1

Transformer
Introduction

The transformer is probably one of the most useful electrical devices ever invented. It can
change the magnitude of alternating voltage or current from one value to another. This useful
property of transformer is mainly responsible for the widespread use of alternating currents
rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form
of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged and durable in construction,
thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as high as 99%. In this
chapter, we shall study some of the basic properties of transformers.

1.Transformer

A transformer is a static device of

o f equipment used either for raising or lowering the
voltage of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially
consists of two windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic
core as shown in Fig 1. The winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or
primary) and the one connected to load is called secondary winding (or secondary). The
alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number o f turns of the primary (N1) and secondary
(N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2
in the secondary causes a secondary current I2. Consequently, terminal voltage
V2 will appear across the load.
If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.
If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

Figure 1

Working

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary,

primary, an alternating ϕ
a lternating flux is set up in
the core. This alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.m.f.s E1 and E2 in them
according to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E 1 is termed as primary
e.m.f. and e.m.f. E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.
 2

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and
primary respectively.

If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up
step -up transformer.
If N2 < N1, then E2 < E 1 (or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.

If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I 2
to flow through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to
another with a change in voltage level.

The following points may be noted carefully:

(i) The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.

(ii) There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(iii) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same
frequency as the input power.
(iv) The losses that o ccur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses—eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses—in the resistance of the windings

In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input
primary power. In other words, a transformer has very high efficiency.

E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary

ϕ
as shown in Fig. . The sinusoidal flux produced by the primary can be represented as:

ϕ=ϕm sinωt
When the primary winding is exited by a n alternating voltage V1, it is circulating
c irculating alternating
current, producing an alternating fluxϕ
 3

Φ - Flux
Φm - maximum value of flux
N1 - Number of primary turns
N2 - Number of secondary turns
F - Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 - R.m.s value of the primary induced e.m.f
E2 - R.m.s. value of the secondary induced e.m.f

The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

Φm

Π 2π

 ωt

1 2
- ϕ
m

Sinwave

From faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

∅
Average e.m.f per turns =

ϕ
d = change in flux
dt = time
time required for
for change in flux

ϕ
The flux increases from zero value to maximum value m in 1/4f of the time period

That is in 1/4f seconds.

The change of flux that takes place in 1/4f seconds = ϕm-0 = ϕm webers
 4

 =  = 4fϕ w /sec.
 / m b

Since flux ϕ varies sinusoidally, the R.m.s value of the induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying
the average value with the form factor

..  = 1.11

Form factor
factor of a sinwave =
 
in one turns = 4ϕ f x 1.11 Volts.
R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in m

= 4.44ϕ f Volts.
m

R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in primary winding = 4.44ϕ f N1Volts.

m

R.M.S Value of e.m.f induced in secondary winding = 4.44ϕ f N2Volts.

m

The expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f equation of a transformer

t ransformer

V1= E1= 4.44 ϕ f N Volts.

m 1
V2 = E2=4.44 ϕ f N Volts.
m 2

VOTAGE RATIO

Voltage transformation ratio is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
secondary winding to the e.m.f induced in the primary winding.

= . 
 . 
 =  = K
 
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is known as voltage
transformation ratio

E2= KE1 where K =



1. If N2>N1 i.e. K>1 we get E2>E1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.
2. If N2<N1 i.e. K<1 we get E2<E1 then the transformer is called step down transformer.
 5

3. If N2=N1 i.e. K=1 we get E2=E1 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
transformer.

CURRENT RATIO

Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I1) to the current
flowing through the secondary winding (I2)

In an ideal transformer

Apparent input power = Apparent output power.

V1I1 = V2I2

 =  =  = K
  

VOLT – AMPERE RATING

i) The transformer rating is specified as the pro ducts of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii) On both sides, primary and secondary
seco ndary VA rating remains same. This rating is
generally expressed in KVA (Kilo Volts Amperes rating).

 =  = K
 
V1I1 = V2I2
KVA Rating of a transformer =
 =  (1000 is to convert KVA to VA)
 
V1 and V2 are the Vt of primary and secondary by using KVA rating we can calculate I1 and I2
Full load current and it is safe maximum current.

   

I1 Full load current =

   
I Full load current =
1

TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

i) Ideal trans former

ii) Practical transformer
 6

Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is one that has

(i) No winding resistance
(ii) No leakage flux i.e., the same flux links both the windings
(iii) No iron losses (i.e., eddy current and hysteresis losses) in the core

Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet its study provides a very powerful
tool in the analysis of a practical transformer. In fact, practical transformers have properties that
approach very close to an ideal transformer.

Figure

Consider an ideal transformer on no load i.e., secondary is open-circuited as shown in

Fig. (i). under such conditions, the primary is simply a coil of pure inductance. When an
alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary, it draws a small magnetizing current I m which
lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. This alternating current Im produces an alternating flux ϕ
ϕ
which is proportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux links both the windings and
induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the secondary. The primary e.m.f. E 1 is, at every
instant, equal to and in opposition to V1 (Lenz’s law). Both e.m.f.s E1 and E2 lag behind flux ϕ
by 90°.However, their magnitudes depend upon the number of primary and secondary turns.

ϕ
Fig. (2 (ii)) shows the phasor diagram of an ideal transformer on no load. Since flux is
common to both the windings, it has been taken as the reference phasor. The primary e.m.f. E1
ϕ
and secondary e.m.f. E2 lag behind the flux by 90°. Note that E1 and E2 are inphase. But
But E1 is
equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.

=  = K
 

PHASOR DIAGRAM

i) Φ(flux) is reference
ii) ϕ
Im produce and it is is in phase with ϕ V Leads I
1 m 90˚
by 90˚
 7

iii) E1 and E2 are inphase and both opposing supply voltage V1, winding is purely
90˚.
inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90˚.
iv) The power input to the transformer

(90˚)
P = V1I1 cos (90˚) (cos90˚˚ = 0)
(cos90
P= 0 (ideal transformer)

Practical Transformer on no load

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in many respects. The practical
transformer has (i) iron losses (ii) winding resistances a nd (iii) Magnetic leakage

(i) Iron losses. Since the iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and
hysteresis loss in it. These two losses together are known as iron losses or core losses. The iron
losses depend upon the supply frequency, maximum flux density in the core, volume of the core
etc. It may be noted that magnitude of iron losses is quite small in a practical transformer.

(ii) Winding resistances. Since the windings consist of copper conductors, it immediately
follows that both primary and secondary will have winding resistance. The primary resistance R1
and secondary resistance R2 act in series with the respective windings as shown in Fig. Fig. When
current flows through the windings, there will be power loss as well as a loss in voltage due to
IR drop. This will affect the power factor and E1 will be less than V1 while V2 will be less than
E 2.

Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit as

Shown in Fig.
Fig. The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply
(i) the iron losses and
(ii) (ii) a very small amount of copper loss in the primary.
Hence the primary no load current I0 is not 90° behind the applied voltage V1 but lags it
ϕ
by an angle 0 < 90° as shown in the phasor diagram.
No load input power, W0 = V1 I0 cos 0 ϕ
As seen from the phasor diagram in Fig., the no-load primary current I0
 8

(i) The component Ic in phase with the applied voltage V1. This is known as active or working or
iron loss component and supplies the iron loss and a very small primary copper loss.
Ic= I0 cos 0 ϕ
The component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° and is known as magnetizing component. It is this
component which produces the ϕ
t he mutual flux in the core.

Im = Io sin 0 ϕ
Clearly, Io is phasor sum of Im and Ic,

√ + 
Io =

No load P.F., cosϕo =



The no load primary copper loss (i.e. 
R1) is very small and may be neglected.
Therefore, the no load primary input power
p ower is practically equal to the iron loss in the transformer
ϕ
i.e., No load input power, W0 = V1Iocos o = Pi = Iron loss

Practical Transformer on Load

Φ 2

V1 V2 V1

(i) (ii)
Φ ϕ2 ϕ2’ ϕ

V1 v1

(III) (iv)
 9

Note. At no load, there is no current in the secondary so that V2 = E2. On the primary side, the
drops in R1 and X1, due to I0 are also very small because of the smallness of I0. Hence, we can
say that at no load, V1 = E1.

i) When transformer is loaded, the secondary current I2 is flows through the

secondary winding.
ii) Already Im magnetizing current flow in the primary winding fig (i)
iii) The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to V2 is determined by the
characteristics of the load.
a) I2 inphase with V2 (resistive load)
b) I2lags with V2 (Inductive load)
c) I2leads with V2 (capacitive load)
iv) Flow of secondary current I2 produce new Flux 2 fig (ii) ϕ
v) Φis main flux which is produced by the primary to maintain the transformer as
constant manatising component.

vi) ϕ
Φ2 opposes the main flux , the total flux in the core reduced. It is called de-
magnetising ampere-turns due to this E1 reduced.
vii) ϕ
To maintain the constant primary winding draws more current(I2’) from the
ϕ
supply(load component of primary) and produce 2’ flux which is oppose 2(but ϕ
ϕ
in same direction as ), to maintain flux constant flux constant in the core
fig (iii).
viii) The load component current I2’ always neutralizes the changes in the load.
ix) Whatever the load conditions, the net flux passing through
throug h the core is
approximately the same as at no-load. An important deduction is that due to the
constancy of core flux at all loads, the core loss is also practically the same under
all load conditions fig (iv).

Φ2 = ϕ’ N2I2 = N1I2’ I 2’ =
 XI = KI2
2
 2

PHASOR DIAGRAM

i) ϕ
Take ( ) flux as reference for all load
ii) The no load Io which lags by an angle ϕ
a ngle o. Io = + √  
.
iii) The load component I2’, which is in antiphase with I2 and phase of I2 is decided by
the load.
iv) Primary current I 1 is vector sum of I o and I2’

I 1 = Io + I2’

I1 =  + 2 
′

ϕ
a) If load is Inductive, I 2 lags E2 by 2, shown in phasor diagram (a).
b) If load is resistive, I 2 inphase with E2 shown in phasor diagram (b).
ϕ
c) If load is capacitive load, I2 leads E2 by 2 shown in phasor diagram (c).
 10

Note:
For easy understanding at this stage E2 is assumed equal to V2 neglecting various drops.

≅
I1 I2 ’
Balancing the ampere – turns

N1I2’ = N1I1 + N2I2

 =  = K
 
EFFECT OF WINDING RESISTANCE

In practical transformer it process its own winding resistance causes power loss and also
the voltage drop.

R1 – primary winding resistance in ohms.

R2 – secondary winding resistance in ohms.

The current flow in primary winding make voltage drop across it is denoted as I1R1 here supply
supp ly
voltage V1 has to supply this drop primary induced e.m.f E1 is the vector difference between V1
and I1R1

E1 = V1 – I1R1

Similarly the induced e.m.f in secondary

secondar y E2, The flow of
o f current in secondary winding makes
voltage drop across it and it is denoted as I2R2 here E2 has to supply this drop.
 11

The vector difference between E2 and I2R2

V2 = E2 – I2R2
Note:
Assumed as purely resistive drop here.

EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

1) It would now be shown that the resistances of the two windings can be transferred to
any one of the two winding.
2) The advantage of concentrating both the resistances in one winding is that it makes
calculations very simple and easy because one has then to work in one winding only.
3) Transfer to any one side either
e ither primary or secondary without affecting the
performance of the transformer.

The total copper loss due to both the resistances.

Total copper loss = I1²R1 + I2²R2

= I1²[R1 +
 ]
²


²

= I1²[R1 + R]
 2
 is the resistance value of R shifted to primary side and denoted as R ’.
R ’ is the equivalent resistance o f secondary referred to primary
²
2 2

R2’ =

²

Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary fig (ii)

(ii)

R1e = R1 + R2’ = R1 +

 ²

R1 R2
V1 V2

I1 I2

(i)
 12

(ii)

(iii)

Similarly it is possible to refer the equivalent resistance to secondary winding.


Total copper loss = I1²R1 + I2²R2 = I2² [
²
R1 + R2]
 ²

= I2²[K²R1 + R2]
K²R1 is primary resistance referred to secondary denoted as R1’.

R1’ = K²R1
Equivalent resistance of transformer referred to secondary, denoted as R2e

R2e = R2 + R1’ = R2 + K²R1

Total copper loss = I2² R2e

 13

Note:

i) When a resistance is to be transferred from the primary to secondary, it must be

multiplied by K², it must be divided by K² while transferred from the secondary to
primary.

High voltage side low current side high resistance side

Low voltage side high current side low resistance side

EFFECT OF LEAKAGE REACTANCE

i) It has been assumed t hat all the flux linked with primary winding also links the
secondary winding. But, in practice, it is impossible to realize this condition.
ii) ϕ
However, primary current would produce flux which would wou ld not link the secondary
ϕ
winding. Similarly, current would produce some flux that would not link link the
primary winding.
iii) ϕ
The flux L1 complete its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around
the core, as shown in fig. This flux is known as primary leakage flux and is
proportional to the primary ampere – turns alone because the secondary turns do not
ϕ
links the magnetic circuit of L1. It induces an e.m.f eL1 in primary but not in
secondary.
iv) ϕ
The flux L2 complete its magnetic circuit by passing through air rather than around
the core , as shown in fig. This flux is known as secondary leakage flux and is
proportional to the secondary ampere
a mpere – turns alone
a lone because the primary turns do not
ϕ
links the magnetic circuit of L2. It induces an e.m.f e L2 in secondary but not in
primary.

eL1 eL2

ϕL1 ϕ L2

ϕL1 – primary leakage flux

ϕ L2 – secondary leakage flux
eL1 – self
se lf induced e.m.f (primary)
eL2 –self induced e.m.f (secondary)
 14

EQUIVALENT LEAKAGE REACTANCE

Similarly to the resistance, the leakage reactance also can be transferred from primary to
secondary. The relation through K² remains same for the transfer of reactance as it is studied
earlier for the resistance

X1 – leakage reactance of primary.

X2 - leakage reactance of secondary.
Then the total leakage reactance
react ance referred to primary is X1e given by

X1e = X1 + X2’

X2’ =

²

The total leakage reactance referred to secondary is X2e given by

X2e = X2 + X1’
X1’ = K²X1

X1e = X1 + X2’
X2e = X2 + X1’

EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE

The transformer winding has both resistance and reactance (R1, R2, X1,X2)

Thus we can say that the total impedance of primary winding isZ1 which is,

Z1 = R1 + jX1 ohms
 15

On secondary winding
Z2 = R2 + jX2 ohms

Individual magnitude of Z1 and Z2 are

Z1 = √1 + 1
Z2 = √2 + 2
Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance also can be referred to any one side

Z1e = total equivalent impedance referred

re ferred to primary

Z1e = R1e + jX1e = Z1 + Z2’ = Z1 +


²

Z2e = total equivalent impedance referred to secondary.

Z2e = R2e + jX2e = Z2 + Z1’ = Z2 + K²Z1

The magnitudes of Z1e and Z2e

Z1 = √1 + 1
Z2 = √2 + 2
 16

It can be noted that

Z2e = K²Z1e and Z1e =


 ²

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

No load equivalent circuit

Im = Io sin ϕ = magnetizing component

o
Ic = Io cos ϕ = Active component
o

Ro =
 , Xo =

 

i) Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance Xo called no load
reactance while Ic is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to
flow through the resistance R0
ii) Equivalent resistance is shown in fig.
iii) When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I2 flows causes
voltage drop across R2 and X2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current.

I 2’ =


I1 is the phasor addition of Io and I2’. This I1 causes the voltage drop across primary
resistance R1 and reactance X1

To simplified the circuit the winding is not t aken in equivalent circuit while transfer to o ne side.
 17

Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Transferring secondary parameter to primary

R2’ =
 , X ’ =  , Z ’ =  , E ’ =  , I ’ = KI 2 , K =

 ²
2
 ² 2
²
2
′
2

Note :
High voltage winding low current high impedance
low voltage winding high current low impedance

Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

R1’ = R1K², X1’ = K²X1 , E1’ = KE1

Z1’ = K²Z1 , I1’ =

 , I = 
′
o

 18

Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z1 and Z2’, the impedances
cannot be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

i) To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing Ro and Xo
to the left of R1 and X1.
ii) By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R1 and X1 to I o is neglected
due to this circuit because more simple
iii) This equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.

Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

Simplified equivalent circuit

In this circuit new R1 and R2’ can be combined to get equivalent circuit referred to primary
R1e,similarly X1 and X2’ can be combined to get X1e.
 19

R1e = R1 + R2’ = R1 +


²

X1e = X1 + X2’ = X1 +
  ²


Z1e = R1e + jX1E, R =
 , o and Xo =

Ic = Io cos ϕ,o and Im = Io sin ϕ
o

APPROXIMATE VOLTAGE DROP IN A TRANSFORMER

E2 = I2R2e + I2X2e + V2 = V2 + I2 (R2e + jX2e), E2 = V2 + I2Z2e

Primary parameter is referred to secondary there are no voltage drop in primary. When there is
no load, I2 = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage drop in

V2o = E2 = no load terminal voltage

V2 = terminal voltage on load
 20

FOR LAGGING P.F

i) The current I2 lags V2 by angle 2 ϕ

ii) Take V2 as reference
iii) 90˚
I2R2e is inphase with I2 while I2 X2e leads I2 by 90˚

iv) Draw the circle with O as center and OC as radius cutting extended OA at M. as OA
= V2 and now OM = E2.
v) The total voltage drop is AM = I2Z2e.
vi) The angle α is practically very small and in practice M&N are very close to each
other. Due to this the approximate voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM

AN – approximate voltage drop

To find AN by adding AD& DN

ϕ
AD = AB cos = I2R2e cos ϕ
ϕ
DN = BL sin = I2X2e sin ϕ
AN = AD + DN = I2R2e cos ϕ + I X sinϕ
2 2 2e 2
ϕ ϕ ϕ
Assuming: 2 = 1 =

ϕ ϕ
Approximate voltage drop = I2R2e cos +I2X2e sin (referred to secondary)
Similarly:
ϕ ϕ
Approximate voltage drop = I1R1e cos +I1X1e sin (referred to primary)

Leading P.F Loading

I2 leads V2 by angle ϕ
2

ϕ ϕ
Approximate voltage drop = I2R2e cos - I2X2e sin (referred to secondary)
Similarly:
ϕ ϕ
Approximate voltage drop = I1R1e cos - I1X1e sin (referred to primary)
 21

Unity P.F. Load

ϕ
Cos = 1
ϕ
Sin = 0

Approximate voltage drop = I2R2e (referred to secondary)

Similarly:
Approximate voltage drop = I1R1e (referred to primary)

Approximate voltage drop = E2 – V2

ϕ ϕ
= I2R2e cos ± I2X2e sin (referred to secondary)
ϕ ϕ
= I1R1e cos ± I1X1e sin (referred to primary)

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER

The voltage regulation of a transformer is the arithmetic difference between the no – load
secondary voltage (E2) and the secondary voltage on load expressed as percentage of no – load
voltage.

 x100
%R=

The ratio (2 − 2)/ 2) is called per unit regulation.

E2 = no load secondary voltage = KV1

V2 = secondary voltage on load
The secondary voltage also depends on the power factor of the load

V2< E2 - lagging power factor - ‘+’ve Regulation

E2 < V2 - leading power factor - ‘-‘ve Regulation

EXPRESSION FOR VOLTAGE REGULATION

 x100 =    x100

%R=
 
 22

By using the expression of voltage drop from approximate voltage drop

Total voltage drop = I2R2e cos ϕ ± I X sinϕ.

2 2e

Substitute in above we get

ϕ
I2R2e cos ± I2X2e sin ϕ x100
%R=

Note:

‘+’ve – sign for lagging power factor

‘-‘ve - sign for leading power factor

The regulation can be further expressed in terms of I1, V1, R1e and X1e
 =  = K
 
 R =  , X = 
V2 = KV1,

I2 =
² 1e
² 1e

I1R1e cosϕ ± I1X1e sinϕ

x100
%R=

ZERO VOLTAGE REGULATION

In above regulation we had seen about the positive and negative regulation. But as load
becomes capacitive, V2 starts increasing as load increases. At a certain leading power factor we
get E2 = V2 and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is increased further, E 2 > V2 and we get
negative regulation.

For zero voltage regulation,

E2 = V2
E2 – V2 = 0

VR cos ϕ – V sinϕ = 0
X

 =  and V =  = 

VR =
   
X
 23

VR cosϕ = V sin ϕ
X

tan ϕ =


cos ϕ = cos{ tan =
 }

Losses in a Transformer

The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;

1. Core or Iron losses

2. Copper losses

These losses appear in the form of heat and produce (i) an increase in
Temperature and (ii) a drop in efficiency.

Core or Iron losses (Pi)

These consist of hysteresis and eddy current losses and occur in the transformer core due
to the alternating flux. These can be determined by open-circuit test.

1.6 3
Hysteresis loss = kh f B m watts /m

Kh – hysteresis constant depend on material

f - Frequency
Bm – maximum flux density

2 2 2 3
Eddy current loss = Ke f Bm t watts /m

Ke – eddy current constant

t - Thickness of the core

Both hysteresis and eddy current losses depend upon

(i) maximum flux density Bm in the core
(ii) supply frequency f. Since transformers are connected to constant-frequency,
constant voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses
are practically the same at all loads.

Iron or Core losses, Pi = Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss = Constant losses (Pi)
The hysteresis loss can be minimized by using steel of high silicon content
Whereas eddy current loss can be reduced by using core of thin laminations.
 24

Copper losses (Pcu)

These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. These can be determined by short-circuit test. The copper loss depends on the
magnitude of the current flowing through the windings.
2 2 2
Total copper loss = I1²R1 + I2 R2 = I1 (R1 + R2’) = I2 (R2 + R1’)

Total loss = iron loss + copper loss = Pi + Pcu

Efficiency of a Transformer
Like any other electrical machine, the
t he efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of output
power (in watts or kW) to input power (watts or kW)
kW) i.e.,
Power output = power input – Total losses
Power input = power output + Total losses
= power output + Pi + Pcu

 
Efficiency =
 
 
Efficiency =
 
Power output = V I cosϕ, Cos ϕ = load power factor
2 2
Transformer supplies full load of current I 2 and with terminal voltage V2
2
Pcu = copper losses on full load = I2 R2e

 
 ²
Efficiency =

V I = VA rating of a transformer
2 2
( ) 
(  )   ²
Efficiency =

( )  

( )  ²
% Efficiency = X 100

This is full load efficiency and I2 = full load current.

We can now find the full-load
full-load efficiency
e fficiency of the transformer at any p.f. without actually loading
loading
the transformer.
 25

( 
  
 ) 
(   
 ) ²
Full load Efficiency =

Also for any load equal to n x full-load,

Corresponding total losses = P i + n2PCu

 
n = fractional by which load is less than full load =
 
  
( )
n=
 =  = 0.5
Corresponding (n) % Efficiency =
( )  X 100
( ) ²

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Voltage and frequency supply to the transformer is constant the

t he efficiency varies with the
load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it loaded further the
efficiency start decreases as shown in fig.

The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I2m and maximum

efficiency is denoted as max
1) condition for maximum efficiency

2) load current at which max occurs
3) KVA supplied at maximum efficiency
Considering primary side,
ϕ
Load output = V1I1 cos 1
Copper loss = I12 R1e or I22 R2e
Iron loss = hysteresis + eddy current loss = Pi
 26

  = 

Efficiency =
 ²
   
=1–
 = 
 
 
Differentiating both sides with respect to I2, we get

 = 0 –  = 
 
  ² 
For  to be maximum,
 = 0. Hence, the above equation becomes

 =  or 2
Pi = I1 R1e

  ² 
Pcu loss = Pi iron loss
The output current which will make Pcu loss equal to the
t he iron loss. By proper design,
des ign, it is
possible to make the maximum efficiency occur at any desired load.

Load current I2m at maximum efficiency

For max I2
2
R2e = Pi but I2 = I2m

I
2
2m R2e = Pi I2m = 
This is the load current at  max
(I2)F.L = full load current

 =
  
(). ()  

 =   =  
() . [(I2) F.L]²  [ ]F.L

I2m = (I2) F.L.  

[ ]F.L
 27

This is the load current at max in terms of full load current

cu rrent

KVA SUPPLIED AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of load current.

KVA at  max = I2m V2 = V2(I2)F.L. X  

[ ]F.L

KVA at  max = (KVA rating) X  

[ ]F.L

Substituting condition for  max in the expression of efficiency, we can

ca n write expression for
max as ,
as Pcu = Pi

  
  X 100
%

 
max =

% =
 
  
max

Testing of Transformer

The testing of transformer means to determine efficiency and regulation of a transformer

at any load and at any power factor condition.
There are two methods
i) Direct loading test
ii) Indirect loading test
a. Open circuit test
b. Short circuit test

Load test on transformer

This method is also called as direct loading test on transformer because the load is
directly connected to t he transformer. We required various meters to measure the input and
 28

output reading while change the load from zero to full load. Fig shows t he connection of
transformer for direct load test.

The primary is connected through the variac to change the input voltage as we required. Connect
the meters as shown in the figure

S.No. Primary side Secondary side

V1 (v) I1 (A) W1 (W) V2 (V) I2 (A) W1 (W)
1 Rated E2 0 0
2 ..

The load is varied from no load to full load in desired steps.

st eps. All the time, keep primary
pr imary
voltage V1 constant at its rated value with help of variac and tabulated the reading

The first reading is to be noted on no load for which I2 = 0 A and W2 = 0W

Calculation
From the observed reading
W1 = input power to the transformer
W2 = output power delivered to the load
 29

%  = 
 X 100
The first reading is no load so V2 = E2
The regulation can be obtained as

%R=
 X 100

The graph of %  and % R on each load against load current I is plotted as shown in fig
L

Efficiency and regulation characteristics

Advantages:
1) This test enables us t o determine the efficiency of the transformer accurate ly at any
load.
2) The results are accurate as load is directly used
Disadvantages:
1) There are large power losses during the test
2) Load not avail in lab while test
t est conduct for large transformer

Open-Circuit or No-Load Test

This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and parameters R0 and
X0 of the transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually low-voltage
winding) while the secondary is left open circuited. The applied primary voltage V1 is measured
by the voltmeter,
vo ltmeter, the no load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by wattmeter as
shown in Fig. As the normal rated voltage is applied to the primary, therefore, normal iron losses
will occur in the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses and small copper
loss in the primary. Since no-load current I0 is very small (usually 2-10 % of rated current). Cu
 30

losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared with iron losses. Hence,
wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the transformer. It is reminded that iron
losses are the same at all loads. Fig.

Iron losses, P i = Wattmeter reading = W 0

No load current = Ammeter reading = I 0
Applied voltage = Voltmeter reading = V 1
Input power, W 0 = V1 I0 cos ϕ0
No - load p.f., cos
 = no load power factor
ϕ = 
 
Im = Io sin ϕ = magnetizing component
o
Ic = Io cos ϕ = Active component
o

Ro =
 Ω, Xo =
 Ω
 
Vo (volts) I o (amperes) Wo (watts)
Rated

Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and parameters R 0 and
X0 of the transformer.
 31

Short-Circuit or Impedance Test

This test is conducted to determine R1e (or R2e), X1e (or X2e) and full-load copper losses
of the transformer. In this test, the secondary
seco ndary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-circuited by
a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the primary as shown in Fig. The low
input voltage is gradually raised till
t ill at voltage VSC, full-load current I 1 flows in the primary.
Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since I1/I2 = N2/N1. Under such conditions, the
copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load.

There is no output from the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore, input power is
all loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss. It is because iron loss in the core is negligibly
small since the voltage VSC is very small. Hence, the wattmeter will practically register the full-
load copper losses in the transformer windings.

Full load Cu loss, PC = Wattmeter reading = Wsc

Applied voltage = Voltmeter reading = VSC
F.L. primary current = Ammeter reading = I 1

2 2 2

Pcu = I1 R1 + I1 R2’ = I1 R1e , R1e =
Where R1e
 ²
is the total resistance of transformer referred to primary.
 32

Total impedance referred to primary, Z1e = 1² − 1² ,

short – circuit P.F, cos Φ =  Thus short-circuit lest gives full-load Cu loss, R1e and X1e.
Why Transformer Rating in kVA
An important factor in the design and operation of electrical machines is the relation
between the life of the insulation and operating temperature of the machine. Therefore,
temperature rise resulting from the losses is a determining factor in the rating of a machine. We
know that copper loss in a transformer depends on current and iron loss depends on voltage.
Therefore, the total loss in a transformer depends on the volt-ampere product only and not on the
phase angle between voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor. For this
reason, the rating of a t ransformer is in kVA and not kW.

All-Day (or Energy) Efficiency

The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transfor mer is defined as the ratio of o utput power to
the input power i.e.

Commercial efficiency =

 

 
There are certain types of transformers whose performance cannot be judged by this
efficiency. For instance, distribution transformers used for supplying lighting loads have their
primaries energized
energ ized all the 24 hours in a day but the secondary’s supply little oro r no load during
the major portion of the day. It means that a constant loss (i.e., iron loss) occurs during the whole
day but copper loss occurs only when the transformer is loaded and would depend upon the
magnitude of load. Consequently, the copper loss varies considerably during the day and the
commercial efficiency of such transformers will vary from a low value (or even zero) to a high
value when the load is high. The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of
energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours). This is known as all-day or energy
efficiency.
The ratio of output in kWh to t he input in kWh of a transformer over a 24-hour period is known
as all-day efficiency i.e.

ηall-day =
 
 
 

  
  
All-day efficiency is of special importance for those transformers whose primaries are never
open-circuited but the secondary carr y little
little or no load much of the time during
dur ing the day. In the
design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce the iron losses which continuously
occur during the whole day.