THE GIST OF NCERT

GEOGRAPHY

Class 6 – Chapter 1: The Earth in the

Solar System
1. Celestial Bodies
 Celestial bodies: Natural objects visible in the sky (e.g., stars, planets, moons).
 Stars: Huge, hot, luminous celestial bodies made of gases; emit their own heat
and light.
o Example: The Sun is a star.

2. Constellations
 Constellations: Apparent patterns formed by groups of stars.
o Example: Ursa Major (Big Bear), Saptarishi (part of Ursa Major).
 Pole Star (North Star): Indicates north direction; remains fixed in the sky.
o Located using Saptarishi—extend an imaginary line from its pointer
stars.

3. Planets
 Planets: Celestial bodies that do not have their own light; reflect star light.
o Origin: Greek word Planetai meaning “wanderers”.
o Earth is a planet; gets heat and light from the Sun.

4. The Solar System

Components:

1. Sun – Star and central body.

2. 8 Planets – Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
3. Satellites – Natural (e.g., Moon) and Artificial (e.g., INSAT).
4. Other Bodies – Asteroids, Meteoroids.

Mnemonic for Planets:

My Very Efficient Mother Just Served Us Nuts.

5. The Sun
 Central body of the solar system; made of extremely hot gases.
 Source of heat and light for the solar system.
 Distance from Earth: ~150 million km.
 Light takes ~8 minutes to reach Earth.

6. Planetary Orbits
  Planets revolve around the Sun in fixed, elongated paths called orbits.

7. Earth: The Unique Planet

 Third planet from the Sun; fifth largest in size.
 Shape: Geoid (earth-like, slightly flattened at poles).
 Supports life due to:
o Moderate temperature, presence of water and air.
o Atmosphere has oxygen and other life-supporting gases.
 Appears blue from space → called the Blue Planet.

8. Interesting Facts
 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus: Have visible rings (debris belts).
 Pluto: Reclassified as a dwarf planet (IAU, 2006).

9. Satellites
 Natural Satellite: E.g., Moon (Earth’s companion).
 Artificial Satellite: Man-made; used for communication, data collection.
o Examples: INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT (India).

10. Word Origins (Important for Culture Linkage)

Word Meaning
Geography Geo = Earth + Graphia = Writing
Geology Study of Earth
Geometry Measurement of Earth
Geoid Earth-like shape

🔍 Prelims Fact Box

Fact Data
Speed of Light ~300,000 km/sec
Light time from Sun to Earth ~8 minutes
Earth’s Water Coverage ~2/3rd surface
Sun-Earth Distance ~150 million km

11. The Moon (Earth’s Natural Satellite)

 Earth has only one satellite → the Moon.
 Diameter: ~1/4th of Earth’s diameter.
 Distance from Earth: ~384,400 km.
 Appears large due to proximity to Earth.
 Orbit + Rotation Time: ~27 days for one revolution around Earth; same time
to complete one spin → hence, only one side visible from Earth.
  No life-supporting conditions: Lacks water and air.
 Surface: Has mountains, plains, depressions, which cast shadows.
 Full Moon Night (Poornima): Visible once every month.
 New Moon Night (Amavasya): Occurs ~15 days after full moon; moon not
visible.

12. Asteroids
 Numerous tiny celestial bodies orbiting the Sun.
 Located between Mars and Jupiter.
 Believed to be remains of an exploded planet.
 Largest asteroid: Ceres.

13. Meteoroids
 Small rock pieces revolving around the Sun.
 When approaching Earth, friction with air causes heating → results in flash of
light.
 If not fully burnt, may fall on Earth, creating a hollow.

14. The Milky Way Galaxy

 White glowing band across the sky; visible on a clear, starry night.
 Appears as a cluster of millions of stars.
 Our solar system is part of the Milky Way Galaxy.
 In ancient India: Called Akash Ganga (imagined as a river of light).

15. The Universe

 A vast system of billions of galaxies.
 Galaxies: Massive systems of stars, dust, gases.
 Millions of galaxies form the Universe.
 Size of Universe: Unknown; scientists continue research.
 All living beings, including you and I, belong to this Universe.

16. Important Terms

Term Description
Full Moon Night Moon appears as full sphere; occurs once a month.
New Moon
~15 days after Full Moon; moon not visible.
Night
Celestial Body Any natural body outside Earth (e.g., Sun, Moon, Stars, Planets).
Very hot, big celestial body, made of gases; emits own heat and
Star
light.
Inner Planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars – between Sun and asteroid belt.
Outer Planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune – beyond asteroid belt.
Asteroids Tiny bodies between Mars and Jupiter; largest: Ceres.
Meteoroids Small rock fragments orbiting Sun; may fall on Earth.
Chapter 2 (Part 1): Globe – Latitudes and Longitudes

2.1. Locating Places on Earth

 Earth is spherical; location of places is determined using reference points and
lines.
 Key reference: Equator (imaginary line dividing Earth into two equal halves).

2.2. Hemispheres

 Northern Hemisphere: Part of Earth north of Equator.

 Southern Hemisphere: Part south of Equator.
 Equator is a circular imaginary line and key reference point.

2.3. Latitudes (Parallels of Latitude)

 Imaginary parallel circles drawn from Equator to poles.

 Equator = 0° latitude.
 Distance from Equator to poles = 90°.
o North Pole = 90° N, South Pole = 90° S.
 Latitudes north of Equator: North latitudes.
 Latitudes south of Equator: South latitudes.
 Size of parallels decreases away from Equator.

2.4. Important Parallels of Latitude

Latitude Location
Equator 0°
Tropic of Cancer 23½° N
Tropic of Capricorn 23½° S
Arctic Circle 66½° N
Antarctic Circle 66½° S
North Pole 90° N
South Pole 90° S

2.5. Heat Zones of the Earth

A. Torrid Zone (Hot Zone)

 Lies between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.

 Receives maximum heat.
 Mid-day Sun is overhead at least once a year.

B. Temperate Zones (Moderate Climate)

 Lies between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle (North).

 Lies between Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle (South).
 Moderate temperatures; Sun’s rays not overhead.

C. Frigid Zones (Very Cold)

  Lies between Arctic Circle and North Pole, and Antarctic Circle and South
Pole.
 Sun remains low on the horizon → slanting rays, less heat.

🔍 Additional Fact (From Text)

 Latitude of a place can be found by measuring the angle of Pole Star from that
place.

2.4 What are Longitudes? (Font Size: 14)

→ Definition and Features (Font Size: 12)

 Longitudes are imaginary semi-circular lines running from North Pole to

South Pole.
 They help locate east-west positions on the Earth.
 Distance between them is measured in degrees of longitude (°), further divided
into minutes and seconds.
 All meridians are equal in length; unlike latitudes, the distance between
longitudes decreases towards poles.
 All longitudes meet at poles, distance becomes zero.

2.5 Prime Meridian and Hemispheres (Font Size: 14)

→ Prime Meridian (0° Longitude) (Font Size: 12)

 Passes through Greenwich, London (British Royal Observatory).

 Basis for numbering longitudes: 0° to 180° East (E) and 0° to 180° West (W).
 180° East = 180° West, on the same line.
 Divides Earth into:
o Eastern Hemisphere
o Western Hemisphere

2.6 Grid System (Font Size: 14)

→ Concept (Font Size: 12)

 Network formed by intersecting latitudes and longitudes on globe.

 Used to accurately locate places on Earth.

2.7 Longitude and Time (Font Size: 14)

→ Relationship (Font Size: 12)

 Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours → 15° per hour, 1° in 4 minutes.

 When sun is overhead at Greenwich (0°) → it’s 12 noon at Greenwich.
 Places east of Greenwich are ahead in time, west are behind.
o At 15°E → 1 PM,
o At 15°W → 11 AM
o At 180° → 12 midnight when it's noon at Greenwich.

2.8 Local Time and Standard Time (Font Size: 14)

→ Local Time (Font Size: 12)

 Time based on sun's position overhead (noon) at a specific longitude.

  All places on same longitude share the same local time.

→ Need for Standard Time (Font Size: 12)

 Different longitudes → different local times → confusion for

transport/schedules.
 Countries adopt one Standard Time based on central meridian.

→ Indian Standard Time (IST) (Font Size: 12)

 Based on 82½° E longitude (passes through Mirzapur).

 IST = GMT + 5 hours 30 minutes.
o When 2:00 PM in London, it is 7:30 PM in India.
 Some large countries like Russia use multiple time zones (e.g., Russia = 11
time zones).
 Earth divided into 24 time zones, each 15° longitude wide.

Important Terms Recap (Font Size: 14)

(Font Size: 12)

 Globe: Miniature true model of Earth.

 Grid: Network of latitudes and longitudes for accurate location mapping.
 Longitudes: North–South lines measured East or West from Prime Meridian
(0°).
 Local Time: Time based on sun’s position overhead (local noon).
 Standard Time: Uniform time adopted for a country.
 Prime Meridian: 0° longitude through Greenwich.
 IST: Indian Standard Time based on 82°30'E.
 Torrid Zone: Between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, hottest zone.
 Temperate Zone: Moderate climate, between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic
Circle (North), and Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle (South).
 Frigid Zone: Beyond Arctic/Antarctic Circles, coldest zone, slanting sun rays.

Chapter 3: Motions of the Earth

3.1 Types of Motions of the Earth

Rotation

 Earth rotates on its axis, an imaginary line.

 Axis is inclined at 66½° to the orbital plane.
 Takes 24 hours to complete one rotation → called Earthday.
 Causes day and night due to Earth's spherical shape.
 Only half the Earth faces the Sun at any given time.

 Circle of illumination: Divides day from night; does not coincide with the axis.

What if Earth did not rotate?

 One half would have perpetual daylight and heat; other half in constant
darkness and cold.
 Life would be impossible in such extreme conditions.
Revolution

 Earth revolves around the Sun in a fixed elliptical orbit.

 Takes 365¼ days (1 year) to complete one revolution.
 For convenience, we take 365 days, saving 6 hours annually.
 Every 4 years, these hours add up to 1 extra day → Leap Year (366 days).

3.2 Revolution and Seasons

Effect of Revolution

 Earth maintains constant tilt during revolution.

 Change in Earth’s position causes seasons: Summer, Winter, Spring, Autumn.

Summer Solstice (21st June)

 Northern Hemisphere tilted towards the Sun.

 Sun's rays direct on Tropic of Cancer (23½° N).
 Longer days, shorter nights in Northern Hemisphere.
 Areas beyond Arctic Circle have 6 months daylight.
 Called Summer Solstice in Northern Hemisphere; Winter in Southern
Hemisphere.

Winter Solstice (22nd December)

 Southern Hemisphere tilted towards the Sun.

 Sun's rays direct on Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S).
 Longer days, shorter nights in Southern Hemisphere.
 Called Winter Solstice in Northern Hemisphere; Summer in Southern
Hemisphere.
 Christmas in Australia falls in summer.

Equinox (21st March and 23rd September)

 Sun's rays direct on Equator.

 Neither pole tilted towards Sun.
 Equal day and night all over Earth.
 21st March → Spring in Northern Hemisphere, Autumn in Southern.
 23rd September → Autumn in Northern Hemisphere, Spring in Southern.

Conclusion

 Day and night due to rotation.

 Seasons due to revolution and axial tilt.

3.3 Important Terms Related to Motions of the Earth

 Rotation
Rotation is the movement of the Earth in a circular motion around its axis.
▪ It causes the occurrence of day and night.
▪ The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 66½°, determining which hemisphere
experiences day at a given time.
 Day and Night
Due to the rotation of the Earth, one half faces the Sun (day) while the other half
remains in darkness (night).
▪ The division is marked by the Circle of Illumination.
  Impact of Rotation
▪ Causes day and night.
▪ Creates the Circle of Illumination, which separates day from night.
 Impact of Revolution
▪ Causes seasonal changes—summer, winter, spring, autumn.
▪ Earth's revolution is around the Sun in an elliptical orbit.
 Motions of the Earth
The Earth has two primary motions:
▪ Rotation – spinning on its axis.
▪ Revolution – orbiting the Sun.
 Circle of Illumination
▪ An imaginary circle dividing the illuminated (day) part and the dark (night)
part of Earth.
▪ It does not coincide with the axis.
 Elliptical Plane
▪ Earth orbits the Sun in an elliptical (oval-shaped) path.
▪ The plane of this orbit is called the Orbital Plane.
 Orbital Plane
▪ The two-dimensional surface on which Earth’s elliptical orbit lies.
▪ The Earth’s axis is inclined to this plane.

3.4 Seasonal Changes and Earth's Position

 Summer Solstice (21st June)

▪ The Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun.
▪ Sun rays fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer.
▪ Results in summer in the Northern Hemisphere.
▪ Longest day and shortest night occur here.
▪ Known as Summer Solstice.

 Winter Solstice (22nd December)

▪ Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun.
▪ Sun rays fall directly on Tropic of Capricorn.
▪ Southern Hemisphere experiences summer; Northern Hemisphere experiences
winter.
▪ Known as Winter Solstice.

 Equinox (21st March & 23rd September)

▪ Sun rays fall directly on the Equator.
▪ Neither pole is tilted towards the Sun.
▪ Entire Earth experiences equal day and night.
▪ Known as Equinox.
▪ 21st March: Spring in Northern Hemisphere, Autumn in Southern Hemisphere.
▪ 23rd September: Autumn in Northern Hemisphere, Spring in Southern
Hemisphere.
 ▪ Shows length,
Chapter 4 – Maps breadth, and position
accurately (e.g.,
4.1 Maps and Their Uses layout of a
room/building).
 A globe helps study the Earth as a whole, but it is difficult to use for detailed
study.
 A map is a drawing or representation of the Earth or part of it on a flat surface,
drawn to scale.
 An atlas is a collection of maps compiled into a book.

Types of Maps:

1. Physical Maps – show natural features like mountains, rivers, plateaus.

2. Political Maps – show countries, states, and their boundaries.
3. Thematic Maps – provide specific information (e.g., rainfall, population).

4.2 Components of Maps

Maps have three components:

Distance, Direction, and Symbols.

4.3 Distance and Scale

 Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and that on the map.
▪ Formula: Scale = Map Distance / Ground Distance
 Types of Scales:
▪ Small Scale Maps: Show large areas (e.g., countries, continents) with less
detail.
▪ Large Scale Maps: Show small areas (e.g., villages, towns) with more detail.
 Note: Large scale maps provide more information than small scale maps.

4.4 Direction

 Cardinal Directions: North, South, East, West.

 Intermediate Directions:
▪ North-East (NE), South-East (SE), South-West (SW), North-West (NW)
 Compass: Instrument used to find directions.
▪ Always points North.

4.5 Symbols on Maps

 Conventional Symbols: Standard symbols used to represent features like roads,

rivers, railways, etc.
 Color Code in Maps:
▪ Blue – water bodies
▪ Brown – mountains
▪ Yellow – plateaus
▪ Green – plains
 Advantage: Provide maximum information in limited space.

4.6 Sketch and Plan

 Sketch:
▪ Rough drawing based on memory/observation.
▪ Not drawn to scale.
 Plan:
▪ Detailed drawing of a small area on a large scale.
 Chapter 5 – Major Domains of the Earth
5.1 Introduction: Major Domains of the Earth

 Earth is the only planet supporting life due to the presence of land, water, and
air.
 The Earth’s surface is a complex zone where three main components meet
and interact:
1. Lithosphere – solid land portion.
2. Hydrosphere – water bodies (liquid, ice, vapor).
3. Atmosphere – gaseous envelope around Earth.
 The zone of life where land, water, and air coexist is called the Biosphere.

5.2 Lithosphere

 Lithosphere: Solid outer layer including the Earth’s crust and the thin soil layer
rich in nutrients.
 Divided into:
▪ Continents – large landmasses.
▪ Ocean Basins – huge water bodies.
 All oceans are interconnected. Sea level is constant and used to measure
elevation.
▪ Highest point: Mt. Everest – 8,848 m above sea level.
▪ Deepest point: Mariana Trench – 11,022 m below sea level (Pacific Ocean).

Notable Climbers:

 First Mt. Everest ascent: Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) & Tenzing Norgay
(India), 29 May 1953.
 First woman climber: Junko Tabei (Japan), 16 May 1975.
 First Indian woman climber: Bachendri Pal, 23 May 1984.

5.3 Continents of the World

There are 7 major continents, separated by large water bodies:

Continent Key Facts

Largest continent (⅓ of Earth’s land area); in Eastern Hemisphere; Tropic of Cancer passes
Asia
through; separated from Europe by Ural Mountains; together called Eurasia.

Smaller than Asia; lies west of Asia; Arctic Circle passes through; surrounded by water on
Europe
3 sides.

2nd largest; Equator, Tropic of Cancer & Tropic of Capricorn pass through it; Sahara
Africa
Desert (world's largest hot desert); Nile (world's longest river).

North 3rd largest; joined to South America by Isthmus of Panama; lies in Northern & Western
America Hemisphere; surrounded by Atlantic, Pacific & Arctic Oceans.

South Lies mostly in Southern Hemisphere; surrounded by Atlantic (east) & Pacific (west); has
America Andes (longest mountain range) & Amazon (largest river by volume).

Australia Smallest continent; lies entirely in Southern Hemisphere; called Island Continent.

Lies completely in Southern Hemisphere; South Pole at center; covered with ice; no
Antarctica
permanent population; India’s research stations: Maitri & Dakshin Gangotri.
5.4 Hydrosphere

 Earth is called the Blue Planet:

▪ 71% water cover, 29% land.
▪ Hydrosphere includes all water forms: oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers,
groundwater, and water vapour.
 Distribution of Water:
▪ 97% of water in oceans – too salty for use.
▪ Remaining water mostly in ice sheets, glaciers, and underground; only a small
% is freshwater.

5.5 Oceans – Major Water Bodies

Ocean Key Features

Largest ocean (⅓ of Earth’s surface); Mariana Trench (deepest point); surrounded by

Pacific
Asia, Australia, North and South America.

2nd largest; S-shaped; bordered by Americas (west) & Europe/Africa (east); highly
Atlantic
indented coastline – ideal for ports; busiest ocean for trade.

Only ocean named after a country (India); triangular shape; bounded by Asia (north),
Indian
Africa (west), Australia (east).

Smallest; within Arctic Circle; surrounds North Pole; connected to Pacific via Bering
Arctic
Strait; bounded by northern coasts of North America and Eurasia.

5.6 Atmosphere

 Earth is surrounded by a gaseous layer – Atmosphere (Greek: atmos =

vapour).
 Extends up to 1,600 km above Earth’s surface.
 Functions:
▪ Provides air for breathing.
▪ Protects from harmful solar radiation.

Composition of Atmosphere:

 Nitrogen – 78%
 Oxygen – 21%
 Other gases (CO₂, Argon etc.) – 1%
 Oxygen: Essential for respiration.
 Nitrogen: Promotes plant growth.
 Carbon dioxide:
▪ Traps Earth’s heat (greenhouse effect).
▪ Vital for photosynthesis.

Layers of Atmosphere:

1. Troposphere
2. Stratosphere
3. Mesosphere
4. Thermosphere
5. Exosphere

 Air density decreases with height.

  Air pressure: Higher at sea level, lower at altitude; causes winds (air moves
from high to low pressure).

5.7 Biosphere – Domain of Life

 Biosphere: Narrow zone of interaction between land, water, and air; supports all
life forms.
 Comprises Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom.
 All life is interdependent on the biosphere.

5.8 Interactions Between Domains

Human/Natural Activity Impact

Deforestation Soil erosion due to removal of vegetation.

Submergence of land (e.g., Andaman & Nicobar Islands post-

Earthquakes/Tsunami
tsunami).

Industrial Waste in Rivers Water pollution – harmful to life.

Air Pollution (CO₂

Global warming due to greenhouse effect.
emissions)

 Need for sustainable use of resources to maintain balance among lithosphere,

atmosphere, and hydrosphere.

Chapter 6: Major Landforms of the

Earth
Overview:

 The Earth’s surface is uneven—some parts are rugged, others flat.

 Landforms are the result of internal and external processes:
o Internal Processes: Upliftment and sinking of Earth’s surface.
o External Processes: Wearing down and rebuilding of land by erosion
and deposition, carried out by running water, ice, and wind.

6.1 Types of Landforms:

Landforms based on elevation and slope:

 Mountains
 Plateaus
 Plains

6.2 Mountains:
 Definition: Any natural elevation of the Earth's surface higher than surrounding
areas.
 Characteristics:

o Steep slopes, small summit, broad base.

o Climate becomes colder with elevation.
o Some mountains lie under the sea (e.g., Mauna Kea, Hawaii – 10,205
m).

Types of Mountains:

1. Fold Mountains:
o Formed by folding of Earth’s crust.
o Examples:
 Young Fold Mountains: Himalayas (Asia), Alps (Europe),
Andes (South America).
 Old Fold Mountains: Aravalli (India), Appalachian (North
America), Ural (Russia).
o Young folds: Rugged relief and high peaks.
o Old folds: Rounded features and lower elevation due to erosion.
2. Block Mountains:
o Formed when large blocks of Earth's crust are displaced vertically.
o Uplifted blocks: Horsts; Lowered blocks: Grabens.
o Examples: Rhine Valley and Vosges Mountains (Europe).
3. Volcanic Mountains:
o Formed by volcanic activity.
o Examples: Mt. Kilimanjaro (Africa), Mt. Fujiyama (Japan).

Importance of Mountains:

 Source of Rivers: Glaciers feed many rivers.

 Water Reservoirs: Used for irrigation and hydroelectricity.
 Agriculture: River valleys and terraces are used for cultivation.
 Forests: Provide timber, fuel, fodder, and products like gum and resin.
 Biodiversity: Rich flora and fauna.
 Tourism and Sports: Scenic beauty, sports like skiing, rafting, paragliding
(e.g., Manali, Gulmarg in the Himalayas).

Do You Know?

 Mountains > 8,000 m: Mt. Everest (8,848 m), Kanchenjunga, Lhotse, Makalu,
etc.
 Mauna Kea: Underwater mountain, taller than Everest when measured from
base to peak.

6.3 Plateaus

 A plateau is an elevated, flat-topped landform standing above the surrounding

area.
 It may have steep slopes on one or more sides and varies in height from a few
hundred to several thousand metres.
 Types: Plateaus can be old or young.
o Examples:
 Deccan Plateau (India) – one of the oldest.
 East African Plateau – in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda.
 Western Plateau – Australia.
 Tibetan Plateau – world’s highest (4,000–6,000 m above mean
sea level).
Significance of Plateaus

 Rich in mineral resources: Many mining areas lie in plateau regions.

o Examples:
 African Plateau – gold and diamond mining.
 Chhotanagpur Plateau (India) – iron, coal, manganese reserves.
 Presence of waterfalls: Rivers fall from great heights.
o Examples: Hundru Falls (Subarnarekha River), Jog Falls (Karnataka).
 Lava Plateaus have fertile black soil, ideal for cultivation.
 Many plateaus have scenic beauty and attract tourists.

6.4 Plains

 Plains are large flat stretches of land, generally less than 200 m above sea
level.
 Some plains are extremely level, others slightly rolling or undulating.

Formation

 Formed by rivers and tributaries through erosion and deposition.

o Rivers erode mountains and deposit materials like silt, sand, stones in
valleys.
o These deposits form fertile plains.

Significance of Plains

 Fertile soil: Ideal for agriculture.

 Dense population: Flat land supports housing, transport, and farming.
 Ease of infrastructure development: Transport networks easily built.
o Examples:
 Asia: Indo-Gangetic Plains (Ganga & Brahmaputra), Yangtze
Plains (China).
 India: Indo-Gangetic plains – most densely populated.

Important Terms

 Mountains: Natural elevation of Earth's surface; types include Fold, Block,

Volcanic.
 Glaciers: Permanently frozen rivers of ice in mountains.
 Fold Mountains: Formed by compression of Earth’s crust (e.g., Himalayas,
Appalachians, Urals).
 Block Mountains: Formed by vertical displacement; uplifted – Horst, lowered
– Graben (e.g., Rhine Valley).
 Volcanic Mountains: Formed by volcanic activity (e.g., Mt. Kilimanjaro, Mt.
Fujiyama).
 Plateau: Flat-topped elevated land; rich in minerals; e.g., Deccan Plateau.
 Plain: Flat land formed by river deposits; supports dense population (e.g.,
Ganga-Brahmaputra Plains).
 Landforms: Natural features like valleys, hills, mountains, plains.
 Processes shaping landforms:
o Internal Process: Upliftment/sinking.
o External Process: Erosion/deposition.
 Formation of Plains: Through river erosion of mountains and deposition of
materials.
 Chapter 7: Our Country – India
7.1 India: An Overview

 India is a country of vast geographical expanse.

 Bounded by:
o North – Himalayas
o West – Arabian Sea
o East – Bay of Bengal
o South – Indian Ocean
 India is a peninsula (land surrounded by water on three sides).
 Total area: 3.28 million sq. km.
o North–South extent: ~3,200 km (Kashmir to Kanyakumari)
o East–West extent: ~2,900 km (Arunachal Pradesh to Kachchh)
 Physical diversity: Himalayas, deserts, plains, plateaus, coasts, and islands.
 Cultural diversity: Wide variety in climate, vegetation, wildlife, languages, and
culture.
 Unity in diversity is a key feature of India’s national identity.
 Population (2011): Over 120 crore; India is the 2nd most populous country
after China.

Do You Know?

 Large countries like the USA and Canada have multiple time zones (7 and 6
respectively).
 Russia has 11 time zones.
 India uses one Standard Time despite its large east-west extent.

7.2 Locational Setting

 India lies in the Northern Hemisphere.

 Tropic of Cancer (23°30′N) passes almost through the middle of India.
 Latitude Range: 8°4′N to 37°6′N
 Longitude Range: 68°7′E to 97°25′E
 India lies in the Eastern Hemisphere.
 Longitudinal extent causes about 2 hours time difference between easternmost
and westernmost points.
o Local time changes by 4 minutes per degree of longitude.
o Sun rises earlier in Arunachal Pradesh than in Gujarat.
 Indian Standard Time (IST) is based on 82°30′E longitude, known as the
Standard Meridian of India.

7.3 India’s Neighbours

 India shares land borders with 7 countries:

o Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and
Afghanistan.
o Note: Nepal, Bhutan, and Afghanistan are landlocked (no access to
sea/ocean).
 Island neighbours:
o Sri Lanka – separated from India by Palk Strait.
o Maldives – located to the south of Lakshadweep islands.

7.4 Political and Administrative Divisions

 India is divided into 29 States and 7 Union Territories.

o Delhi – National Capital
 o Rajasthan – Largest state (area-wise)
o Goa – Smallest state (area-wise)
 States are mainly formed on the basis of language.
 States are further divided into districts.

Important Terms

 Alluvial Deposits: Fine soils brought by rivers and deposited in river basins.
 Tributary: A river/stream that contributes water to a main river.
 Standard Meridian of India: 82°30′E longitude; basis for IST.

7.5 Physical Divisions of India

India exhibits diverse physical features – mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts, and
islands.

1. The Himalayas (Northern Mountains)

 Himalaya = “Abode of Snow”

 Divided into three parallel ranges:
o Himadri (Great Himalaya): Northernmost, highest peaks of the world
(e.g., Mount Everest).
o Himachal (Middle Himalaya): Known for hill stations (e.g., Shimla,
Mussoorie, Nainital, Darjeeling, Manali).
o Shiwalik: Southernmost and youngest range.

2. The Northern Plains

 Lies south of Himalayas, formed by alluvial deposits of Indus, Ganga,

Brahmaputra & their tributaries.
 Features: Flat, levelled, and fertile, enabling dense population & intensive
agriculture.
 Sundarbans Delta: World's largest delta, formed by Ganga & Brahmaputra,
triangular in shape at the river mouth.

3. The Great Indian Desert

 Located in western India (mainly Rajasthan).

 Dry, hot, sandy with sparse vegetation.

4. The Peninsular Plateau

 Lies south of Northern Plains; triangular shape, uneven relief with hills and
valleys.
 Important ranges:
o Aravalis (oldest in India), Vindhyas, Satpuras.
o Rivers: Narmada, Tapi – flow westwards into Arabian Sea.
 Bounded by:
o Western Ghats (Sahyadris) – continuous range in the west.
o Eastern Ghats – broken, uneven range in the east.
 Rich in minerals like coal and iron ore.

5. Coastal Plains

 Lie west of Western Ghats & east of Eastern Ghats.

 Western Coastal Plains: Narrow.
 Eastern Coastal Plains: Broad; home to fertile deltas.
 o Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri drain into Bay of
Bengal.

6. Islands

 Lakshadweep Islands – Coral islands in the Arabian Sea, west of Kerala

coast.
 Andaman & Nicobar Islands – In Bay of Bengal, southeast of Indian
mainland.
o 2004 Tsunami severely affected this group.
o Tsunami = Large sea wave caused by undersea earthquake.

Important Terms

 Peninsula: Land surrounded by water on three sides but connected to mainland.

 Tributary: River/stream that contributes to a main river.
 Delta: Triangular land at river’s mouth, formed by deposition; e.g., Sundarbans
Delta.
 Coral Islands: Formed from skeletons of marine animals (Polyps); e.g.,
Lakshadweep.
 Alluvial Deposits: Fine fertile soil brought by rivers and deposited in basins.

Chapter 8: India – Climate, Vegetation

and Wildlife
8.1 Weather and Climate

 Weather: Day-to-day atmospheric changes in temperature, rainfall, sunshine,

etc.
o Example: Hot or cold; sunny or cloudy; windy or calm.
 Climate: Long-term average weather condition over many years.

8.2 Major Seasons in India

Season Duration Features

Cold Weather Season December – Sun rays are slanted; low temperatures in
(Winter) February northern India.
Hot Weather Season High temperatures; hot, dry winds (loo)
March – May
(Summer) blow during daytime.
Southwest Monsoon June – Moist winds from Arabian Sea & Bay of
Season (Rainy) September Bengal cause rainfall.
Retreating Monsoon October – Winds retreat from land to sea; Tamil Nadu
(Autumn) November & Andhra Pradesh receive rain.

8.3 Monsoon – Key Feature of Indian Climate

 Indian climate is described as Monsoon type (from Arabic ‘Mausim’ =

season).
 Most rain brought by monsoon winds.
  Agriculture is monsoon-dependent: good monsoon = good harvest.
 Factors affecting climate: location, altitude, distance from sea, and relief.

Regional Climate Variations

Region Climate
Jaisalmer, Bikaner (Rajasthan) Very hot and dry (desert climate).
Drass, Kargil (Jammu & Kashmir) Freezing cold (mountain climate).
Mumbai, Kolkata Moderate and humid (coastal climate).
Mawsynram (Meghalaya) Highest rainfall in the world.
Jaisalmer (Some years) May receive no rainfall at all.

8.4 Natural Vegetation of India

Due to diverse climate, India has 5 types of natural vegetation:

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

2. Tropical Deciduous Forests
3. Thorny Bushes
4. Mountain Vegetation
5. Mangrove Forests

1. Tropical Rain Forests (Evergreen Forests)

 Location: Heavy rainfall areas – Andaman & Nicobar Islands, parts of North-
Eastern states, Western Ghats (west-facing slopes).
 Characteristics:
o Dense forests, sunlight hardly reaches ground.
o Trees shed leaves at different times → Evergreen appearance.
 Important trees: Mahogany, Ebony, Rosewood.

2 Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests)

 Found across large areas of India; less dense than evergreen forests.
 Trees shed leaves at a specific time of the year.
 Key species: Sal, Teak, Peepal, Neem, Shisham.
 Found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, and parts of Maharashtra.

3 Thorny Bushes

 Located in dry and arid regions; leaves are spiny to reduce water loss.
 Common species: Cactus, Khair, Babool, Keekar.
 Found in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and eastern slopes of
Western Ghats.

4 Mountain Vegetation

 Species vary with altitude; temperature decreases with height.

 Between 1500–2500 metres, coniferous trees (cone-shaped) dominate.
 Key species: Chir, Pine, Deodar.

65 Mangrove Forests
  Found in saline (salt) water regions; can survive in coastal conditions.
 Regions: Sunderbans (West Bengal) and Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
 Notable species: Sundari tree, after which Sunderbans are named.

8.5 Importance of Forests

 Forests release oxygen, absorb carbon dioxide, and prevent soil erosion by
binding the soil.
 Provide timber, fuelwood, fodder, medicinal plants, honey, gum, lac, etc.
 Natural habitat for wildlife; essential for ecological balance.
 Deforestation is rampant; need to plant more trees and protect existing ones.
 Awareness programs like Van Mahotsav are essential for conservation.

8.6 Wildlife of India

 India is home to thousands of animal species including reptiles, amphibians,

mammals, birds, insects, worms.
 Tiger is the national animal, found across India.
 Gir Forest (Gujarat): Home of Asiatic Lions.
 Elephants and one-horned rhinoceroses: Found in Assam, elephants also in
Kerala and Karnataka.
 Camels in the Thar Desert, wild asses in Rann of Kutch.
 Himalayas: Home to wild goats, snow leopards, bears, etc.
 Other animals: monkey, wolf, jackal, nilgai, cheetal.

8.7 Birdlife of India

 Rich bird diversity; Peacock is the national bird.

 Common birds: Parrot, Pigeon, Mynah, Bulbul, Duck, Goose.
 Bird sanctuaries created to provide natural habitat and protect from hunting.

8.8 Migratory Birds

 Birds migrate to India in winter for suitable climate.

 Examples: Pelican, Siberian Crane, Stork, Flamingo, Pintail Duck, Curlew.
 Siberian Crane migrates from Siberia, arrives in December, stays till early
March.