THE DIFFERENTIALS

Consider a function defined by y=f(x) where x is

the independent variable. In the four-step rule we
introduced the symbol Δx to denote the increment of
x. Now we introduce the symbol dx which we call the
differential of x. Similarly, we shall call the symbol dy
as the differential of y. To give separate meanings to
dx and dy, we shall adopt the following definitions of
a function defined by the equation y=f(x).

DEFINITION 1: dx = Δx
In words, the differential of the independent
variable is equal to the increment of the variable.
DEFINITION 2: dy = f’ (x) dx
In words, the differential of a function is equal to
its derivative multiplied by the differential of its
independent variable.
We emphasize that the differential dx is also an
independent variable, it may be assigned any value
whatsoever. Therefore, from DEFINITION 2, we see
that the differential dy is a function of two
independent variables x and dx. It should also be
noted that while dx=Δx, dy≠Δy in general.
Suppose dx≠0 and we divide both sides of the
equation
dy = f’ (x) dx
by dx. Then we get
dy
 f' x 
dx
Note that this time dy/dx denotes the quotient of
two differentials, dy and dx . Thus the definition of
the differential makes it possible to define the
derivative of the function as the ratio of two
differentials. That is,
dy the differenti al of y
f' x   
dx the differenti al of x
The differential may be given a geometric
interpretation. Consider again the equation y=f(x)
and let its graph be as shown below. Let P(x,y) and
Q(x+Δx,f(x)+Δx) be two points on the curve. Draw the
tangent to the curve at P. Through Q, draw a
perpendicular to the x-axis and intersecting the
tangent at T. Then draw a line through P, parallel to
the x-axis and intersecting the perpendicular through
Q at R. Let θ be the inclination of the tangent PT.
Q

T
P θ
R
DIFFERENTIAL FORMULAS
Since we have already considered dy/dx as the
ratio of two differentials, then the differentiation
formulas may now be expressed in terms of
differentials by multiplying both sides of the equation
by dx. Thus
d(c) = 0
d(x) =dx
d(cu) = cdu
d(u + v) = du + dv
d(uv) = udv + vdu
d(u/v) = (vdu – udv)/v2
d(un) = nun-1 du
 
d u  du 2 u
EXAMPLE 1: Find dy for y = x3 + 5 x −1.
dy  d x 3  5 x  1 Note : In practice, we simply get the derivative

 3 x 2 dx  5dx of the right member of the equation and

dy  3x  5 dx
multiply it by dx.
2

2x
EXAMPLE 2: Find dy for y  .
3x  1
 2x 
dy  d  
 3x  1 
3 x  12  2 x 3

3 x  1 2

 6x  2  6x   2dx
dy      dy 
2 
 3 x  1  3 x  1 2
EXAMPLE 3: Find dy / dx by means of differentials
if xy + sin x = ln y .
1
x dy  y dx  cos x dx  dy
y
 1 
 x dy  y dx  cos x dx  dy y 
 y 
xy dy  y 2 dx  y cos x dx  dy
1
xy dy  y dx  y cos x dx  dy 
2

dx
dy dy
xy  y 2  y cos x 
dx dx
dy dy
xy    y 2  y cos x
dx dx
dy
xy  1  yy  cos x 
dx
dy  yy  cos x 
 
dx xy  1
EXAMPLE 1: Use differentials to approximate the change
in the area of a square if the length of its side increases
from 6 cm to 6.23 cm.
Let x = length of the side of the square.
The area may be expressed as a function of x,
where A= x2.
The differential dA is dA  f ' x   dx  dA  2 x  dx

Because x is increasing from 6 to 6.23, you find that

Δ x = dx = .23 cm; hence, dA  26cm0.23cm
dA  2.76 cm 2
The area of the square will increase by approximat ely 2.76 cm 2
as its side length increases from 6 to 6.23. Note that the exact
increase in area y  is 2.8129 cm 2 .
EXAMPLE 2: Use the local linear approximation to estimate
the value of 3 26.55 to the nearest thousandth.
Because the function you are applying is f x   3 x , choose a convenient
value of x that is a perfect cube and is relatively close to 26.55, namely
x  27. The differenti al dy is
1

dy  f' x  dx  f x   x 3

1  23 1
dy  x dx  2 dx
3 3x 3
Because x is decreasing from 27 to 26.55, then x  dx  0.45
1 1 45 1
Hence , dy  2   0.45      0.0167
3273 27 100 60
1
which implies that 3
26.55 will be approxima tely
60
1
less that 3
27  3; therefore 3
26.55  3 
60
3
26.55  3 - 0.0167  2.983
EXAMPLE 3: If y = x3 + 2x2 – 3, find the approximate value
of y when x = 2.01.
The exact value is y  y but since we are simply asked
to find the approximate value, then we shall solve for
y  dy. Note that if we write 2.01  2  0.01, then we are
considering 2.01 as the result of applying an increment
of x  dx  0.01 to an original value of x  2.
Since y  x 3  2x 2  3
then dy  3x 2  4x dx
when x  2, then y  8  8  3  13
and when x  2 and dx  0.01, then
dy  12  8 0.01  0.20
therefore , the required approximation is
y  dy  13  0.20  13.20
EXAMPLE 4: Use an appropriate local linear approximation
to estimate the value of cos 310.

Let y  cos x 
then dy   sin x  dx
when x  300 , then y  cos 300  0.866
  
and when x  30 and dx  1 
0 0
0 
 0.01745, then
 180 
0  0  
dy   sin 30  1 • 0 
 180 
dy   0.50.01745  0.008725
therefore , the required approximation is
y  dy  0.866   0.008725  0.8573
 RELATED RATES
(TIME RATES PROBLEMS)
 If a particle is moving along a straight line according
to the equation of motion s  f ( t ) , since the velocity
may be interpreted as a rate of change of distance
with respect to time, thus we have shown that the
velocity of the particle at time “t” is the derivative of
“s” with respect to “t”.
There are many problems in which we are
concerned with the rate of change of two or more
related variables with respect to time, in which it is
not necessary to express each of these variables
directly as function of time. For example, we are given
an equation involving the variables x and y, and that
both x and y are functions of the third variable t,
where t denotes time.
Since the rate of change of x and y with respect to t is
dx dy
given by and dt , respectively, we differentiate both
dt
sides of the given equation with respect to t by
applying the chain rule.

When two or more variables, all functions of t, are

related by an equation, the relation between their
rates of change may be obtained by differentiating the
equation with respect to t.
Example 1
A 17 ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If the bottom of
the ladder is pulled along the ground away from the wall at
the constant rate of 5 ft/sec, how fast will the top of the
ladder be moving down the wall when it is 8 ft above the
ground?
dy
?
dt y 8 ft
y

x
dx ft
5
dt sec
Let x  distance  ft  of the bottom of the ladder from the wall at any instant
y  distance  ft  of the top of the ladder from the ground at any instant
t  time sec  since the bottom of the ladder is pulled along the ground
away from the wall
 x 2  y 2  172 Working Equation
dx dy
2x  2y  0
dt dt
dx dx
 2x x
dy dt  dt

dt 2y y
when y  8  x  172  82  15
dy  155 ft
  9.375
dt 8 sec
Note:
• Values which changes as time changes are denoted by variable.
• The rate is positive if the variable increases as time increases and
is negative if the variable decreases as time increases.
Example 2
A balloon leaving the ground 60 feet from an observer,
rises vertically at the rate 10 ft/sec . How fast is the balloon
receding from the observer after 8 seconds?

dL
h
L ?
dh ft dt t 8 sec
 10
dt sec

Viewer
60 feet

Let h  height  ft  of the balloon from the ground at any instant

L  distance ft  of the balloon from the observer at any instant
t  time sec sincethe balloon starts to rise from the ground
In the figure : L  h  60
2 2 2

L  h2  3600 Working Equation

 dh  dL 8010
2h  
dL
  dt  dt 80  3600
2

dt 2 h2  3600
dL 800 800
 dh   
h  dt 6400  3600 10,000
dL
 2  dt 
dL 800 ft
dt h  3600  8
dt 100 sec
dh ft
Since,  10 and t  8sec
dt sec
 ft 
h   10  8sec   80 ft.
 sec 
Example3
A man on a wharf of 20 feet above the water pulls in a
rope, to which a boat is attached, at the rate of 4 ft/sec. At
what rate is the boat approaching the wharf when there is
25 feet of rope out?

dR ft
 4
dt sec

R
20ft

x
Let t  time sec sincethe boat starts to approach the wharf
x  distance ft  of the boat from the wharf at any instant
R  length  ft  of the rope out at any instant
dx
Find when R  25ft When R  25ft
dt
R2  x 2  202 dR ft
and  4
dt sec
x 2  R2  400
dx 25 4 
x  R  400 (Working Equation)
2 
dt 252  400
254 
x  R  400
2

15
dR dR dx 20 ft
2R R 
dx dt dt
  2 dt 3 sec
dt 2 R  400 2
R  400
Example 4
Water is flowing into a conical reservoir 20 feet deep
and 10 feet across the top, at the rate of 15 ft3/min . Find
how fast the surface is rising when the water is 8 feet
deep?
10 feet
dV ft 3 5 feet
 15
dt min

r
20 feet

h
 Let t  time min since the water flows int o the reservoir
r  radius(ft) of the water surfaceat any instant
h  height(ft) of the water at any instant

dh
Find when the water is 8 ft. deep
dt
1 1 2
V  Bh   r h
3 3
 By ratio and proportion
5 r 1
 r  h
20 h 4
1 1    3
2

Thus , V   h  h  V  h  Working Equation

3 4   48
dV   2  dh   2  dh 
 3h    h  
dt 48   dt  16  dt 
dV
16
dh dt 1615 15 ft ft
   or 1.194
h 8  4  min
2 2
dt h8 ft min
Example 5
Water is flowing into a vertical tank at the rate of 24
ft3/min . If the radius of the tank is 4 feet, how fast is
the surface rising?
4 feet

dV ft 3
 24
dt min

h
Let t  time min since the water flows into the tank
h  height  ft  of the water at any instant
 
V  volume ft 3 of the water at any instant
dh
Find when the radius of the tank is 4 ft.
dt
From V  Bh
V   r 2 h   r 2h
But r is constant, r  4 ft
V  4  h  16 h Working Equation
2

dV dh
 16
dt dt
dV
dh dt 24 3 ft
  
dt r 4 ft 16 16 2 min
Example 6
A triangular trough is 10 feet long, 6 feet across the
top, and 3 feet deep. If water flows in at the rate of 12
ft3/min, find how fast the surface is rising when the
water is 6 inches deep?

6 feet

ft 3
12
min

x
3 feet

h
Let t  time min since the water flows into the trough
h  height  ft  of the water at any instant
x  horizontal width  ft  of the water at the triangular
end at any instant
 
V  volume ft 3 of the water at any instant

dh
Find when the water is 6 inches deep.
dt
From V  Bh
1 
V   x h 10  5xh
2 
x 6
By ratio and proportion,   x  2h
h 3
Thus, V  5xh  52hh  10h 2 Working Equation
dV dh
 20h
dt dt
dV
dh 12 ft
 dt   1.2
dt h6 in 20h   1ft  min
206in 
  12in 
Example 7
A train, starting at noon, travels at 40 mph going
north. Another train, starting from the same point at
2:00 pm travels east at 50 mph . Find how fast the two
trains are separating at 3:00 pm.
C
3pm

B
2pm
L

dy mi
 40
80 miles

dt hr

dx mi
 50
dt hr 3pm
A 12pm
2pm D
x
 dL
Find when t  1hr.
dt
dx dy
Since  50 mph and  40 mph
dt dt
A B  402  80 miles
From the figure : L  x  80  y 
2 2 2

L  x  80  y  Working Equation

2 2

dx dy
2x  2(80  y)
dL
 dt 2 dt
dt 2 x  (80  y)2

x  50mph1hr   50 miles
After 1 hr  
y  40mph1hr   40 miles
 dx dy
x  (80  y)
dL
 dt 2 dt
dt x  (80  y)2

dL (50)(50))  ((80  40)(40)


dt (50)2  (80  40)2
dL 2,500  4 ,800

dt 2,500  14,400
dL 7,300 7,300
 
dt 16,900 130

dL mi
 56.15
dt hr
Example 8
A billboard 10 feet high is located on the edge of a
building 45 feet tall. A girl 5 feet in height approaches
the building at the rate of 3.4 ft/sec . How fast is the
angle subtended at her eye by the billboard changing
when she is 30 feet from the billboard?
10’



45’ 

ft
 3. 4 5’
sec

x
 d
Find when x  30 ft.
dt
10
    
In the figure :  tan   2 x
     x  2000
x2
Using :      10x
 2
tan   tan     x  2000
tan   tan   10x 
tan     tan1  2  Working Equation
1  tan  tan   x  2000 
50 40
but , tan   and tan  
x x
50 40

tan   x x
 50  40 
1    
 x  x 
  10x  
  tan  2 1
 Working Equation
 x  2000 
dx dx
(x 2  2000)(10)  10x(2x)
d 1 dt dt
 2 
dt  10x 
1  2
x 2  20002
 x  2000 
dx
d
10x 2
 20,000  20x 2  d 11,000 3.4 
 dt 
dt x 2
 2000  100x 2
2
dt 8,500,000
dx
d
20,000  10x  2
d rad
 dt  0.0044
dt x  2000  100x dt sec
2 2 2

d 20,000  10 30   3.4 

2


dt 302  2000   100 302
2
Example 9
A picture 40 cm high is placed on a wall with its
base 30 cm above the level of the eye of an observer. If
the observer is approaching the wall at the rate of 40
cm/sec, how fast is the measure of the angle
subtended at the observer’s eye by the picture
changing when the observer is 1 m from the wall?

  2  1
x 1 x
  cot1
 cot
70 30
1 dx 1 dx
 
d
 70 dt  30 dt
dt x2 x2
1 2 1 2
70 30
x
d dx / dt  4900  dx / dt  900 
  2 
  
dt 70  4900  x  30  900  x 2 
dx
substitute  40cm/sec and x  1m  100cm
dt
d  40  4900   40  900 
    
dt 70  4900  10000  30  900  10000 

d  700   300 
4 4 
dt  14900   10900 

d 28 12
   0.07782...
dt 149 109

d
 0.078 rad. / sec .
dt
EXERCISE A:
1. What number exceeds its square by the maximum amount?
2. The sum of two numbers is “K”. find the minimum value of
the sum of their squares.
3. A rectangular field of given area is to be fenced off along the bank
of a river. If no fence is needed along the river, what are the
dimensions of the rectangle that will require the least amount of
fencing?
4. A Norman window consists of a rectangle surmounted by a
semicircle. What shape gives the most light for a given perimeter?
5. A cylindrical glass jar has a plastic top. If the plastic is half as
expensive as the glass per unit area, find the most economical
proportions for the glass.
6. Find the proportions of the circular cone of maximum volume
inscribed in a sphere.
7. A wall 8 feet high and 24.5 feet from a house. Find the shortest
ladder which will reach from the ground to the house when
leaning over the wall
EXERCISE B:
1. A sign 3 ft high is placed on a wall with its base 2 ft
above the eye level of a woman attempting to read it.
Find how far from the wall the woman should stand to
get the “best view” of the sign; that is, so that the
angle subtended at her eye by the sign is maximum.

2. A man on dock is pulling in at the rate of 2ft/sec a

rowboat by means of a rope. The man’s hands are
20ft. above the level of the point where the rope is
attached to the boat. How fast is the measure of the
angle of depression of the rope changing when there
are 52 ft. of rope out?
3. Find the equations of the normal line and tangent lines
to the graph of the equation y  sec 12x  1 at the
point  1 , 1   .
2 3 
4. A picture 5 ft high is placed on a wall with its base 7ft
above the level of the eye of an observer is
approaching the wall at the rate of 3ft/sec. How fast is
the measure of the angle subtended at her eye by the
picture changing when the observer is 10ft. from the
wall?
5. An airplane is flying at a speed of 300mi/hr at an altitude
of 4 mi. If an observer is on the ground, find the time rate
of change of the measure of the observer’s angle of
elevation of the airplane when the airplane is over a point
on the ground 2 mi. from the observer.