ENVE/CVIL 8900 42

Fundamentals of Environmental
Eng.
Renewable Energy and Conservation

1
14.1 Definitions
Renewable Energy
 Energy generated from sources which are
naturally replenished
 Energy from sun, heat from the earth’s
surface and underground and tides.

2
3
1 toe = 11.63 megawatt hours
1 toe = 41.87 gigajoules[2]
1 toe = 39,683,205.411 BTU
1 toe = 7.11barrel of oil equivalent (boe)
barrel of oil equivalent (boe) contains approximately 0.146
toe (i.e. there are approximately 6.841 boe in a toe).
1 t diesel = 1.01 toe
1 m3 diesel = 0.98 toe
1 t petrol = 1.05 toe
1 m3 petrol = 0.86 toe
1 t biodiesel = 0.86 toe
1 m3 biodiesel = 0.78 toe
1 t bioethanol = 0.64 toe
1 m3 bioethanol = 0.51 toe
1 MWh = 0.086 toe

4
13.1 Definitions

National Geographic, Sept. 2009 5

1 megawatt =1.0 × 10-6 terawatts
PROBLEM

Convert 975,000 terrawatt hr to ?? MW hr

6
Renewable energy
• Solar
• Direct
• Passive solar heating
• Active solar heating
• Solar thermal electric
• Solar photovoltaic
• Indirect
• Biomass
• solids
• liquids
• Wind - Wind turbines extract energy by slowing down the wind.
• HAWT
• VAWT
• Hydro
• Geothermal
• Tides
7
Wind turbines must be aligned optimally to the wind in
order to prevent extreme loads and to provide the
highest possible energy output.

8
Wind
Horizontal-axis wind turbines
(HAWT)

9
Wind
Vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWT)

10
Wind
Vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWT)

Advantages
1. The turbine does not need to be in the direction of the
wind to be effective - advantage where the wind
direction is highly variable.
2. The turbine can be installed on a building.
3. The generator and gearbox can be placed near the
ground - improving accessibility for maintenance.

11
Wind
Vertical-axis wind turbines
(VAWT)

Disadvantages
1. Low rotational speed and higher torque hence, higher
cost for the drive train.
2. Inherently lower power coefficient
- The coefficient of power of a wind turbine is a
measurement of how efficiently the wind turbine
converts the energy in the wind into electricity.
3. 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow
during each cycle leads to high dynamic loading on the
blade
4. Pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on
the drive train.
12
Manufacturer’s Power Curve
- Depend on wind turbine type

13
14
14.2 Solar
• Energy from the sum at outside edge of
atmosphere = 1353 W/m2
• only about half reaches earth due to
atmospheric reflection and absorption
• clouds etc. reduce energy further at surface
• Energy is intermittent, so backup or
storage is needed
• if backup exists, system must pay for itself
through energy savings

15
14.2 Solar
• Refer to NRCan for solar radiation data

http://www.che.utexas.edu/cour
se/che359&384/lecture_notes.ht
ml#topic_8

16
 14.2 Solar
Table 1 — Yearly PV potential (kWh/kW) at varying tilts

Yearly PV potential (kWh/kW)

All south
Latitude Latitude Latitude Vertical,
facing
tilt -15° tilt tilt +15° 90° tilt
Regina 1355 1361 1295 1055
Toronto 1173 1161 1095 801
Vancouver 1026 1009 939 717
St. John’s 946 933 879 686

17
 14.2 Solar
Properly aiming solar cell due south with an appropriate
tilt will maximize the solar energy that the PV array
collects.

The maximum solar energy depends on the tilt angle.

As a general rule, a tilt angle equal to the latitude of the

site will maximize the performance.

18
 14.2 Solar
Ex.1 Calculate the volume of oil sand with the energy
equivalent of sunlight falling on 1 m2 in Windsor per
year.
Assume: 1. 5-20% of oil sand volume is oil (use 14%)
2. oil contains 9.67 kWh/L *

Consider the steps required to realize that energy.

- Mining - Material for panels
- Refining - Manufacturing
- Shipping - Installing

*Krenz, J.H. (1984) Energy conversion and Utilization. Allyn and Bacon, Newton, MS.
19
Solar radiation, also called insolation, is a measure of solar
energy on a certain surface of the earth.

For Windsor, ON - 15-18 MJ/m2 (4.2-5 kWh/m2)

20
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.1 Passive Solar Heating
• Want to collect/use solar energy in winter, not
summer
• Use architectural features that take advantage
of sun for space heating
• Extensive south-facing windows, but well insulated
north wall
• Overhang to shade south windows in summer (sun
lower in winter)
• Deciduous trees south of house
• Materials in south-facing rooms that absorb heat
(stone, water, phase-change) 21
In passive solar design, windows, walls, and floors are
manufactured to collect, store, and distribute solar energy in
the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the
summer.

E.g. South-facing windows can collect solar heat and are easy
to shade during the summer, their use and area should be
maximized.
Goal of all passive solar heating systems
- Capture the sun’s heat within the building’s elements and
release that heat during periods when the sun is not shining.
- At the same time that a building’s materials are absorbing
heat for later use, solar heat is available for keeping a space
comfortable (not overheated).

22
Deciduous trees (trees that lose all of their leaves each fall)
save energy in summer by shading houses, paved areas, and
air conditioners.

Planting trees - take care of shading on the east and west

sides of a house
Overhangs - critical on the southern eaves is a more exact
science.

Latitude is a major factor.

- Homes in the southwest and southeast generally need
more shade than a home in the north.

23
The three principles of passive solar design are:

Gain: Getting enough sunlight in at the right time (and

blocking it at the right time as well).

Thermal Mass: Having enough thick masonry surfaces to

store the energy from sunlight to keep the home warm at
night, and from overheating during the day.

Insulation: Having suitable insulation (and low air leakage)

to keep the heat in during the winter, and heat out during
the summer.

24
Passive solar design means that the sun's energy is being
used, or controlled, through the physical makeup of the spaces.

Active solar design means that some type of mechanical

system is collecting, transforming, or moving the energy of the
sun in the interior environment.

25
Berg
26
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.1 Passive Solar Heating

27
Passive solar buildings often have "open floor plans" to
facilitate the movement of heat from the south side through
the rest of the spaces.

Sometimes small fans are used to aid in warm air distribution

in spaces with "closed floor plans".

28
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of
Solar Energy
14.2.1.2 Active Solar
Heating
• fluid used to transfer
heat from roof-top
collectors to storage
and end-use
• mainly used for
domestic hot water
because http://www.dmcoles.com/americanenergy/
images/solar-hot-water-01.jpg
29
 14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating

30
Atkinson, G. & Colvin, T. (2009) Solar Hot-Water Heating System. ASHRAE Journal, Sept.
14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating
Collectors
• Absorber
• Flat metal plate with selective coating
(absorbs in UV/visible, but low emissivity in
infrared)
• Tube is welded to absorber plate
• Solar glass is low in iron to allow
transmission of UV
• Placed in insulated box and thermally
isolated
31
 14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating
Active systems involve pumps (for water) or fans (for air)
and collect sunlight with flat plate collectors. The flat plate
collector is essentially an insulated box that allows sunlight in on
one side through a glass covered window and absorb it with
dark colored metallic surfaces.
The collected (and trapped) heat is then transferred by
conduction into a working fluid (typically water with or
without antifreeze, or air), which is continuously pumped
through pipes in contact with the collecting surfaces. The
working fluid is then routed either to a storage medium, such
as a hot water tank, rock bed, or radiant floor, or transferred
directly into the air.

32
Collectors

http://www.kbb-solar.de
33
34
 14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating
Morelos, Mexico

= Tilt angle

 = Solar cell efficiency

Ti = Input temperature (oC)
Ta = Ambient temperature (oC)
G = Solar radiation (W/m2) 35
The collector efficiency, , is the measure of a flat plate
collector performance, which is defined as the ratio of
the useful energy gain, to the incident solar energy over
a particular time period

36
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar
Energy
14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating
storage tank
• Heat exchanger internal
(100% efficient)
• Well insulated

www.huch.com
37
14.2.1.2 Active Solar Heating
storage tank

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14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.3 Solar Thermal Electric Generation
• Sun heats fluid which directly or indirectly
drives generator to make electricity
• As high as 23% efficient
• Sun tracking required

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14.2.1.3 Solar Thermal Electric Generation

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MIRRORS: The solar field consists of solar collectors that use
mirrors to gather and focus sunlight. The curved surface of the
mirror concentrates the light towards a focal point. At that
point, the concentrated light creates heat, or thermal energy.

HEAT: Pipes passing through the focal point carry fluid. The
heat drives up the temperature of the fluid. The pipes circulate
the hot fluid to a steam generator where the heat of the fluid is
transferred to water. The water becomes steam.

STEAM TURBINE: The force of the steam drives the rotation

of the turbine. The rotating turbine transfers energy to the
generator. That energy is translated into electricity in the
generator and sent to the electrical grid.

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 14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.3 Solar Thermal Electric Generation
parabolic trough
• concentrate light in tube containing oil
• oil exchange heat with water → steam →
turbine
• requires cooling water
• large, dedicated installations

http://www.abengoasolar.com/sites/solar/en/technologies/concentrated
_solar_power/parabolic_trough/index.html 42
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.3 Solar Thermal Electric Generation
power tower
• mirrors focus light on tower where heat
boils water to steam to drive turbine
• can reach high temperatures (>1000˚C)

http://www.abengoasolar.com/sites/solar/en/t
echnologies/concentrated_solar_power/pow
er_tower/index.html
43
14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar Energy
14.2.1.3 Solar Thermal Electric Generation
dish Stirling
• concentrate light onto hot side of Stirling
engine
• smaller, stand alone units (10-25 kW)

Mechanical
Energy

http://www.abengoasolar.com/sites/solar/en/abengoa_sol
ar_nt/current_projects/dish_stirling/index.html
44
A dish/Stirling system includes two components; the solar dish,
which is simply a parabolic mirror or set of mirrors, and a
Stirling engine, a closed-cycle engine that operates using any
heat source.

Alpha type Stirling engine. There are two

cylinders. The expansion cylinder (red) is
maintained at a high temperature while
the compression cylinder (blue) is cooled.
The passage between the two cylinders
contains the regenerator.

45
 14.2 Solar
14.2.1 Direct Use of Solar
Energy
14.2.1.4 Photovoltaic
• “doped” silicon is placed in layers Berg, p 418

• n-type has excess electrons

• p-type has excess holes
• electrons - n → p (diode)
• light excites electrons in n-layer, they must go
through external circuit to get to p-layer (which
has given up its electrons to n-layer) 46
14.2.1.4 Photovoltaic
• maximum theoretical efficiency is 22% for
silicon-based cells
• monocrystalline
• cells are slices of a single large crystal
• most expensive and efficient (14%)
• polycrystalline
• cells made of several crystals
• less costly and efficient (12%)
• not affected as much by temperature
• thin film (amorphous)
• least costly and efficient (6%)
• no temperature effect 47
 http://reasoninmadness.wordpress.com/2009/07/07/
diy-solar-panels/solar3-2/

http://envirothink.word
press.com/2009/05/25
/solar-panels-for-rent/ 48
14.2 Solar
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
• wood, wood waste, crops, crop waste, peat,
animal waste
• major source of energy for half of world’s
population, but only 3% of energy for US
• because of reflection, heat, respiration, only
about 0.5% of solar energy is found in biomass
• burned to generate heat, steam and electricity

49
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
• has high moisture content, which must be
evaporated to burn fuel
• types
• sawdust (waste product at mills) http://wildabout
africa.wordpres
s.com/tag/bioga
• dung (undigested plant fibre) s/

• biogas (from anaerobic

digestion of organic matter;
mainly CH4)
• liquid fuels 50
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
liquid fuels
• methanol (CH3OH) from destructive
distillation of wood
• ethanol (CH3CH2OH)
• from anaerobic digestion of cellulose
• from fermentation of carbohydrates
• different plants produce different amounts
and kinds of carbohydrates

51
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
liquid fuels

photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
fermentation
C6H12O6 → 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
combustion
2CH3CH2OH + 6O2 → 4CO2 + 6H2O
52
14.2 Solar
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
• biodiesel
• oil from certain
crops (soy, peanuts)
extracted and
chemically modified

• algae as a source?
53
Algae is grown using the CO2 in the
exhaust from a power plant, and then
the algae is used as fuel for vehicles.
How many times is the carbon used
before it is released into the
environment?
1. zero
2. one
3. two
4. infinity
54
 13.2.2.1 Biomass

Nat’l Geo
Oct.2007 55
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.1 Biomass
• advantages
• carbon neutral (~)
• stabilizes demand for crop
• byproducts (animal feed, fertilizer)
• disadvantages
• need to put nutrients back in soil
• food vs fuel
• limited land available for crops

56
14.2 Solar
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.2 Wind
• solar energy heats earth unevenly →
heats air → expanding air moves = wind
• wind turns blades → turns generator → electricity
mechanical energy mechanical energy

57
14.2.2.2 Wind
Horizontal Axis Wind Vertical Axis Wind
Turbine (HAWT) Turbine (VAWT)

www.thegreenenergywebs
ite.com/img/savonius2.jpg

Brookfield Renewable Power (2009)

Prince Wind Farm, June

www.ecopowerusa.com/png/F19B.jpg 58
14.2.2.2 Wind
HAWT VAWT
•higher rotor elevation •generator at bottom
•must be pointed into wind •requires input of energy to
•constant thrust through get it going
rotation •cyclic loading on shaft

Berg, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Fig 11.27 Darrieus_wind_turbine 59
14.2.2.2 Wind
Ontario
• 1,100 MW generating capacity (2009)
• mostly large (>500 kW) turbines
• timing of peak wind does not match peak
demand
• can comprise at most 15% of Ontario’s
generating capacity without storage
• issues with bird and bat kills
• avoid migratory routes
• noise 60
14.2.2.2 Wind
Ontario

Jenkins, A. (2007) Renewable Energy in Ontario. Presentation

to Windsor-Essex Chapter PEO: Ontario Ministry of Energy. 61
Jenkins, A. (2007) Renewable Energy in Ontario. Presentation to Windsor-Essex Chapter PEO:
Ontario Ministry of Energy. 62
 Hourly wind production on an August day

Jenkins, A. (2007) Renewable Energy in Ontario. Presentation to Windsor-Essex Chapter PEO:

Ontario Ministry of Energy. 63
14.2 Solar
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.3 Hydropower
• since medieval times
• generates 19% of world’s
electricity
• water flows through
penstock to turbine
• 90% of potential energy
converted to electricity
• usually dam built on a river,
creates reservoir Raven, 6th Ed.
64
A penstock is a sluice or gate or intake structure that
controls water flow, or an enclosed pipe that delivers
water to hydro turbines and sewerage systems..

65
14.2.2 Indirect Solar
14.2.2.3 Hydropower
Ontario
• first major source of electricity “Ontario
Hydro” (now OPG)
• Sir Adam Beck GS at Niagara Falls
capacity 2.0 GW (new tunnel to increase
to 2.3 GW)

66
 67
Raven, 6th Ed.
 Ontario Electricity Generation

Jenkins, A. (2007) Renewable Energy in Ontario. Presentation to Windsor-Essex Chapter PEO:

Ontario Ministry of Energy. 68
14.3 Geothermal
• heat in earth’s core
• radioactive decay
• molten material still cooling from earth’s formation
• friction of moving continental plates
• large potential
• 1% of heat in uppermost 10 km of earth’s crust =
500 x energy in oil and gas reserves
• water heated underground and prevented from
reaching surface forms a hydrothermal reservoir
• tap and use steam to produce electricity
• clean and cheap when available
69
14.3 Geothermal

Berg
70
 71
Berg
72
14.4 Tidal Energy
• source is gravity from sun and moon
pulling on water
• potential varies with height of rise
• only 3 plants in world

73
 14.4 Tidal Energy
• 20 MW facility at Bay of Fundy

http://www.electricalline.com/i
mages/mag_archive/18.pdf
Google Maps

74
14.4 Tidal Energy
• in-stream systems more favorable from
an environmental point of view

http://beaconnews.ca/blog/2013/11/t
idal-energy-ready-big-time/ 75