Conventions of text types

So what exactly are these 'conventions' referred to in the WA, Criterion C, Format?

Bear in mind that this list is for Paper 2, and candidates may use other text types in
WA if they wish.
These notes were produced by English B examiners, and conventions may be
different in other language cultures.
This is not an IB document and is simply what English B senior examiners will be
using as guidelines.

Here the recognisable features of each text type have been organised according to two
categories :-
Basic Format ... the most easily visible (and teachable) features of the text type -
'format' in the sense of layout, the physical organisation of the text.
Not all of the features listed would need to be present for the text type to be clearly
recognisable.
Approach ... the less visible features of how the text type would normally be handled
- register, writer's voice and tone, address to audience, organisation of ideas, and so
on.
Major elements are listed in descending order of importance (the most important
first). Again, not all of these need to be present.

Article
The term 'article' applies to a very wide range of styles and approaches. Clearly, it
carries the notion of a journalistic discourse, but the context – which includes where
it is to be published, and to whom it is to be addressed – will have a powerful
influence on how it is written (see NB, below).
Basic Format
- Headline / title
- Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
 - Sub-headings (possibly)
Approach
'Duty to inform' ? A defining element of any 'article' is that it sets out to inform
– does the script actually tell the reader something?
Precise nature of task ? Is the main purpose to :
Inform ? In which case, is the flow of information methodical and clear?
Discuss ? In which case, is there a reasonably balanced coverage of
different points of view?
Give opinion ? In which case, is a clear point of view presented? And is it
coherent / consistent?
Persuade? Does the text engage and involve the reader and appeal to
feelings as well as to reason?
Opening & closing Is the opening, in particular, attractive and attention-
catching ?
Address Is there a sense of effective address to the reader?
NB A basic problem of the 'article' as a task is that articles appear in many contexts,
and these contexts may define style and approach. Unless the question specifies the
publishing context very carefully, one should beware of jumping to conclusions – for
instance, a 'school magazine' may be written in many different ways, from jokey /
colloquial to formal / serious. Accept any approach which is credible and consistent.

Blog/diary entry
A distinction: both text types typically present personal experience and comment, but
a blog is more of a public statement, whereas a diary is more of a private reflection.
Beyond that, there is a problem: are there conventions for the relatively new blog - or
for the anarchically personal diary ?
Basic Format
Heading
Blog - title (perhaps quirky, witty); there may be multiple entries over various days.
These should be latest first, but accept any clear indication of day or date.
Diary - date; or dates, if multiple entries. 'Dear Diary' may be unrealistic, but we
should accept it as the student is at least conscious of the text type and is informing
the examiner of this.
Lucid paragraphing
While there may be real examples of both blogs and diaries which ignore basic
paragraphing, students writing an exam script are expected to show that they
understand that sensible paragraphing aids clarity.
Approach
> organisation - What should govern the effective organisation of these text
types?
- if a blog is a 'public statement', ideas can be expected to be organised to
show some evident and consistent purpose
- even if a diary is a (more) private reflection, an exam script can still be
expected to show a clear and organised flow of ideas. This may include :-
> control of narration – the diary is usually set to address a narrative
of some sort, so effective explanation and control of the events is
expected
> narration plus comment – what distinguishes the diary from other
forms of narrative is that the diarist reflects on the events and draws
personal conclusions.
> register : informality enriched with sophistication - if both text types are
personal, some informality can be expected in register and rhetoric, but higher
marks will go to exam scripts which combine colloquialism with dashes of
complex phrasing and effects.

Brochure, leaflet, flyer, pamphlet, advertisement

What all of these formats have in common is that they are concerned to disseminate
information quickly and concisely. The task may define an emphasis on informing
(e.g the health leaflet) or on promoting (e.g. the publicity brochure).
Basic Format
- Main heading (informing), or slogan (promoting)
- Use of multiple sections : identified by bullet points, lines, stars, etc
- Subheadings : used to show the steps/stages of the argument
- Succinct explanation : individual concepts / ideas are presented clearly and
quickly
- Background information : e.g. 'Contact us' + phone number / email
Approach
> 'address' - all of these text types include the idea of a form of direct address to
a target audience … are there indications that the student understands this, and
expresses such address?
> 'promotional language' – usually, these text types are all hortatory, they
encourage the target audience to agree with what is being presented, to 'buy the
idea' … so to what extent do the style and rhetoric achieve this effect?
> In certain cases, lucid step-by-step overall argument : individual points are
 linked together into a convincing sequence of ideas

Essay
The Essay is one of the commonest forms that teachers mark – but is there really
agreement on what is meant by 'a good essay' ? There are many different conventions
for many different types of essay, so which are expected, if any in particular, and how
are the conventions to be recognised ? Also, essays are not distinguished by any
particularly strong features of physical layout or format, but rather by a distinctive
organisation of ideas.
Basic Format
-there may be a title
- stated sense of purpose / aim : how effectively is the text directed at a clear
issue or question?
- introduction + conclusion : these should effectively embody the 'sense of
purpose'.
- clear organisation : both in terms of the individual steps of the argument, and
in terms of the overall pattern of the argument.
- clear and appropriate paragraphing : emphasising the logical steps of the
argument + good use of cohesives & sequence markers – all expected in a good
exam script.
Approach
> register - Tricky, this, because teachers seem to have differing expectations as
to how formal / impersonal an essay should be – for instance, some encourage
and some discourage the use of the pronoun 'I'. A good exam script will be
rewarded for consistency, rather than penalised for expectations that may not be
valid.
> range of aspects considered - There should be a sense that different
arguments are explored – if only to refute some of them. Actual balance
between, say Pro & Con, will depend on the task specified.
> rhetoric – Some touches of rhetoric may be expected, but not the regular
effects more typical of a speech .

Interview
There are two common varieties of 'interview': the 'transcript' and the 'embedded'.
The transcript reads like a script, being an accurate transcription of the words used,
without commentary or description. The embedded variety is essentially an article,
based on description and commentary, with liberal quotation (which may be either
direct quotation or reported speech).
NB for IB examining purposes:-
 the OLD Subject Guide (until Nov 2012) - required the Embedded and NOT
the Transcript
 the NEW Subject Guide (from May 2013) - requires the Transcript and NOT
the Embedded
HOWEVER , this must be clarified before May 2013. Here are notes on both.
Embedded
Basic Format
As with the Article text type …
- Headline / title
- Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
- Sub-headings (possibly)
- Interview details + context of interview + background of
interviewee
Approach
> opening & closing? Is the opening, in particular, attractive /
attention-catching ?
> address? Is there a sense of effective address to the reader?
> point of the interview: Does the script lead to some sort of overall
conclusion (which is likely to have been specified in the question) ?
> register: Are the changes between written prose and colloquial
dialogue handled effectively?
Transcript
Basic Format
- Question & Response - The basic structure will be defined by the
'alternating speeches' of the characters.
- Realistic oral interaction - complex exchanges, such as
interruptions, completions of questions, etc
Approach
> relevance + development How skilfully does the student handle
ideas, relevant to the task set ? This will be seen in (a) the questions
asked, and (b) the way that the dialogue develops .
> overall organisation Is a clear pattern of argument detectable,
 despite the 'division of labour' between the characters?
> rhetoric: How lively / entertaining is the sense of dialogue? This
may be suggested by humour, and elements of personal response such
as surprise.
> register: Does the dialogue reflect a sense of whatever degree of
formality may be implied by the task?

Introduction to debate, speech, talk, presentation

This text type involves the written form of a discourse to be presented orally. The task
may emphasise clear explanation (talk, presentation), or convincing argument
(introduction to debate, speech).
Basic Format
- 'address' established : direct address to audience at the beginning
- 'address' maintained : use of the pronouns 'you' and 'we' to maintain direct
links with the audience ? … and/or, how consistently?
- clear opening / introduction : statement of purpose
- appropriate closing / conclusion : summary of case / point
Approach
> Does the student aid the audience's understanding by giving an early
summary, or 'map', of what is going to be said?
> lucid development: How clearly does the script present ideas in order to
explain or impress?
> cohesive devices: How clear is the use of sequence markers to guide the
audience?
> opening & closing: How forcefully does the script catch the audience's
attention at the beginning, and leave a clear impression at the end?
> rhetoric: To what extent, and how effectively, are rhetorical techniques
used? Such as – rhetorical questions …humour…repetition… references …
metaphors … irony … exaggeration (understatement?) etc.

News report
The essence of a good news report is that it efficiently conveys a lot of clear facts
about a defined situation. News media always have restricted space, so the
information needs to be selected carefully and then presented concisely.

Basic Format
- Headline / title
 - Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
- Sub-headings (possibly)
Approach
> register : ... usually, semi-formal / clear / direct
> main facts to subordinate details : ... standard good practice in news reporting
is to start with the important facts, and move gradually downwards to the least
important facts (also known as the 'cut-from-the-bottom system' - subeditors
could safely trim the text to size without having to re-write)
> fact / opinion distinction : ... good journalism always strives to make clear
what are objective facts, and what subjective opinions (e.g. opinions likely to be
expressed as quotes from identified individuals).

Official report
The essence of this text type is the ability to present a clear explanation of a given
subject – which involves (i) analysis, (ii) summary and (iii) organisation. What is
meant by 'official' would presumably be defined in the question / task, but the
fundamental skill in handling this text type must be to organise explanation in an
objective and logical way.
Basic Format
- overall subject title
- main headings
- sub-headings, bullet points, numbered sections
- explicit clear organisation : determined by the precise nature of the task, but
these main elements should probably be recognisable :
background … overall description … description of important details …
concluding summary.
- register : use of (basically) formal language
Approach
> 'address': How well does the script direct the proposal to a specific
audience?
Review
This text type is really a journalistic form, which aims to combine objective
information with subjective opinion. The (dominant) element of 'opinion' should
involve analysis and evaluation – while the journalism context usually demands that
the overall impact should be interesting and entertaining. A review is not the same
thing as a commentary (which implies an academic context).
Basic Format
- Headline / title
- Sub-headline, summarising
- Byline (author, date, location)
- Short paragraphs (possibly)
- Sub-headings (possibly)
Approach
> 'address' - lively, direct communication that will interest the audience. [This
is likely to involve a semi-formal register (for clarity and concise explanation)
with dashes of informality to convey the personal tone + vivid comment /
rhetoric.]
> 'Angle' – the script has a clear overall point of view / attitude, and this informs
the structure of the argument

Set of instructions, guidelines

The essence of these two related but distinct text types is that they both aim to give
precise guidance as to how to handle a practical situation. The key to good
instructions is that they give concrete explanation in a precise sequence, whereas the
key to good guidelines is that they give general explanation, which may or may not
involve precise sequence.
Basic Format
- main heading / title
- secondary headings (guidelines)
- numbered sections (instructions)
- short paragraphs
-recommendation eg. to see the film
Approach
> control of language - * plain & clear i.e. functional and efficient *
explanation of technical terms – where technical terms have to be used, are they
explained / defined ?
> clear sequence (for instructions) – a sense of logical steps
 > attention to detail + control of essential, useful information
> anticipation of difficulties – understanding which parts of the process may
cause problems for the uninformed
> empathy with audience – most easily detected by the ability to anticipate
difficulties, (e.g. explanation of technical terms, above), but may also involve
use of encouraging, helpful comments

Set of instructions, guidelines

The essence of these two related but distinct text types is that they both aim to give
precise guidance as to how to handle a practical situation. The key to good
instructions is that they give concrete explanation in a precise sequence, whereas the
key to good guidelines is that they give general explanations, which may or may not
involve a precise sequence.
Basic Format
- main heading / title
- secondary headings (guidelines)
- numbered sections (instructions)
- short paragraphs
Approach
> control of language – plain, clear and efficient . Some explanation of
technical terms if these are used.
> clear sequence (for instructions) – a sense of logical steps
> attention to detail +control of essential, useful information
> anticipation of difficulties – understanding which parts of the process may
cause problems for the reader.
> empathy with audience – most easily detected by the ability to anticipate
difficulties, (e.g. explanation of technical terms, above), but may also involve
use of encouraging, helpful comments.

Written correspondence
This group of text types involve writing directly to a specific reader – as opposed to
the other text types, which all involve writing for a generalised or notional audience.
The fundamental distinction between 'formal and 'informal' is that in the formal type
the purpose of the letter is more important than the relationship with the reader,
whereas in the informal type, the relationship between writer and reader is at least as
important as the purpose.
Formal letter
Basic Format
- sender's address
- date
- opening/closing salutations ('Dear Mr/Ms ...' / 'Yours sincerely...'
etc)
> register : nature of 'formal' tone - what address + attitude to the
recipient is expressed ?
- recipient's address (very optional)

Approach
> relevance: How consistently is the text focused on the set task /
purpose?
> development of explanation: How succinct + clear/forceful is the
presentation of the ideas?
Informal letter
Expectations for Informal letters and for E-mails are very similar – but it may be
useful to look at the small but significant differences between the two sets of
recommended features.
Basic Format
- date (or simply day: 'Saturday')
- opening/closing salutations (personal + friendly - 'Dear Joe ...' /
'All the best / A big kiss...' etc)
Approach
> 'address': To what extent is it clear that the e-mail is addressed to a
specific person? (Contrast with E-mail , below - less sense of
'dialogue' is expected since letters do not receive such rapid replies !)

> relevance & organisation: Contrast with E-mail: is it fair to say

that written letters may be produced rather more slowly, and so with
more consideration? If so, would require more careful attention to
structure?
 > focus on task: Since the question will always propose a task, does
most of the message deal with the task? And if so, how effectively?
> control of digression: One key could be to assess whether the
'digressions' are purposeful or accidental – for instance, chatty asides,
jokes, personal references (see concept of 'dialogue' under 'address',
above) may actually indicate good control of attention.
> register: To what extent is there evidence that the candidate has
command of a range of register - informal combined with formal …
colloquial with sophisticated ? ('command' means 'moving
deliberately from one register to another')
E-mails
The email is a relatively new form of text, and no generally-agreed codes of
formal expectations have yet evolved – quite apart from the fact that there are
vast variations in how the type is used in practice. That said, for marking
purposes there are a few ground rules that can be advanced, based on a
common-sense approach to the communicative function of the type.
The basis of the following suggested 'rules' is that any email produced in an
English B exam will be produced in response to a question, and that question
will always have a specific task – candidates will never be asked simply to
produce idle chat.
Basic Format
- standard heading of 'from / to / date ...etc'
- informal opening and closing salutations (many and various)
Approach
> 'address': To what extent is it clear that the email is addressed to a
specific person? This may be extended to include a sense of 'dialogue'
– direct questions, comments which require an answer – since it is
inherent in the email form that replies can be received very rapidly.
> focus on task – Since the question will always propose a task, does
most of the message deal with the task? And if so, how effectively?
> control of digression - One key could be to assess whether the
'digressions' are purposeful or accidental – for instance, chatty asides,
jokes, personal references (see concept of 'dialogue' under 'address',
above) may actually indicate good control of attention, if handled
clearly and with discipline.
> register: To what extent is there evidence that the candidate has
command of a range of register - informal combined with formal …
colloquial with sophisticated ? ('command' means 'moving deliberately
from one register to another')