with the help of drills.

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STUDY NOTES – RULING THE COUNTRYSIDE

• The Mughal Emperor appointed the East India Company as Diwani of Bengal on 12th August
1765. It means that the financial administration of a territory was under the control of the
company.
• The company was worried about the revenue aspects so that it could meet the expenses. It was
not willing to set up any kind of system of collection and assessment.
• Before 1865, the Company used to buy products with the help of gold and silver imported from
Britain but now goods were purchased for export from the revenue which was collected from
Bengal.
• But economy of the Bengal was going under deep crisis as the artisans were forced to sell their
goods at low prices to the company and peasants were unable to pay the dues. And this was
not all; famine of 1770 affected millions of people in Bengal.

The need to improve agriculture

• As the economy declined, people started thinking to improve agriculture so that economy can
be revived.
• In 1793, the Company introduced permanent settlement which recognized rajas and taluqdars
as zamindars whose job is to collect revenue from the peasants and then give to the company.
• Since the amount was fixed, it ensured the continuous flow of revenue into the company
pockets. It will also encourage zamindars to invest their money in improving the land.

Problem with the Permanent Settlement System

• The company officials found that zamindars were not investing towards land improvement.
• The revenue was so high that zamindars were unable to pay and in turn they have to lose
zamindari.
• After a decade, it was observed that there was expansion in cultivation but there was an
increase in the income of the zamindars but not the company.
• Zamindars were only interested in giving the land to tenants and get the rent from that land. But
if the land was given on rent, than rent was too high for villagers and moreover, there was no
security. If the village doesn’t pay the rent, he was evicted from the land that he had cultivated.

Mahalwari System
• To overcome the problems of the Permanent Settlement system, a new system needs to devise
to meet the growing expenses of the Company.
• An Englishman, Holt Mackenzie, devised the new system, Mahalwari System, in 1822. He
believed that villages are important social institutions that need to be preserved.

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• In the new system, collectors went to different villages, inspected the land, measured the
fields and recorded the customs of the group. The revenue from each plot was cumulated and
hence the amount was calculated that village (mahal) has to pay.
• This system was periodically reviewed, revenue was not fixed.
• The task of collecting the revenue and then paying to the company was given to village
headman.

The Munro System

• One more system was introduced to improve the revenue and that was known as Ryotwari
System. It was first tested on small scale by Alexander Read.
• It was afterward developed by Thomas Munro and came to be known as Munro System. This
system was extended to south India.
• In south India, usually they need to deal with the cultivators directly as system of zamindars was
not prevalent. Their fields have to be carefully surveyed before the revenue was assessed.

None of the systems could be used for long as the company was not satisfied with the amount of
revenue they earned.

Crops for Europe

• Gradually, the British influenced the cultivators to produce different crops in different areas
such as jute in Bengal, wheat in Punjab, rice in Madras, sugarcane in Uttar Pradesh etc. At that
time, India was the biggest supplier of Indigo in the world.
• In the thirteenth century, cloth manufacturers of various countries such as France, Italy used
Indian indigo. But since the price of the Indian indigo was very high, the cloth manufacturers
had to depend on woad to make dyes of blue and violet colour. Moreover, the woad was easily
available in Europe markets.
• Since the woad cultivators were insecure of the Indigo, they pressurized the government to ban
the import of indigo.
• Indigo was preferred to woad as it gave rich blue colour dye. As a result, the cloth dyers again
asked the government to give some relaxation on the import of indigo. And indigo plantations
started at various places such as Jamaica, North America and Venezuela etc.
• But the demand of Indian indigo was increasing day by day. Hence, by the end of eighteenth
century, the company decided to expand the indigo cultivation in India.
• Indigo cultivation was increased in Bengal rapidly and by 1810, 95 percent of indigo imported
into Britain cultivated in India.
• As the indigo trade was growing, the company officials began investing in the same. Some of
them even left their jobs to take care of the indigo business.

Indigo Cultivation

• Indigo was cultivated using two systems: nij and ryoti.

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• Nij Cultivation
✓ Under nij cultivation, the crop was grown by hired labourers on the land which was
controlled directly by planters.
✓ The problem with the nij cultivators was that they could expand their land. They
always used large areas of compact blocks to grow indigo.
✓ Another problem was related with the availability of labour and bullocks. Labour for
cultivation and bullocks for transport were not easily available as indigo was grown at
the same time when rice was cultivated. Hence, most of the labours and bullocks were
engaged in rice cultivation.
✓ Even the purchase and maintenance of ploughs was a problem for planters.
• Ryoti Cultivation
✓ 75 percent of indigo was grown under Ryoti cultivation.
✓ In the Ryoti system, a contract was signed by ryots and sometimes village headman
was forced to sign the contract on behalf of ryots.
✓ After signing the contract, cash advances were given to produce indigo. But the
cultivator has to commit to produce the indigo on at least 25 percent of the area
which he held.
✓ When the crop was handed over to the planter, a new loan was given to start the
cultivation again.
✓ Peasants were not satisfied with the system as they were paid very low and vicious
circle of loan was never ended.

Blue Rebellion

• In 1859, various ryots started protesting against the indigo cultivation. They believed that they
had support of zamindars and village headman.
• Indigo peasants also felt that British Government would also support them in this protest.
• As soon as the British heard about indigo protest, the Lieutenant Governor decided to tour the
region in 1859 winters.
• The magistrate Ashley Aden announced that ryots would not be compelled to grow indigo.
• Worried by the rebellion, the government set up indigo commission who objective is to enquire
about system of indigo production.
• After the enquiry, the commission held planters guilty and criticized them for using strict
methods to grow indigo. It also declared that indigo cultivation was not profitable for ryots.
• Once the revolt was over, the indigo production was collapsed in Bengal. The production was
also shifted to Bihar and the discovery of synthetic dyes affected the business.
• When Mahatma Gandhi reached India from South Africa, he was persuaded by a peasant to
visit Champaran to see the plight of indigo planters.
• A visit by Mahatma Gandhi to Champaran marked the beginning of the Champaran movement
in 1917.

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STUDY NOTES – TRIBALS, DIKUS AND VISION OF A GOLDEN AGE

• A man named Birsa Munda used to wander in the forests of Jharkhand. People believed that
he possess super powers such as he can cure diseases and increase the grain production.
• Birsa itself stated that God had sent him to make people free from slavery of dikus (outsiders).
• Birsa belong to the tribal group of Chhotanagpur - known as Mundas. But his followers belong
to other tribes which includes Santhals and Oraons. Each of these tribes was facing issues with
the Britishers.
• Most of the tribes had their own customs and rituals and moreover, they don’t have strict social
divisions. But they do have some socio-economic divisions within the tribe.

How Did Tribal Groups Live?

• Some were jhum cultivators

✓ Jhum cultivation is also known as shifting cultivation. This type of cultivation was
practiced on small patches in forests.
✓ The cultivators used to cut the tress from the top so that sunlight can reach the
ground and then they used to clear the forests in order to cultivate the land.
✓ To fertilize the land, they used to spread the potash which helps in regaining fertility of
the soil.
✓ Then they prepare the land to sow the seeds and once the crop becomes ready and
harvested, they move to other field.
✓ A field once cultivated remained uncultivated from several years.
✓ Shifting cultivators usually found in forests areas of north-east and central India.
• Some were hunters and gatherers
✓ Some of the tribal groups were hunters and gatherers which saw forests as their
source of livelihood. The example of such tribe includes Khonds which belong to
Orissa.
✓ They ate fruits and roots available in the forests and cooked food using oil which was
extracted from seeds of mahua and sal.
✓ The leather workers and local weavers had to approach to Khonds whenever they
needed Palash and Kusum flowers which were used to colour leather and clothes.
✓ They bought rice and other grains from the earnings they had while some of them did
other jobs, builds roads and some worked as labourers in the fields.
✓ But Baigas was one such tribe which was hesitant to do work for others as they believed
that they are people of forests and it is against their dignity to become a labourer.
✓ To meet the demands of cash, tribal groups often had to get loans at higher rate of
interest. Moreover, the traders used to get the goods at low price and sell at higher
price. As a result, moneylenders and traders used to treat moneylenders and traders as
evil outsiders.
• Some herded animals

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✓ While some of the tribal groups survived by being hunters and gatherers, others
survived by herding and rearing animals.
✓ They were considered as pastoralists who wander from place to place according to the
seasons. Some of the examples are: Van Gujjars of Punjab Hills (cattle herders),
Labadis of Andhra Pradesh (cattle herders), Bakarwals of Kashmir (reared goats) and
Gaddis of Kulu (shepherds).
• Some took to settled cultivation
✓ By nineteenth century, many tribal groups have started to settle down and cultivated
their fields while settling at one place.
✓ They used the ploughs and got the rights of the land. Once the original settlers got the
rights, all the members get the rights on the land.
✓ There were some powerful people as well who used to rent the land rather than
cultivating themselves.
✓ According to Britishers, Santhals and Gonds were more civilized than hunters,
gatherers or jhum cultivators.

Impact of Colonial Rule on Tribal Lives

• The tribal chiefs enjoyed economic and administration powers before the arrival of Britishers.
• But after the Britishers, they lost their powers and authority. They were forced to follow the
laws which were made by the British and they even had to pay tribute.
• The Britishers were hesitant with the groups who used to travel from one place to another as
they were not easy to control and administer. Moreover, they wanted regular revenue for the
state which is only possible from the settled communities.
• Britishers also changed the forest laws and since forests were source of livelihood for tribal
groups, they were very much affected by these laws.
• The Britishers declared forests as State property and some of the forests were declared as
Reserved Forests since timber was produced here which was used by British. In reserved forests,
people were not allowed to collect fruits, hunt animals or move here and there.
• When the British decided not to allow local people to use forest resources and move freely,
Britishers faced problem as no labour was available to cut trees. So they decided that they will
provide few blocks of land to cultivators to work upon the lands but only on condition that they
need to provide services to Forest Department.
• Some tribal groups disobeyed new laws, continued illegal practices and started rebellion. For
example: Songram Sangma in Assam in 1906 and forest Satyagrah in Central Provinces in
1930s.
• The Kols rebelled in 1831-32, Santhals in 1855, the Bastar rebellion took place in 1910 in
Central India and Warli revolt started in 1940 in Maharashtra.
• Another problem that the tribal groups faced was that of offering cash loans to tribals and
asking them to work for wages. They used to buy products at lower price and sell at higher
prices in the market.

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• By the nineteenth century, tea plantations and mining industry in Assam and Jharkhand
respectively recruited large number of tribals with the help of contractors who paid them low
wages and forced them not to return to their homes.

Birsa Munda

• Birsa grown while hearing the uprisings of the past and he also spent some time with the
Vaishnav preacher after which he began to value the purity and piety.
• He launched movement to reform the tribal society and urged the tribal members to clean their
village, stop believing in witchcraft and give up drinking liquor.
• In the year 1895, the Birsa requested his followers to recover their past. He shared about satyug
when Mundas used to live a good life. For example, they planted trees, created embankments,
practiced cultivation to ear livelihood etc.
• Birsa movement aimed at driving out missionaries, Hindu landlords and moneylenders to
establish Munda Raj with Birsa as its head.
• The British officials arrested Birsa in 1895 and convicted him for rioting charges.
• He was released in 1897 and then he started wandering from village to village to gain support.
He urged people to destroy Dikus and Europeans and set up kingdom under his leadership.
• As a result people attacked police stations and raided property of zamindars. As a symbol of
Birsa Raj, they also raised white flag.
• The movement faded with the death of Birsa in 1900.

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Challenging the Caste System, Women

and reform

Women’s Condition 200 years back

Two hundred years ago

• Children were married off at a very early age.

• Hindu and Muslim men could have more than one wife.
• Women who chose death by burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their
husbands were praised. They were called “sati”, meaning virtuous women.
• Rights to property of women were restricted.
• Mostly women had no access to education.
• There was a belief that if a woman was educated, she would become a widow.
Over the 19th and 20th centuries, many of these norms and perceptions slowly changed

Working towards Change

• In early nineteenth century, as new forms of communication were developed,
discussions about social customs increased
• Books, magazines, newspapers, leaflets, and pamphlets were printed.
• They were cheaper and more accessible than the manuscripts. With the help of these
cheaper forms of communication ordinary people could read, write and express their
ideas in their own languages.
• Debates on social, religious, economic and political issues were started by men and
women
• Mostly Indian reformers and reform groups started these discussions and debates

Reformers
People were known as reformers because according to them changes were necessary in
society, and unjust practices needed to be done away with. Change can be brought by
convincing people to give up old practices and start a new way of life.
Famous Indian Reformers- Raja Rammohun Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833)

• He founded Brahmo Sabha (also called Brahmo Samaj) in Calcutta

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• He wanted to spread the knowledge of Western education in India so that women can
had more freedom and treated equal as men
• He wrote about the pathetic conditions of Indian women that how women were taking
burden of all the household chores and still not allowed to move out freely or to get
education
• He began the campaign against the sati practice.
• For this he used his knowledge of languages as he was proficient in Sanskrit, Persian and
many other Indian and European languages
• He showed through his writings that there were no sanctions of widow burning in
ancient texts and with the help of his campaign sati was banned in 1829.
• The method used by Raja Rammohun Roy challenging a practice that seemed harmful
by finding a verse or sentence in the ancient sacred texts that supported his point of
view was used by later reformers.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

• He used the method of using ancient texts to suggest that widows could also remarry.
• A law for the widow remarriage was passed in 1856
• But there were people who were against the widow’s remarriage opposed Ishwar Chandra
Vidyasagar and boycotted him.
• This movement of widow remarriage spread to many other parts of the country.
❖ In the Telugu-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, Veerasalingam Pantulu
formed an association for widow remarriage
❖ Young intellectuals and reformers in Bombay pledged to work for widow
remarriage.
❖ Swami Dayanand Saraswati, found er of Arya Samaj, supported widow
remarriage in North.
• In Calcutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar opened schools for girls.

Schools for Girls

• Schools were set up for girls-
❖ In Calcutta by Vidyasagar
❖ In Bombay by many other reformers
❖ In Punjab by Arya Samaj
❖ In Maharashtra by Jyoti Rao Phule
• According to Reformers, to improve the condition of women, girls’ education was
necessary.
• In the mid-19th century, first schools were opened, but many people were afraid of
schools.
• People feared that
❖ Schools would take girls away from home,
❖ Prevent them from doing their domestic duties.
❖ Schools would have corrupting influence on them.

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❖ It was their belief that girls should stay away from public spaces.
• Due to these reasons, most of the educated women in nineteenth century, were taught
at home by liberal fathers or husbands.
• Sometimes women taught themselves like Rashsundari Debi who secretly learned to
read and write using candles at night.
• In North India, aristocratic Muslim women learnt to read the Koran in Arabic by women
who came home to teach.
• Some reformers like Mumtaz Ali, took help form the verses of the Koran by
reinterpreting them to argue for women’s education.

Women write about women

• From early 20th century, Muslim women played an important role in promoting education
among women. Some of the example are -
• Begums of Bhopal - founded a primary school for girls at Aligarh.
• Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain
❖ Schools for Muslim girls were started by her in Patna and Calcutta.
❖ She was a critic of conservative ideas. She said that women were given an inferior
place by religious leaders of every faith.
• Tarabai Shinde,
❖ She was educated at home at Poona.
❖ She published a book, Stripurushtulna, (A Comparison between Women and Men), in
which she denounced the social differences between men and women.
• Pandita Ramabai
❖ She was a great scholar of Sanskrit,
❖ She felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women
❖ She wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women.
❖ She founded a widows’ home at Poona to give shelter to widows who were treated
badly by their relatives. They were trained to support themselves economically.

Women in 19th and 20th Century

• By the end of the nineteenth century,
❖ Women actively worked for reforms.
❖ They wrote books, edited magazines
❖ They founded many schools and training centres
❖ They also set up women’s associations.

• From the early twentieth century,

❖ Political pressure groups were formed by women to enforce laws for

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▪ female suffrage (the right to vote) for women,

▪ better health care and education for women.
❖ Some women joined nationalist and socialist movements from the 1920s.
❖ Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and many other leaders supported
these demands of women (greater equality and freedom for women)
❖ Nationalist leaders promised that there would be full suffrage for all men and
women after Independence. But till then women were asked to concentrate on
the anti-British struggles

Law Against Child Marriage

• Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929 without any debates and struggles
• According to this Act, man below the age of 18 and woman below the age of 16 could
not marry.
• Later these limits were increased to 21 for men and 18 for women.

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REVOLT OF 1857 AND AFTER

Policies and the People
• With the advent of Britishers, the nawabs and rajas lost their power and authority.
• Many ruling families negotiated with the East India Company regarding protection of their interest.
But the company rejected their pleas due to its superiority.
• The last territory to be annexed was Awadh. Subsidiary alliance was imposed on Awadh in 1801 and
in 1856; British took over the territory ensuring proper administration.
• The company had plans to end the Mughal rule. For this they had removed the name of the Mughal
kings from the coins that were minted by the company.
• In 1849, Lord Dalhousie announced that after the death of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the king’s family would
be shifted out of the Red Fort. In the year 1856, Lord Canning decided that the last Mughal ruler would
be Bahadur Shah Zafar and after his death, no descendants would be given the status of king.
• The Indian sepoys who were employed by the company were unhappy because of their pay,
conditions of service and allowances.
• Even in 1824, some sepoys were severely punished as they refused to go to Burma via sea route to
fight for the company. So in 1856, the company passed a law stating that every new person who will be
employed with the company had to travel overseas, if required.
• Many laws were passed that reformed the Indian society. The education in English language was
promoted.
• After 1830, the company gave freedom to Christian missionaries to function freely and in 1850; a law
was passed to make the conversions into Christianity easier.
A Mutiny becomes a popular Rebellion
• After 100 years of administration, the East India Company faced an enormous rebellion in 1857. It
started from Meerut and the large number of people joined the rebellion.
• On 29th March 1857, a young soldier, Mangal Pandey, was hanged to death as he has attacked his
officers in Barrackpore. Later, on 9th May 1857, few sepoys at Meerut denied army drill as they have
to use new cartridges which were made from fat of cows and pigs.
• On 10th May 1857, some sepoys walked in the Meerut jail, killed and attacked the British officials
and released the imprisoned sepoys. They also fired the buildings and captured arms and ammunitions.
• On the same day only, the sepoys reached Delhi from Meerut and there also they rose in rebellion.
• Some of the soldiers gathered around Red Fort and demanded to meet Bahadur Shah Zafar. After lot
of efforts, they met him and announced Zafar as their leader.
• Zafar had to accept the demands and he wrote letter to all the rulers of the country to form
confederacy of Indian States to fight against British.
• Once the British routed from Delhi, there was no news of rebellion for almost a week. Then regiments
got along each other and joined troops at Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.
• Nana Saheb, who was the adopted son of Late Peshwa Baji Rao, gathered the armed forces and
barred the Britishers from Kanpur. He proclaimed himself as Peshwa.
• In city of Lucknow, Birjis Qadr was made the new Nawab. His mother, Begum Hazrat Mahal, also
fought against British.
• In Jhansi, Rani Laxmibai along with Tantia Tope, joined the sepoys and fought against British.
• In Madhya Pradesh (Mandla), Rani Avantibai Lodhi of Ramgarh joined the rebellion and fought
against British by leading an army of 4000 soldiers.
• The British were defeated in numerous wars and hence, people believed that rule of the British ended
for a good reason. As a result, more and more people joined the rebellion.

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• On 6th August 1857, the Lieutenant Colonel Tytler sent a telegram to his commander-in-chief which
stated the feeling of fear which was felt by the British.
• To fight against the British, many new leaders joined the rebellion. Some of them are: Ahmadullah
Shah came to Lucknow to fight the British; Bakht Khan, a soldier from Bareilly led the fighter’s force of
Delhi and Kunwar Singh from Bihar joined the rebel sepoys and battled with British.
The Company fights back
• As the company decided to repress the revolt, it passed new laws to convict the rebels with ease.
• In September 1857, the rebel forces recaptured Delhi and Bahadur Shah Zafar was given life
imprisonment. In October 1858, he and his wife, Begum Zinat Mahal, were sent to Rangoon jail and
later in November 1862, Bahadur Shah Zafar died in jail.
• In March 1858, Lucknow was taken. In June 1858, Rani Lakshmibai was defeated and killed.
• Rani Avantibai also killed while fighting against British. Tantia Tope continued guerrilla war with
Britishers with the support of tribal and peasant leaders but in April 1859, he was tried and killed.
• The British announced rewards for the landholders who were loyal and they were allowed to enjoy
traditional rights over their lands.
• Those who participated in the rebel but not killed any white people, they would be kept safe and their
rights to land would not be taken.
Aftermath
• By the end of 1859, the company had regained control of the country but they introduced some
important changes. These changes were:
✓ In 1858, a new act was passed by British Parliament and transferred powers of the company to
the British Crown. A Secretary of India was also appointed to handle the matters related to the
governance of India. The title of Viceroy was given to the Governor-General.
✓ Ruling chiefs were assured that their territory would not be annexed in future. But they need to
hold their kingdoms as subordinates of British Crown.
✓ It was decided that in the army, the ratio of Indian soldiers would be decreased and that of
European soldiers would be increased. Moreover, the soldiers would be recruited from among the
Sikhs, Pathans and Gurkhas rather than Awadh, Bihar, Central India etc.
✓ The property of Muslims was confiscated on large scale as British believed that they were mainly
responsible for the rebellion.
✓ The British started respecting the social and religious practices of Indian people.
✓ Different policies were made in order to protect landlords and give them security of rights over their
lands.

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Development of Education in British Era

➢ The British view of Education

The British entered India not just for territorial conquest or to establish control over the
revenues. They had a cultural mission too- “civilize the natives”.

➢ The tradition of Orientalism

➢ In 1783 William Jones (a linguist) arrived in Calcutta.

He had studied Greek and had knowledge of French,
English, Arabic and Persian.
➢ At Calcutta he started learning Sanskrit language,
Grammar and poetry.
➢ Soon he started studying ancient Indian texts on law,
philosophy, religion, and politics.

➢ Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also discovering ancient hindi heritage
and mastered hindi language. They started translating Sanskrit and Persian work into
English.
➢ Along with them, Jones set up the Asiatic Society of Bengal and started a journal known
as Asiatick Researches.
➢ They started discovering ancient texts and translated them to make their findings knonw
to others.

OBJECTIVE

➢ Through this project they wanted to help the British to understand Indian culture and
simultaneously help Indians as well.
➢ Through this process, the British became the guardians of Indian culture.

IMPACT: POSITIVE

➢ A need was felt to set up institutions which would encourage the study of ancient Indian
texts and each Persian literature and poetry.
➢ In 1781, a Madrasa was set in Calcutta to promote the study of Arabic, Persian and
Islamic law.

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➢ In 1791, a Hindu College was established in Benaras to encourage the study of ancient
Sanskrit texts. This would be useful for the administration of the country.
IMPACT: J. S MILL

➢ There were few officials who were skeptical of orientalist vision of learning.
➢ According to them, knowledge of the east was full of errors and filled with unscientific
thoughts.

James Mill attacked orientalist and declared that the aim

of education should be to teach what is useful and
practical.
Indian should be made familiar with scientific and
technical advances of the west.

Thomas Babington Macaulay

➢ He saw India as an uncivilized country which was in dire need of civilization.

➢ He gave importance to the teaching of the English Language.
➢ Through the knowledge of English Indian would be able to understand the western
development in science and technology.

The English Education Act of 1835

➢ A decision was made to make English the medium of instruction for higher education.
➢ And simultaneously to stop the promotion of oriental education.

Aftermath

➢ In 1854, the court of Director of East India Company sent an educational despatch to the
Governor General of India which came to be known as “Woods Despatch”.
➢ It emphasized on practical benefits of a European learning, which was opposed to the
Oriental knowledge.
➢ Advantages such as-awareness regarding expansion of trade and commerce, development
of resources were seen as its positive results.
➢ It also argued that it would improve the moral character of Indians.

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➢ Educational Departments were set up to extend controls over matters of education.

The Condition of Local Schools & Report of William Adam

➢ In 1830, when William Adam toured the schools of Bengal and Bihar, he asked the
company for a report for a progress on education in vernacular schools.
➢ Adam discovered that these schools were functioning on flexible systems and fulfilled the
local needs. For example, classes were not held during the season of harvest, as children
worked in the field.
➢ After 1854, focus was laid upon to improve the condition of vernacular education.
➢ Students were asked to pay regular fees and obey rules of discipline.
➢ This adversely affected the poor peasant families as it demanded regular attention during
the harvest season.

The Agenda for National education

➢ Various thinkers started talking for the need of wider spread of education.
➢ Some felt that western education will modernize India, whereas other Indians such as-
Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore revolted against the introduction of western
education.
Views of Mahatma Gandhi on Indian Education
➢ According to Mahatma Gandhi, colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the
minds of Indians.
➢ It made the western civilization look more superior and destroyed the pride of Indian
culture.
➢ Mahatma wanted a model of education which would reestablish a sense of dignity and
self-respect in the heart of Indians.
➢ He said western education just focused on reading and writing rather than oral
knowledge.
➢ It valued textbook rather than practical knowledge.

Views of Rabindranath Tagore on Indian Education

➢ Rabindranath Tagore started Shantiniketan in 1901.
➢ He didn’t believe in the rigid system of discipline established in the school system.
➢ He believed that teachers should be imaginative and develop curiosity in the minds of
children.
➢ He said that the existing schools killed the desire of the children to be creative.

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Difference between Gandhi’s and Tagore views on Indian Education

Mahatma Gandhi Rabindranath Tagore

He was critical of western education. He wanted to combine the elements of
western education and Indian tradition.
He considered education as working with Tagore emphasized upon the need to teach
hands, learning crafts, and learning how science and technology along in Shantiniketan
different things operate. along with art, music and dance.

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NATIONAL MOVEMENT

The Emergence of Nationalism

• Till the time, Britishers were controlling the resources and administration of India, India was not
of Indians.
• Few political organizations were formed after 1850s and these include Poona Sarvajanik Sabha,
the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Indian Association, the Indian National Congress and the
Bombay Presidency Association.
• The Arms Act was passed in the year 1878. This act does not allow Indians to possess arms.
• In 1878 only, Vernacular Press Act was passed which allowed the government to seize the
assets of the newspapers, which also includes printing press, if they publish anything
‘objectionable’.
• In the year 1883, Ilbert Bill was introduced which provided for the trial of British persons by
the Indians. This bill also sought equality between Indiana and European judges.
• The Indian National Congress was formed in December 1885 when 72 delegates met in
Bombay. The leaders of the INC include WC Banerjee, Dadabhai Naoroji, RC Dutt, Ferozshah
Mehta etc.
• During this period, the Indian wanted more representation and high positions in government. As
a result, civil service examinations started in India, apart from London. They also demanded the
separation of judiciary from executive.
• The Congress also demanded more funds for irrigation, reduction in revenue and cut in military
expenditure.
• The extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal) leaders criticized the moderates and stressed upon self reliance.
• Tilak raised the slogan – “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it.”
• In 1905, for the administrative convenience Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal, which was the
biggest province of British India as it included Bihar and Orissa. The government separated
east Bengal and merged it with Assam.
• Large public meetings and demonstrations were held to protests the partition of Bengal. The
struggle was known as Swadeshi Movement. This protest was stronger in Bengal but affected
Deltaic Andhra as well. There it was known as Vande Mataram Movement.
• A group of Muslim landlords formed the All India Muslim League at Dacca in 1906. This league
supported the Bengal partition. This league demanded separated electorate for Muslims.
• The Congress Split took place in 1907 and then reunited in 1915. In 1916, the Congress and
Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact and they worked together for representative
government.

The Growth of Mass Nationalism

• The World War I changed the economic and political scenario in India and increased the
expenditure of the Indian government related to the defence. As the expenditure increased, the

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government increased taxes on incomes and profits of businesses. Even the prices of the goods
were increased.
• In 1915, Gandhiji reached India from South Africa. His first year was spent in travelling around
different places to understand the overall situation.
• His earliest local movements include Champaran and Kheda Movement in Bihar and Gujarat
respectively. He also led mill workers’ strike in Ahmedabad in 1918.
• Between 1919 and 1922
✓ Rowlatt Act (1919) - This event took place at the time of Lord Chelmsford and it
was passed by the imperial Legislative Council. Rowlatt Act restricted fundamental rights
and gave the powers to the government to arrest suspects without giving any trial.
Gandhiji requested people to observe 6th April 1919 as a day of ‘humiliation and
prayer’ and hartal.

✓ Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919) – In connection Rowlatt Satyagrah and

arrest of few leaders, a meeting was held in Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar on 13th April
1919. Before meeting could start, General Dyer ordered round of firings on the crowd
and since there is no way put to escape, hundreds of men, women and children were
killed and wounded. To express pain and anger, Rabindranath Tagore renounced his
knighthood.

✓ Khilafat Agitation (1920-22) - Muslims started anti-British movement in 1920

which was known as Khilafat movement after the British forced harsh treaty on Sultan
of Turkey. The Khilafat Movement was launched by Ali Brothers (Maulana Mohammad
Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali). It was supported by Gandhiji and INC which led the path
for unity of Hindus and Muslims.

✓ Non-cooperation Movement (1920-22) - This movement was characterized

by surrender of titles and honorary offices; refusal to attend government darbars;
boycott of British courts by the lawyers; refusal of public to join any government jobs
and boycott of foreign goods. Some of the famous lawyers like CR Das, Saifuddin
Kitchlew, Motilal Nehru, and Aruna Asaf Ali quit the practices to boycott British
Courts.
• In Kheda districts, Patidar peasants launched non-violent campaigns as British demanded high
revenue on land.
• Akali agitation took place in Punjab where Sikhs came together to protests against corrupt
functionaries of gurudwaras.
• Between 1922 and 1929
✓ On 5th February 1922, Chauri Chaura incident took place in Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh
where peasants sat a police station on fire as police have fired on their

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demonstrations. Shocked by the incident, Gandhiji called off non-cooperation

movement.
✓ In mid 1920s Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Communist Party of India were formed.
✓ Under the Presidentship of Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Congress fought for Poorna Swaraj in
1929. Accordingly, 26th January 1930 was observed as ‘Independence Day’.

The March to Dandi

• In 1930, Gandhiji decided to break the salt law. The salt law states that it is monopoly of the
state in manufacturing and selling of salt.
• Gandhiji and other people considered it as a sinful act as salt is an essential item.
• Gandhiji marched 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi and there he broke the law by picking
natural salt found on seashore. Sarojini Naidu actively participated in Dandi March.
• The result of all struggles led to the passing of Government of India Act 1935 which gave
provincial autonomy and elections to the provincial legislatures was also announced.
• The Congress formed government in 7 provinces out of 11.
• In September 1939, Second World War took place. The leaders of Congress were ready to
support on a condition that India should get independence after the war.
• As British rejected the demand, so Congress resigned in protest.

Quit India and later

• Quit India resolution was passed on 8th August 1942 in a Congress meeting held in Bombay.
• By this resolution Gandhiji asked Britishers to Quit India and ask for call of do or die to
Indians.
• Symbols of State and communications were attacked throughout the country and severe
repression was the reaction of this movement.
• From the late 1930s, the Muslim league saw Muslims as separate entity from the Hindus and in
1940, the Muslim League demanded independent states for Muslims.
• When Congress denied the league’s demand for the formation of Congress-league
government in 1937 in United Provinces, the league got infuriated.
• After the Second World War, the British started negotiations with the League, the Congress
and themselves regarding independent India. The negotiations failed as the League was the
sole representative of Muslims of India.
• In 1946, the League demanded for Pakistan. As a result, a three-member mission was sent to
Delhi by British Cabinet to examine the demand and advise the political structure of
independent India.
• This mission also could not unite Congress and the Muslim League and partition become
unavoidable.
• The Muslim League announced 16th August 1946 as the ‘Direct Action Day’ as it wants to fulfill
the demand for Pakistan.
• Finally, after months of struggle, Pakistan was formed, and partition took place.

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INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE

A new and Divided Nation
• As India became independent, it had to face many challenges. One was in terms of refugee
movement from Pakistan. Other challenge was related with the princely states as these states
have to be persuaded to join new nation. Moreover, the new nation also needs to adopt new
political structure which can serve its population in the best possible way.
• At the time independence, the population of India was large and divided into high castes and
low castes and Hindu Community and people of other religions.
• People used to reside in villages and farmers depend on monsoon for their livelihood. Some
people used to live in slums in cities.
• It was the responsibility of the nation to promote new jobs and bring the people out from
poverty.

On 30th January 1948, Mahatma Gandhi was assassinated by Nathuram Godse. He disagreed with
Mahatma Gandhi on the notion that Hindus and Muslims should live together.

A Constitution is Written
• From December 1946 to November 1949, various meetings were held related to political
structure of India.
• The meetings of Constituent Assembly used to hold in New Delhi, and it consists of participants
from different political parties.
• These meetings led to the framing of the Indian Constitution and it came into effect on 26th
January 1950.
• Features of the Indian Constitution
✓ The constitution of India adopted Universal Adult Franchise which means all the
Indian citizens above the age of 18 are free to vote regardless of sex, gender, or caste.
Before 1988, the age of voting was 21 years. This feature was seen for the very first
time in India as before this Indian were not allowed to choose their leaders.
✓ The Indian Constitution guarantees equality before law to all its citizens irrespective of
the caste, religion, creed or gender. Some people believed that Indian political system
should be based on Hindu ideals. Reacting to this, Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru said
that India should not become ‘Hindu Pakistan’.
✓ The Constitution of India offered special liberties to the most disadvantaged group. The
practice of untouchability was abolished. Even Scheduled Tribes have been given
reservation in jobs as well as legislature seats.
• After spending many days in discussing about distribution of powers between center and state
government, finally, the Constitution divided the powers into three lists: Union List
(responsibility of the center) includes matters such as taxes, foreign affairs etc.; State List

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(responsibility of the State) includes matters such as health and education and Concurrent List
(joint responsibility of both Center and State) includes agriculture and forests etc.
• At times, debate was also done in the Constituent Assembly related to the concerned language.
Many people argued that instead of English, Hindi must be the main language. Keeping few
considerations in mind, Hindi was the official language of India but English would be spoken in
services, courts and while communicating between two states.
• The Chairman of the Drafting committee was B.R Ambedkar. He played a very important role
in the framing of the Indian Constitution and under his supervision only Constitution was
finalized.

Formation of States
• During 1920s, Indian National Congress promised that as the country will get independent,
provinces will be made on the basis of linguistic groups.
• Against the wishes and desires of Mahatma Gandhi, the India divided into two groups on the
basis of religion.
• The then Prime Minister of India Jawahar Lal Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister was against the
formation of provinces on the basis of linguistic groups.
• Each of these different linguistic groups was looking forward for their own state but the
strongest opposition came from Telugu speaking groups of Madras Presidency.
• During the general elections in 1952, when Nehru went to Madras Presidency for campaign, he
was welcomed with black flags and slogans which said ‘We want Andhra’. A person named Potti
Sriramulu went on hunger strike demanding formation of Andhra state. After 52 days, he died.
• The protest was spread into various areas. As a result, on 1st October 1953, Andhra State came
into being which later became Andhra Pradesh.
• Later, other linguistic groups demanded their own states. Hence, States Reorganization
Committee was established and submitted its report in 1956. It recommended the redrawing of
districts to form provinces of Oriya, Tamil, Assamese, Bengali, Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam
speakers.
• Hindi speaking region of north India also broken up into numerous states. In 1960, even Bombay
was divided into Gujarati and Marathi speakers.
• In 1966, Punjab state got divided into Punjab (for Punjabi speakers) and Haryana (for non-
Punjabi but Haryanvi speakers).

Planning for Development

• The Planning Commission was set up in 1950 by Indian government to design policies related
to economic development on ‘mixed economy’ model where both State and private sector will
play an important role in creating jobs and increasing production.
• In 1956, Second Five-year Plan was formulated which focused on construction and
development of heavy industries.

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The Nation, Sixty Years On

• India celebrated sixty years of independence on 15th August 2007.
• India is still united and democratic, of which every Indian citizen must be proud of.
• Some believed that India will be divided into various linguistic groups while others believe that it
would come under military rule.
• Since independence 13 general elections and 100s local elections have been successfully
organized.
• Despite of the fact that the Indian Constitution guarantees right to equality, still harijans, which
are popularly known as Dalits, face discrimination and violence. In many parts of India, they are
not provided with basic civil amenities and not allowed to access temples, parks, restaurants
etc.
• There has always been a disparity between rich and the poor. Some of the groups have been
benefited from economic development. These people have large houses, take expensive cars,
dine in expensive restaurants etc. At the same time, there are few persons who are living below
poverty line.

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Study Notes on Concept and Nature of Social Studies

Social Science is the study of how people live and organize themselves in society. Initially,
social study accepts economics, religious, political and political aspects of society.

Nature of Social Science :

• Social Science nowadays considered a combination of both art and science because its
content is social but the way of its study is scientific.
• It is dynamic in nature. Traditionally it is considered as the detailed account of social
matters but today it is accepted as a scientific study.
• Presently scientific and logical methods are also included in it and applied in the
teaching-learning process of social science.

The Concept of Social Science :

Initially, the subject of social studies was considered as the part of History and was not
considered separately but now Social Study becomes a dynamic subject and various branches
are included in it separately like history, geography, Economics, Civics etc.

Nowadays Social Studies or Social Science considered as interlinked with each other and
Social Study includes various aspects of society and takes the elements from History,
Geography, Civics, Economics, and Sociology etc.

Relation of Social Science with other Subjects :

• Relationship with Language: Language is related to literature and literature is a very
important aspect of society. Essays, poems, and stories are the sources of literature
through which various subject is to be taught to society.
• Relationship with Mathematics: For understanding the chronology in History, a
Geographical phenomenon in Geography and various Economic principles in
Economics the knowledge of Mathematics is necessary.
• Relationship with Technology: In this global world our society is directly or socially
connected with the various modes of technology like T.V., mobiles, radio computers
etc. These modes have a direct influence on the Society. So in a wider sense, Social
Study is considered Social Science.
• Relationship with Art: various paintings, sculpture, arts etc. are related to different
states and cultures of the society.

Objectives/Significance of Social Science Teaching :

- to develop the feeling of patriotism and national integration.

- to build the feeling of democratic sentiments among the learners.

- to develop critical thinking in the learners.

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- to develop different skills among learners which help them to earn their livelihood.

- to develop interest, value, knowledge for various cultures, customs, traditions of the society.

- to develop the learners' good citizens.

A contribution of Social Science to the Development of Children :

- Study of society and peoples of the society is based on information and facts related to
Human and Environment after some time the knowledge of a child requires relevance
sequence which helps in the development of known structure in the child’s mind.

- Social Studies helps in the development of the relevant understanding of the experiences
related to inside or outside the classroom.

- it develops the favourable or unfavourable attitude of the child and society towards various
facts, figures, and experiences related to society.

Teaching Methods/ approaches to Social Science:

1) Simple to Complex: In this method, the subject matter first started from simple to
complex. This method is best suited for teaching a primary and middle class.

2) Known to Unknown: In this method subject matter introduced from knowingly fact or
information related to the topic and then it should be carried with the unknown factor
information about the topic.

3) Specific to General: In this method, the subject matter or topic firstly introduced with the
examples and then a generalized concept is evolved. This method is useful in teaching
higher-level classes.

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Classroom Process and Discourse

A classroom is a learning space, a room in which both children learn. Classrooms are found in
educational institutions of all kinds, from preschools to universities, and may also be found in other
places where education or training is provided, such as corporations and religious and humanitarian
organizations. The classroom is a space where learning can take place uninterrupted by outside
distractions.
Objectives of classrooms:
Following are the objectives of classroom:
a) Classroom develops the sense of belongingness among learners.
b) Classroom develop life skills among learner.
c) Classrooms helps in the development of skills of social co-existence among learners.
d) Classrooms helps in preparing accountable citizens for future.
Classroom process includes the thinking, feelings, commitments, and actions of teachers and students
within the classroom or learning situation as well as the interaction patterns and descriptions of the
learning environment that result from those interactions.
Sub-categories of classroom process:
Classroom process can be divided into three basic sub categories:
Teacher Behaviour: It consists of all the behaviour a teacher would make in the classroom. They are –
a) Planning: Planning consists of all the activities a teacher might carry out to get ready to interact
with the students in the classroom
b) Instruction: Instruction is the purposeful direction of the learning process. It guides students
learning.
c) Management: management controls the student behaviour through the following ways:
• Use of positive reinforcement
• Cues and corrective feedback
• Co-operative learning activities
• Higher order questioning
• Use of advanced organisers
Student behaviour: It includes all the actions a student would make in the classroom. They include a
very important variable called Academic learning time. Academic Learning Time is the amount of time
students are successfully covering contents that will be tested subsequently.
Students behaviour consists of three separate variables. They are:
Content overlap: The percentage of content covered on the test, out of what was actually covered by
students.
Engaged time: It is the amount of time students are actively involved in the learning process.
Success: It is the extent of time in which students accurately complete the assignments they have
been given.
d) Other process:
Other classroom factors that affects the learner achievement are as follows:
• Classroom atmosphere and morale
• Opportunity given to students to engage in leadership roles and so on.
• Teachers classroom behaviour has a direct influence on student’s classroom behaviour.
• Classroom process variables are the most direct link to measure of student’s achievement.
Teaching Methods or Techniques:
Some of the teaching methods related to the classroom process are:
a) Lecture Method: This teaching method is the oldest and one-way channel of communication of
information. In this method students only listen the lecture deliver by the teacher.
b) Demonstration method: In demonstration method a teacher explains the topic by showing an
example, proofs, experiments etc.

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c) Problem-solving Method: This is the scientific method of searching information.

d) Inquiry method: In this approach learners are given opportunity to explore, inquire, and discover
new learning.
Approaches of teaching:
Teaching approach is a set of principles, beliefs or ideas about the nature of learning which is
translated into the classroom. When a teacher has a long-term plan of action designed to achieve a
particular goal it becomes his strategy. The following types of approaches are as follows:
• Teacher-Centred Approach: A teaching method where the teacher is in actively involved in teaching
while the learners are in a passive, receptive mode listening as the teacher teaches.
• Learner-Centred approach: Student-centred learning, also known as learner-centred education,
broadly encompasses methods of teaching that shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the
student. In this method considers learner as also a source of information.
• Matter-centred Approach: when subject matter gains primacy over that of learner, it is called Subject
Matter Centred Approach.
• Teacher-Dominated Approach – In this method teacher is the sole dispenser of information.
• Constructivist Approach: In this approach students are given opportunity to construct knowledge
and meaning out for what they taught by connecting them to prior experience.
• Interactive approach: in this method students have given the opportunity to interact with the
teacher and other students.
• Banking Approach: when teacher deposits knowledge into the empty minds of students it is known
as Banking approach.
• Integrated approach: Here, teacher integrates or synthesises his knowledge from different
disciplines in his teaching or learners are too given such opportunity. This is the most suitable
approach of teaching.
• Disciplinal Approach: here, teacher limit himself to discussing lesson within the boundary of his
subject.
• Collaborative approach: here group work, team work, partnership and group discussion are
welcomed in teaching process.
• Individualistic Approach: here, a teacher wants the individual students to work by themselves in a
classroom.
• Direct teaching: In this approach a teacher directly tells or shows or demonstrates what is to be
taught.
• Indirect approach: here, teacher facilitates the learning process by allowing the learner to be
engaged in the learning process by allowing the learner to be engaged in the learning process within
his guidance.
• Activities: During the teaching learning process for engaging students in a task which has the
capability to link them with the real world is called as learning activities. Activities during the teaching
learning process are of two types:
Activities inside the classroom:
These are the activities which a teacher employs inside the classroom. They are:
• Verbal question: these are the questions taken up at the end of the topic or at the end of one section.
• Case study: in this learning is enabled by comparing and contrasting through concrete examples.
• Co-operative learning: this learning can be done in groups for solving a problem given by the teacher.
• Group processing: inn this evaluation of team functioning can be done and also agreeing to change.
• Learning conversation: it demands active listening, skilled, open questioning and positive body
language from learner.
• Relating Theory to Practice and Vice- Versa: this will mostly be for subjects which involve conducting
experiments in a laboratory or workshop.
• Modelling: In this learner is exposed to the subject content and the underpinning thinking, working
under and expert’s guidance

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Activities Outside the classroom:

Learning Outside the Classroom is the use of places other than the classroom for teaching and learning
purposes. These activities are:
• Field Trips
• Sports Events
• Activities related to Music and Drama
• Surveys
Discourse as a Method of Teaching: Discourse refers to the language that teachers and students use
to communicate with each other in the classroom. Discourse is pattern of behaviour and the process
of unfolding an idea into text. Discourse is a live language.
Discourse process can be constructed from text, but one needs insight and intuition in order to
interpret movement that once existed.
Discourse covers three aspects to text interpretation. They are semantic, syntactic, pragmatic.

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Definition of Critical Thinking:

"The process of actively and skilfully conceptualizing, applying, analysing, synthesizing, and
evaluating information to reach an answer or conclusion"
In other words, we can say that critical thinking is a self-directed process through which we
take deliberative steps to think at the highest level of quality.
Characteristics of Critical Thinking:
Rationality: critical thinking considers both merit and demerits of particular issues/topics.
Thus, makes the judgment rational.
Develops scientific view: critical thinking helps a learner to develop cause and effect
relationship about a particular problem which results in a scientific view of a learner.
Relevancy: critical thinking helps in the teaching-learning process by selecting the most
appropriate ideology of teaching. It appreciates students in the class to do arguments and
adopt the most relevance ideology.
Benefits of Critical thinking:
Various are the benefits of critical thinking:
1. Critical thinking helps a learner to build concepts, application, and expanding ideas.
2. Critical thinking helps in the development of language skill, thinking skill as well as
cooperative learning skills.
3. Critical thinking helps in understanding and evaluating arguments of the learners
4. Critical thinking helps in understanding and evaluating the beliefs of the learner.
5. It helps the learner to make good or rationale decision and rejecting the incorrect one.
6. It helps a learner to avoid foolish decision in their daily life.
Teachers strategy to promote critical thinking in learners:
Various are the teacher’s strategy to promote critical thinking in the students:
1. A teacher should create more and more opportunities to develop critical thinking among
the learners.
2. A teacher should organize the discussion, debate, creative writing, field trips, surveys, etc.
3. A teacher should also provide opportunities for learners to do arguments.
4. After arguments, a teacher should guide the learners to solve the problems.
5. A teacher in the classrooms should always try to maintain diversities and multiplicity.
Activities to develop critical thinking in the students:
Various are the activities that help in developing critical thinking among the students:
1. The teacher should employ multiple examples for developing multiple viewpoints among
the learners.
2. A teacher should develop a feeling of taking a risk. Which makes the learner self-aware so
that if there is a possibility of failure in implementing or employing an idea, concept, solution,
etc. and also a teacher should boost them up on the failure and motivate them to re-do it.
3. A teacher should focus on observation method of teaching rather than methods based on
logic.
4. A teacher should provide raw data to students for practice and developing their own
solution then students can work on theory etc.

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PROBLEMS RELATED TO SOCIAL SCIENCE TEACHING

As we all know that in our society there are so many preconceptions related to the social science
content. Social study may be accepted as non-scientific, non-utility, irrelevant and ill-famed subject
by the society. It is considered that its content is very lengthy basically in history. It has very limited
carrier options. So, we can say that social science teaching and learning affects a lot due to the
various conceptions related to its subject matter or contents.

Challenges during social science teaching and learning process:

Various are the challenges which are faced during teaching learning process are:

a) Problem related to uncertainty of objective: Evaluation should be in such a way that may be
clearly defined in behavioural terms.
b) Problems related to the instructional material: There is a lack of instructional material
related to the social science teaching. Arranging resources require expertise teachers as well
as expenditure from schools ends.
c) Problems related with unavailability of trained or experienced teachers: Trained and
experienced teachers are required for qualitied education which is a major problem related
to social study teaching.
d) Problems related to in-service teachers training: Due to lack of inadequate training facilities
teacher faces the problem of upgrading themselves which results in the hindrance of social
science teaching.
e) Problems related to insufficient tools of evaluation: Social study teaching learning process
lacks proper tools of evaluation which are used for evaluating the students’ performance.
f) Problems related to library: Lack of library is a major problem which hinders the teaching
learning process. Lot of reference books are required in social studies teaching learning
process and due to their unavailability teaching learning process suffers a lot.

Approaches in teaching of social science:

The main aim of social science is to infuse moral and mental energy in child so that it can make
the child to think and deal independently with the various forces of the society without
compromising with his/her individuality. And these aims can be achieved with the help of
following approaches:

• Problem based learning: Problem based learning is an active or self-directed learning

process where students perform the task collectively in small groups. Problem based
learning helps in developing the transferable skills in the students which can be put in
various skills like problem solving, critical thinking, participation.
• Collaborative learning: In this type of learning students gather information or knowledge
by forming association, working in teams, by sharing books, food etc. should be
appreciated.
• Experiential-based learning: In experiential based learning actual life experiences of
learners should be linked with the textbooks content. In this method students gather
information or knowledge through various sources like field trip to historical places or
various natural sites, role playing, surveys etc.
• Community-Based learning: Community based learning is an essential way of sensitising
students towards various issues prevailing in the society. Project based projects and
programmes are the best way of community-based learnings.

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Team teaching: Team teaching refers to a group of teachers working together in order to
optimise resources, interests and expertise. Team teaching is very helpful to the teachers when
students with special needs are being educated in regular classroom. These team of teachers
share their insights and even argues with each other.

• Team teaching requires planning, skilled management, open-mindedness, imagination,

creativity and even risk change failures or humility but the consequences are of worth it.
• In team teaching the evaluation done by teachers will be more balanced or insightful
then the self-evaluation of an individual teacher.

Curriculum and textbook of social science:

In order to overcoming the problems related to the social science teaching and learning process the
curriculum of the social science should be comprehensive or should enable students to develop
critical thinking of understanding of the society. The textbook and curriculum of social science
textbook should be-

• Comprehensive in which learner as well as teachers involves in generating knowledge

without any inactive or present forces of coercion.
• Designed in such a way that provides chances of scientific inquiry to the students.
• Based up on the gender concerns that need to be addressed in terms of making the
prospects of women an integral part of discussion related to historical events and
contemporary issues.
• The curriculum of the social science shows the women struggles in the Indian history as well
as present day situations

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SOURCES:
A source is a place, person or thing which provide information about anything. The information
collected from the sources links the past with present and future. Some of the examples of sources
are various texts, newspaper, various past civilizations etc.
Types of sources:
Sources are classified in to two types:
1. Primary source: These are the original sources which we collect from any events or from any
documents. These are the They are categorized into three forms:
a) Physical sources: These sources are present in the physical form on the earth. They are generally in
the form of archaeological remains, building, monuments, temples, mountain, rivers etc.
b) Oral sources: These are the sources which provides us information in the oral form. For example –
folk songs, stories, customs, tables etc.
c) Written or printed sources: These are the sources which provide us information in the written form
on papers, stones, plates etc. some of the examples of it are diary, manuscript, historical accounts,
letters etc.
2. Secondary Sources: These are the sources which provides us secondhand information that has been
analyzed and interpreted.
Uses of Sources in Social Science teaching:
Following are the uses of sources in social science teaching are as follows:
a) Use of various sources helps in developing the reasoning ability among the learners.
b) Use of sources helps in developing a research and investigation habit in the learners.
c) Use of sources helps in active participation of the learners.
Merit of sources:
Following are the merits of sources:
a) Sources helps in identifying reality skills among the learners.
b) Sources provides training of examination, comparison and analysis to the learners.
c) Sources helps in identifying the approved facts.
Demerits of Sources:
Following are the demerits of sources:
a) At some expect they do not give reliability
b) They prove to be less effective in lower classes.
c) Written sources are hard to understand due of their language difficulties, words etc.

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NCF 2005
The National Curriculum Framework 2005 is one of the four National Curriculum Frameworks
which were published in 1975, 1988, 2000 and 2005 respectively by the National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT).

The NCF provides framework for making syllabus, teaching practices to be adopted in school
and describes role of teacher in the class. NCF 2005 lays focus on providing education as
Learning without burden. NCF 2005 has been translated into 22 languages and has impact on
syllabus in 17 states. The NCERT gave a grant of Rs.10 lakh to each State to promote NCF in
the language of the State and to compare their current syllabus with the syllabus proposed by
NCF, so that a plan for future reforms could be made with the involvement of states as well.
Several States have taken up this challenge. This exercise is being carried out with the
involvement of State Councils for Educational Research and Training [SCERT] and District
Institutes of Education and Training [DIET].

Five guiding principles of NCF for curriculum development:-

• Connecting classroom knowledge to outside the school

• Ensuring that learning shifts away from rote methods to meaningful learning.
• Enriching the curriculum so that it goes beyond textbooks.
• Making examinations more flexible
• Nurturing an over-riding identity informed by caring concerns within the democratic
polity of the country.

Focus areas of NCF 2005

NCF focused on primarily following points:

• Learning without burden to make learning a joyful experience to remove stress from
children.
• To develop a child centered approach and to promote universal enrollment and retention
up to the age of 14.
• To inculcate the feeling of oneness, democracy and unity in the students
the curriculum should be enabled to strengthen our national identity and to enable the
new generation to reevaluate.
• J. P. Naik has described equality, quality and quantity as the exclusive triangle for Indian
education.
• NCF 2005 has ensured that irrespective of caste, creed, religion and sex all are provided
with a standard curriculum.

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE)

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Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) refers to a system of school-based evaluation of

students that covers all features of students’ development. It is a developmental process of
assessment which stresses on two-fold objectives i.e. on continuousness in evaluation and
assessment of broad-based learning and behavioral outcomes on the other.

Objectives of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:

Various are the objectives of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:

• Makes the process of teaching and learning a learner-centered activity.

• To make the assessment process an essential part of the teaching-learning process.
• To make a fair judgment and take timely decisions for learner’s growth, learning process,
learning pace, and learning environment.
• To provide scope for learners for self-assessment.
• To use the evaluation process for improving student’s achievement through detection and
correction.

Features of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:

• The ‘continuous’ aspect of CCE takes care of ‘continual’ and ‘periodicity’ features of
assessment.
• The ‘comprehensive’ elements of CCE takes care of assessment of all-round
development of the child’s personality.
• The continuous and comprehensive evaluation includes both Scholastic as well as Co-
Scholastic aspects of the pupil’s growth. Scholastic aspects cover curricular areas or
subject-specific areas, while co-scholastic aspects consist of Life Skills, Co-Curricular
Activities, Attitudes, and Values.
• Assessment in Co-Scholastic areas is done using the number of techniques on the basis of
recognized criteria, while assessment in Life Skills is done on the basis of indicators of
Assessment and checklists.

Functions of Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation:

• CCE helps the teacher to systematize efficacious teaching strategies.

• Continuous evaluation serves to detect weaknesses and permits the teacher to ascertain
certain individual learner.
• Through continuous assessments, students can know their strength and weaknesses.
• CCE helps in identifying changes in attitudes and value systems.
• CCE provides information on the progress of students in scholastic and co-scholastic
areas which results in forecasting the future success of the learners.

Aspects of CCE:
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation considers both the scholastic and co-scholastic
aspects.

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Scholastic assessment: Scholastic aspects include curricular areas or subject-specific areas.

These areas focus on oral and written class tests, cycle tests, activity tests and daily class
performances of all subjects in order to improve writing and speaking skills. Scholastic
assessment should be both Formative and Summative.

Formative Assessment:

Formative assessment, consists of diagnostic testing, is an extent of formal and informal

assessment procedures conducted by teachers during the learning process in order to alter
teaching and learning activities to improve student achievement. It typically involves qualitative
feedback for both student and teacher that is the basis of the details of content and performance.
It is commonly compared with summative assessment, which attempts to monitor educational
outcomes, often for purposes of external responsibility.

Features of Formative Assessment:

• It makes provision for effective feedback.

• It provides a plan for the active involvement of students in their own learning
• It helps the student to support their peers’ group and vice-versa.
• It helps in integrating diverse learning styles to decide how and what to teach.
• co-scholastic aspects include Life Skills, Co-Curricular Activities, Attitudes, and Values.
• It provides the student with a chance to improve their scores after they get feedback.
• It helps in the detection and correction of the assessment process.

Summative Assessment:

Summative assessment is an assessment of students where the focus is on the consequences of a

program. The goal of summative assessment is to assess student learning at the end of an
instructional unit by comparing it against a norm.

Features of Summative assessment:

• It can be done at the end of a unit or semester to display the sum of what they learn or
what not.
• This is the contrasts with formative assessment, which summarizes the participants'
development at a particular time.
• It is a conventional way of assessing students work.

Co-scholastic assessment:
Co-Scholastic Areas of Assessment: The areas of Co-scholastic assessment focus on increasing
the skills of a student in general knowledge, environmental education, physical Education, art,
music and dance and computers. These are evaluated through quizzes, competitions, and
activities.

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Paradigms/Criterion of Assessments:
Assessment of Learning: The ‘assessment of learning’ is defined as a process whereby
someone tries to describe and measures the quantity of the knowledge, attitudes or skills
organized by another. In this type of learning teachers’ directions is most important and the
student has meager involvement in the design or execution of the assessment process in these
situations. In this assessment teacher designs learning and collect proofs.

Assessment for learning: The assessment for learning involves an increased level of student
freedom, but not without teacher instructions and cooperation. The assessment for learning is
sometimes seen as having a relation to ‘formative assessment’.More emphasis laid towards
giving useful advice to the student and less emphasis on the giving marks and grading function.

Assessment as learning: This assessment may be more connected with diagnostics assessment
and can be constructed with more importance on peer learning. It generates chances for self-
assessment and peer assessment. Students take increased responsibility in producing quality
information about their learning and of others.

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Teaching Learning Materials

In the arena of education, TLM is an acronym that stands for "teaching/learning materials."
Generally, the term refers to a variety of educational materials that teachers use in the classroom to
provide support for attaining specific learning objectives, as set out in lesson plans. These can be
in the form of games, videos, flashcards, project supplies, and more.
Classroom teaching that uses only a teacher lecturing the class, perhaps writing on the chalkboard
or whiteboard, is the most common example of not using any TLM.
Activity-based learning requires a variety of teaching/learning materials to be used and a focus on
teacher-student and student-student interaction to learn new concepts. Context-specific materials
enhance and ease the process of learning.
Some examples of teaching-learning materials (TLM) are – story books, blocks, samples, videos,
games, flashcards, modelling clay, overhead projector transparencies, computer systems, visual
aids as objects, posters etc.

Meaning of Teaching Aids

As we all know that today's age is the age of science and technology. The teaching learning
programmes have also been affected by it. The process of teaching - learning depends upon the
different types of equipment available in the classroom.
Need of Teaching Aids
1) Proper use of teaching aids helps to retain the concepts permanently.
2) Students can learn better when they feel motivated by different teaching aids.
3) Teaching aids may develop the proper image of things when the students are required to
use different bodily senses to unravel a complex idea.
4) Teaching aids attempt to provide a wholesome example for conceptual thinking.
5) The teaching aids raise the interests of the students.
6) These help to increase the vocabulary of the students.

Types of Teaching Aids

There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as follows-
1) Visual Aids The aids which use sense of vision are called Visual aids.
For example: actual objects, models, pictures, charts, maps, flash cards, flannel board, bulletin
board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc. Out of these black board and chalk are the
commonest ones.
2) Audio Aids The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids. For example -
radio, tape recorder, gramophone etc.
3) Audio - Visual Aids The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing are called
Audio- Visual aids. For example - television, film projector, film strips etc.

Importance of Teaching aids

Teaching aids play a very important role in the teaching- learning process such as -
1. Motivation - Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.
2. Clarification - Through teaching aids, the teacher clarify the subject matter more easily.
3. Discouragement of Cramming - They can facilitate the proper understanding of students
thus discouraging the act of cramming content.
4. Saves Time and Money
5. Teaching aids make the classroom alive and active. Students become more active when
they see and use different materials in the class making the classroom appear less dull.
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The Importance of Learning Materials in Teaching

Student Learning Support
Learning materials are important because they can significantly increase student achievement by
supporting student learning. For example, a worksheet may provide a student with important
opportunities to practice a new skill gained in class. This process aids in the learning process by
allowing the student to explore the knowledge independently as well as providing repetition.
Learning materials, regardless of what kind, all have some function in student learning.

Lesson Structure
Learning materials can also add important structure to lesson planning and the delivery of
instruction. Particularly in lower grades, learning materials act as a guide for both the teacher and
student. They can provide a valuable routine. For instance, if you are a language arts teacher and
you teach new vocabulary words every Tuesday, knowing that you have a vocabulary game to
provide the students with practice regarding the new words will both take pressure off of you and
provide important practice (and fun) for your students.

Differentiation of Instruction
In addition to supporting learning more generally, learning materials can assist teachers in an
important professional duty: the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of instruction is the
tailoring of lessons and instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within your
classroom. Learning materials such as worksheets, group activity instructions, games, or
homework assignments all allow you to modify assignments to best activate each individual
student's learning style.

Acquiring Teaching Materials

Getting your hands-on valuable teaching materials is not nearly as difficult as it can seem at first.
The Internet has many resources for teachers, most of them free, that can significantly increase the
contents of your teaching toolbox. You can also make your own materials. Every learning material
you develop will be an asset to you when you next teach a similar unit. An investment of time or
money in good teaching materials is an investment in good teaching.

Characteristics of Good Teaching Aids

A few characteristics of good teaching aids are as follows:
1. Teaching aids should be large enough to be seen by all the students for whom they are
used.
2. They should be meaningful and always stand to serve a useful purpose.
3. Teaching aids should be upto the mark and upto date in every respect.
4. These should be simple, cheap and be adaptable for multiple use.
5. These should be accurate and realistic.
6. They should be according to the mental level of the learners.
7. Their purpose may be informative but it is not just entertainment.
8. Teaching aids helps in realization of stipulated learning objectives.
9. These should be very diverse and be usable in many lessons and at different class levels.
10. Teaching aids may be useful for supplementing the teaching process but they should not be
considered as replacements of the teacher.
Advantages of Teaching Aids
1. Supplement verbal instructions of the teacher.

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2. Teaching aids makes learning of the children permanent.

3. Teaching aids provide variety in the material that teachers as students engage with.
4. Teaching aids are helpful in attracting attention of the students.
5. Teaching aids encourage a healthy classroom interaction between the teacher and the
students.
6. Teaching aids helps the teacher to create real-life like situations for teaching the beginners.
7. Teaching aids are helpful in creating positive environment for discipline.
8. Teaching aids are helpful in catering to individual differences.
9. Teaching aids helps in providing real life speech opportunities to the pupils.
10. Teaching aids enable the children to retain language concepts for a longer time.
11. Teaching aids makes the abstract ideas concrete by giving learners opportunities to
participate and thus help in making learning more effective.
12. Teaching aids provide good substitutes for real objects as they make learning equally
meaningful.

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