Biomechanics
(statics)
Vectors and Scalars
• Scalars: variables defined by magnitude
only (e.g., volume, temperature)
• Vectors: variables defined by magnitude and
direction (e.g., force, velocity)
Forces are vectors
• Force: push or pull that tends
to cause motion of a body, or
change the shape of a body
• Characteristics of a force:
- point of application
- magnitude
- direction (sense and line
of action)
Types of Forces
When we investigate a biomechanical problem,
forces can be internal to the body or external
1- Internal forces: are the forces that act within the body: muscle forces,
joint reaction forces, loads that act on the various body segments. These
forces cause the body shape to change by moving the various segments
(limbs, torso, head) relative to each other.
2- External forces: to move relative to the outside world the body needs
to be subject to external forces. These are often the result of internal
forces but can also be due to other external forces such as gravity or
externally applied forces from contact with other objects.
Moments cause rotation or bending
• Effect of a force F on a rigid body depends
on where it is applied
• Torque (T) or moment (M): measure of the
tendency of a force to cause rotation or
bending about a specific axis (pivot point)
• Units of N·m
Relationship between Torque and Force
! !
τ = r × F ⇒ τ = rF sin θ
r: distance from axis of rotation (lever arm)
F: Applied force
+ ve direction is counter clockwise
τ: torque
Equilibrium
Conditions: Conditions:
1- system at rest 1- system at rest
2- moving with constant velocity 2- moving with constant angular
velocity
!
∑F ext =0
∑τ = 0
∑F x = 0, ∑ Fy = 0, ∑ Fz = 0
Example: Translational Equilibrium
Person standing on both feet Leg in equilibrium
F2 is the various pushes and pulls of
the rest of the body on the leg through
the hip joint and surrounding muscles.
F3 is the gravitational pull of the
earth downward on the leg.
F1 is the push of the floor up on
the bottom of the foot.
∑ F =0
! !
y
!
∑F x = 0 ⇒ F1x − F2 x = 0
F1 + F2 + W = 0
∑Fy = 0 ⇒ F1 y − F2 y − F3 y = 0
⇒ F1 + F2 − W = 0
Example: Total Equilibrium
Rotational equilibrium Translational equilibrium
∑τ ) o
= 0 ⇒ F1r1 − F2 r2 = 0 ∑F y = 0 ⇒ − F1 − F2 + F3 = 0
Problem 1: Achilles Tendon
The Achilles tendon connects the calf to the calcaneus at the back
of the heel. To calculate the force exerted by this tendon on the calcaneus
when a person is standing on the ball of one foot, assume that the entire
foot can be regarded as a rigid body and ignore the internal forces within
the foot.
Problem 1: Achilles Tendon (cont.)
The forces on the foot are: the force exerted by the tendon on the foot
(FT), the force of the leg bones (tibia and fibula) on the foot (FB), and the
force of the floor upward, which is equal to the weight of the body (W).
The weight of the foot is small compared to these forces and will be
neglected.
Measurements on a few people
suggest that the angle the Achilles
tendon makes with the vertical is
about 7°.
Find FT, FB, and θ in terms of W
Problem 2: Forces on the Hip
The forces in the hip joint can be several times the person’s weight, and
the use of a cane can be very effective in reducing them.
There are then two forces acting on the body as a whole: the downward
pull of the earth W and the upward push of the ground on the foot N.
Problem 2: Forces on the Hip (cont.)
Problem 2: Forces on the Hip (cont.)
If the leg is considered an isolated system, the following forces act:
F: The net force of the abductor muscles, acting on the greater
trochanter.
R: The force of the acetabulum (the socket of the pelvis) on the head of
the femur.
N: The upward force of the floor on the bottom of the foot (in this case,
equal to W).
WL: The weight of the leg, acting vertically downward at the center of
gravity of the leg (WL ≈ W/7).
Find F, R, and Φ in terms of W
Forces cause motions and deformations
• if the net external force or moment applied to a body is not
zero, it will undergo gross motion
• if a body is subjected to external forces or moments but
remains in static equilibrium, there will be local changes in
the shape of the body, or deformations
• in our previous treatment of static equilibrium, we assumed
that bodies were infinitely stiff and could not deform
• we now relax this assumption to examine the force-
deformation (stress-strain) behavior of deformable bodies
Stress and Strain
• In a normal stress, the force is perpendicular
to the surface across which it is transmitted
F⊥
σ=
A0
• A strain is a normalized measure of
deformation (due to stress)
l − l0 Δl
ε= =
l0 l0
Length at zero stress
• Relation between stress and strain
σ = εE Young’s modulus
Stress-Strain Curve
A -Elastic Limit
B - Upper Yield Stress
C - Lower Yield Stress
D - Ultimate Stress
E - Breaking Stress
Problem 3: Stress and Strain
Young's modulus for a spider’s thread is about 0.2×1010 Pa, and the
thread breaks when it undergoes a strain of about 50%. Given tensile of
steel is 50×107 Pa and its Young’s modulus is 20×1010 Pa.
(a)Calculate the tensile strength of the thread and compare it to the
tensile strength of steel.
(b)Calculate the strain that steel undergoes when it breaks.
Problem 4: Stress and Strain
A person has 100 kg mass is suspended by his arms on a metallic bar.
Determine the strain of the humerus (assume the humerus has a radius
of r2=3 cm and a hollow center of r1=2 cm).
Given: Young’s modulus of bone = 2×1010 N/m2. g = 10 m/s2.
Shear Stress and Shear Strain
• In a shear stress, the force is parallel to the surface across which it is
transmitted.
• In a shear strain, the deformation increases as one moves in a direction
perpendicular to the deformation.
F/ /
Shear stress σ=
A0 A0
Δy
Shear strain γ= = tan α
zo
Shear modulus
σ
G=
γ
Problem 5: Shear Stress and Shear Strain
Consider an artificial joint for leg. The joint
is made up of bolted joint as shown in the
figure. Assume a person of mass 70 kg is
standing on one leg. Given the diameter
of the bolt is 10 mm and shear modulus
79.3 Gpa.
a- Determine the average value of the
shearing stress existing across either
of the planes a-a.
b- Deduce the shear strain
Problem 6: Forces on the Foot
When a person crouches, the geometry of the heel is as shown.
Determine T and F. Assume all the forces act in the plane of the
drawing.
Problem 7: Young’s Modulus
Estimate Young’s modulus for compression of bone from the following
data. The femur of an 85 kg person has an effective cross-sectional area
of about 6 cm2 and a length of about 0.5 m. When the person lifts a 100
kg mass, careful measurements show that the femur compresses by
about 0.04 mm. Also, if the ultimate compressive strength of the femur is
1.7× 108 Pa, find the maximum weight that the femur can support.
Problem 8: Forces on Hands
A person of weight W is suspended by
both hands from a high bar as shown.
The center of mass is directly below the
bar.
(a) Find the horizontal and vertical
components Fx and Fy, where F is
the force exerted by the bar on each
of the two hands.
(b) Given the additional information about
the arm shown in the second drawing,
calculate the components of R, the force
exerted by the humerus on the forearm
through the elbow, and the tension T in
the biceps tendon. Neglect the weight of
the arm, and assume that T and R are
the only forces exerted on the forearm
by the upper arm.
Problem 9: Strain
Assume an object undergoes a normal strain in all three
directions: εx = Δx/lx, εy = Δy/ly, εz = Δz/lz. Relate the three
strains to the change in volume of the object. Assume the
strains are small.
Problem 10: Shear Strain
Relate the shear strain to angle θ in the figure below. How
does this relationship simplify if θ is small?
