GOI Act 1935

The Government of India Act 1935 was the last major pre-independence
constitution for British India. It laid the foundation for the future governance of
India and was a significant step in the country's movement towards autonomy.
The act was passed following the recommendations of the Simon Commission
(1927) and the Round Table Conferences (1930-32). It is one of the longest
British Acts ever enacted and was later split into two separate acts: the
Government of India Act and the Government of Burma Act.

Key Provisions:

1. Federal System: The act introduced a federal structure for the governance of
India, dividing the country into 11 provinces, with the provision that
princely states could join the federation.
2. Provincial Autonomy: The act implemented the principle of provincial
autonomy, which meant that provinces could govern themselves with
greater independence.
3. Three Lists of Subjects: The act created three lists:
○ Central subjects (such as defense, foreign affairs, and
communication) under central control.
○ Provincial subjects (such as education, health, and agriculture)
under provincial control.
○ Concurrent subjects that could be legislated by both central and
provincial governments, with the central government having priority.
4. Central Legislature: A bicameral legislature was established at the
center with two houses:
○ An upper house with 260 members.
○ A lower house with 375 members.
5. Autonomy for Provinces: The act ended diarchy (a dual system of
governance) at the provincial level, and all provincial subjects were given
to Indian ministers who were responsible to their respective provincial
legislative assemblies.
6. Franchise Expansion: The act expanded the voting rights from 7 million
to 35 million people, allowing women to vote for the first time.
7. Separate Electorates: The act maintained the system of separate
electorates for Muslims and other communal groups.
 8. New Provinces: The act created new provinces, such as Orissa, Sindh,
and the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), giving them full provincial
status.
9. Burma's Separation: The act completely separated Burma from India.
10. Direct Elections: It introduced direct elections, increasing the franchise
significantly and allowing Indian citizens greater participation in
governance.

Importance:

The Government of India Act 1935 is crucial because it laid the foundation for
many aspects of the governance structure that would later be adopted by
independent India and Pakistan. It was the last major constitutional reform by
the British before India gained independence and became the basis for India's
post-independence constitution. Moreover, the Act of 1935 remained the
governing document for Pakistan until it adopted its own constitution in 1956.

Significance to Future:

This act is seen as a crucial step in India’s path to self-governance, providing a

framework for political institutions and introducing a more democratic system of
governance. The federal structure and provincial autonomy were key
developments that laid the foundation for India’s independence.

Q: Why was the Government of India Act of 1935 so important to the future
of the subcontinent? [7]

The Government of India Act of 1935 was crucial for the future of the
subcontinent as it introduced major constitutional reforms, setting the stage for
India's eventual independence. It established a federal structure with a division
of powers between the center and provinces, granting provincial governments
the authority to manage their own affairs. This gave Indian leaders the
opportunity to gain valuable experience in governance, which was essential for
managing the future independent states of India and Pakistan.

The act also expanded the electorate, allowing 35 million people, including
women, to vote, thus marking a step towards a more democratic system.
Additionally, the creation of new provinces like Orissa, Sindh, and NWFP added
more diversity to India’s administrative framework. The act remained significant
even after independence, as it formed the basis of both India's and Pakistan's
constitutions. In fact, Pakistan continued to operate under the framework of this
act until its own constitution was enacted in 1956.

Q: Why was there so much opposition to the Government of India Act

1935? [7]

The Government of India Act 1935 faced widespread opposition because it

failed to meet the demands of Indian political leaders who sought complete
independence from British rule. The act maintained significant British control
over key areas, including defense and foreign policy, which meant that India
was not fully autonomous. The Governor-General and provincial governors, who
were appointed by the British, retained significant powers, including the ability to
veto decisions made by Indian ministers, leading to frustration among Indian
politicians.

Furthermore, the act's continuation of separate electorates for Muslims and

other minority groups was another source of contention. While the Muslim
League supported this measure, the Indian National Congress opposed it,
arguing that it would deepen communal divisions and hinder the creation of a
unified Indian nation. The proposed federal structure also failed to materialize,
as the princely states refused to join, leaving the act largely ineffective in bringing
about meaningful reforms. As a result, both the Congress and the Muslim
League found the act unsatisfactory, leading to widespread dissatisfaction.
 Cripps Mission

The Cripps Mission of 1942 was a significant episode in the history of India's
independence struggle. Here’s a summary and explanation of the key points:

Background:

● Pakistan Resolution: The mission followed the 1940 Pakistan Resolution,

which changed the status of Muslims in India, marking their distinct
demands.
● World War II Impact: By mid-1940, the Allies, particularly Britain, were
facing setbacks in the war. The fall of France and the attack on Pearl
Harbor intensified Britain's need for Indian support.
● American Pressure: American President Roosevelt pressured Churchill to
resolve Indian issues, leading to the decision to send Sir Stafford Cripps to
India.

Arrival and Meetings:

● Cripps’ Arrival: Cripps arrived in Karachi on March 22, 1942, and met with
key Indian leaders, including Maulana Azad, Jinnah, Gandhi, and Nehru, in
New Delhi.
● Change in British Views: Cripps acknowledged the rise of the Pakistan
movement and the changing communal dynamics, reflecting a shift in
British attitudes.

Cripps Mission Proposals:

● Dominion Status: The mission proposed setting up an Indian Union with

Dominion status.
● Constituent Assembly: A Constituent Assembly would be formed to draft
a new constitution, and elections would be held after the war.
● Provincial Autonomy: Provinces could opt out of the Indian Union.
● British Control: The Government of India Act of 1935 would remain in
place, with British control over the Indian army and finance ministry during
the war.
● Conditional Implementation: These proposals would only be
implemented if both the Congress and the Muslim League accepted them.
Outcomes:

● Mission’s Failure: The mission failed because its proposals were

unacceptable to both Congress and the Muslim League. Congress rejected
it, considering it a vague promise, while the Muslim League felt it did not
sufficiently address Muslim concerns.
● Significance: The Cripps Mission’s failure paved the way for the Quit India
Movement, and it underscored the inevitability of British withdrawal from
India, also reinforcing the idea of partition.

The Cripps Mission is crucial as it was one of the last major British attempts to
negotiate India's future during World War II, but its failure further deepened the
political divide, particularly between the Congress and the Muslim League,
leading towards partition in 1947.

Q: Why did the Cripps mission fail? [7]

Ans: The Cripps Mission of 1942 failed primarily because its proposals were
unacceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. The
Congress rejected the offer of Dominion Status, as it was seen as a post-war
promise without any immediate guarantees of independence. Additionally,
Congress opposed the provision allowing provinces to opt out of the Indian
Union, as it feared this could lead to the fragmentation of India. Gandhi famously
referred to the Cripps proposals as "a post-dated cheque on a crashing bank,"
expressing the lack of trust in British intentions.

The Muslim League, on the other hand, rejected the Cripps Mission because it
did not explicitly recognize the demand for Pakistan. While the proposal allowed
provinces to opt out of the Indian Union, it did not provide a clear pathway for the
creation of an independent Muslim state, which was a core demand of the
League. Furthermore, the British insistence on retaining control over defense and
finance during the war also contributed to the rejection. Ultimately, the mission
failed because it could not reconcile the conflicting demands of Congress, the
Muslim League, and the British government.
 Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement of 1942 was one of the most significant events in
India's fight for independence. Here’s a summary and explanation of its key
points:

Background:

● Cripps Mission Failure: The movement was triggered by the failure of the
Cripps Mission, which had been sent by the British government to secure
Indian cooperation during World War II by offering post-war dominion
status. The Congress found these proposals inadequate as they did not
promise immediate independence.
● World War II: The British involvement in World War II, without Indian
consultation, created widespread resentment. By 1942, the threat of
Japanese invasion loomed over India, especially after their rapid advance
in Southeast Asia.
● Growing Discontent: Nationalist sentiments were at an all-time high.
Congress leaders, especially Mahatma Gandhi, felt that the British had
become a liability and argued that India would be better off without their
presence, especially with the threat of Japan.

Gandhi's Call:

● Gandhi’s Stand: At a Congress meeting in Allahabad in May 1942, Gandhi

urged that if the British left India, the Japanese threat would diminish, and
India could defend itself. He called for a non-violent protest to persuade
the British to quit India.
● Quit India Resolution: On August 8, 1942, at a Congress meeting in
Bombay, the Quit India Resolution was passed, demanding the
immediate withdrawal of the British from India. Gandhi gave the famous
call to "Do or Die"—urging Indians to fight for complete independence.

Key Aspects of the Movement:

● Mass Protests: The movement sparked mass protests across India, with
people from all sections of society participating. However, the protests
often turned violent, with attacks on railways, post offices, and government
buildings.
 ● British Response: The British responded by arresting all top Congress
leaders, including Gandhi, Nehru, and Patel, which left the movement
without leadership. Despite this, the movement continued with grassroots
participation, though it was eventually suppressed.
● Opposition: The Muslim League, led by Jinnah, opposed the Quit India
Movement, criticizing it as an attempt by Congress to gain political
leverage while the British were weakened by the war.

Outcomes:

● Suppression and Aftermath: Although the movement was brutally

suppressed, it marked a turning point in the Indian independence struggle.
It demonstrated the Indian people's growing impatience with British rule
and their willingness to fight for freedom.
● Paving the Way for Independence: While the Quit India Movement did
not immediately result in independence, it set the stage for the final
negotiations that would lead to Indian independence in 1947. It also
deepened the divide between Congress and the Muslim League, further
reinforcing the eventual partition.

The Quit India Movement was significant not only for its widespread participation
but also because it intensified the demand for complete independence from
British rule. Although it was crushed, it sent a clear message that British rule in
India was no longer tenable.

Q: What was the Quit India Resolution? [4]

Ans: The Quit India Resolution was passed on August 8, 1942, by the All India
Congress Committee in Bombay. It called for the immediate withdrawal of
British rule from India. The resolution was a direct reaction to the failure of the
Cripps Mission, which had offered post-war dominion status to India, a proposal
that the Congress found unsatisfactory. The resolution urged Indians to engage
in non-violent protests and civil disobedience against the British, under the
leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. The slogan "Do or Die", coined by Gandhi,
became the key message of the movement, symbolizing the people's
determination to achieve independence. The resolution marked the beginning of
the Quit India Movement, which intensified the struggle for freedom.
Q: Why was the Quit India Movement formed in 1942? [7]

Ans: The Quit India Movement was formed in 1942 primarily due to the failure
of the Cripps Mission and the impact of World War II on India. The Cripps
Mission, sent by the British to gain Indian support in the war, offered only
post-war dominion status, which did not meet the Congress's demand for
immediate independence. The Congress rejected the proposal, viewing it as an
inadequate response to India's demands for sovereignty.

Moreover, the British involvement in World War II heightened the sense of

urgency for independence. The Indian leaders, particularly Gandhi, argued that
British presence in India made the country vulnerable to attack, especially from
Japan, which was advancing towards India. Gandhi believed that an independent
India would be better equipped to defend itself from external threats.

Additionally, by 1942, nationalist sentiment in India had reached a peak. The

previous movements, including the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience
Movements, had intensified the Indian people's desire for freedom. The
economic hardships caused by the war, combined with dissatisfaction with British
policies, made the demand for British withdrawal more urgent. The Quit India
Movement was thus formed as a final push to force the British out of India and
secure independence.
 Gandhi Jinnah Talks

The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks of 1944 were a significant attempt to resolve the

differences between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League
regarding the future of India and its independence. The talks were initiated after
Gandhi's release from prison in May 1944 due to health reasons. Gandhi wrote a
letter to Muhammad Ali Jinnah, proposing a meeting to discuss issues related
to the future of India, especially the demand for Pakistan.

Key Points:

● Background and Proposal: Gandhi, after being released, expressed his

desire to meet Jinnah to discuss the future of India and its Muslim
population. He stated that he was not an enemy of Islam and wanted to
ensure that all communities could coexist peacefully. Jinnah responded by
suggesting a meeting in Bombay, which eventually took place in
September 1944.
● Meeting Details: The talks were held from September 9 to 27, 1944, in
Bombay. The leaders met almost daily, sometimes even twice a day,
discussing various issues. Despite prolonged discussions, the talks ended
in failure on September 27, when Jinnah announced that an agreement
had not been reached.

Core Issues:

1. Representation:
○ Gandhi claimed to speak for all of India, but Jinnah reminded him
that he was only the representative of Congress, while Jinnah spoke
for the Muslims and the Muslim League.
2. Two-Nation Theory:
○ Gandhi gave the impression that he did not accept the Two-Nation
Theory, which was now the official stance of the Muslim League.
This theory, supported by Jinnah, argued that Muslims and Hindus
were distinct nations that required separate states.
3. Central Government Control:
○ Gandhi wanted the central government to control key areas like
defense and foreign policy, while Jinnah argued that these powers
 should be decentralized and placed in the hands of the provinces,
especially those with Muslim majorities.
4. Support for Congress:
○ Gandhi hoped that the Muslim League would support Congress in its
efforts to remove British rule, while Jinnah emphasized that the
British should resolve the issue of Pakistan before leaving India.

Outcome:

● The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks ended in failure as both leaders could not find
common ground. Jinnah insisted on the creation of an independent and
sovereign Muslim state (Pakistan), while Gandhi did not support this
demand. The talks demonstrated the deep divide between Congress and
the Muslim League, with both parties having conflicting visions for India’s
future.

Significance:

The failure of the talks highlighted the growing irreconcilable differences between
Hindus and Muslims in India, leading to the eventual partition of India in 1947.
These talks were a last-ditch effort to avoid the division of the country, but they
underscored the inevitability of partition due to the divergent goals of the
Congress and the Muslim League.

Q: Why did the Gandhi-Jinnah talks fail in 1944? [7]

Ans: The Gandhi-Jinnah Talks of 1944 failed due to fundamental differences

between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League regarding the
future of India. Mahatma Gandhi believed in a united India and did not support
the Two-Nation Theory, which was championed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
The theory, a key demand of the Muslim League, argued that Muslims and
Hindus were distinct nations requiring separate states. This difference in ideology
was one of the major reasons for the failure.

Gandhi also proposed that the central government should retain control over key
areas such as defense and foreign policy, which Jinnah opposed. Jinnah
wanted more power for the provinces, especially the Muslim-majority provinces,
and demanded that these issues be handled at the provincial level rather than at
the center.

Furthermore, Gandhi wanted the Muslim League to support Congress in its

struggle against British rule. However, Jinnah insisted that the issue of Pakistan
be resolved before the British left India, as he feared that Congress would
dominate the post-independence government, sidelining Muslims. Jinnah viewed
Gandhi’s approach as deceptive, accusing him of using Congress’s power to gain
advantages for Hindus while disregarding the demands of Muslims. These core
disagreements made it impossible for the two leaders to reach an agreement,
leading to the collapse of the talks on September 27, 1944.
 Simla Conference

The Simla Conference was held in June 1945 under the leadership of Lord
Wavell, who had recently assumed the position of Viceroy of India. The
conference was convened to discuss the formation of an Executive Council that
would govern India and pave the way for independence. Wavell’s objective was
to create a council that would have equal representation of Hindus and
Muslims. The plan, commonly known as the Wavell Plan, was an attempt to
bridge the gap between the Congress and the Muslim League, but it ultimately
ended in failure.

Background:

● World War II was nearing its end, and Britain was under increasing pressure
to resolve the Indian independence issue. Wavell, after assuming the role
of Viceroy, sought to present a formula that both the Congress and the
Muslim League could accept.
● Wavell’s Plan was formulated after discussions in London and aimed at
securing Indian cooperation in the post-war period.

Key Proposals:

● The Executive Council would be established to govern India and consist

of equal numbers of Hindus and Muslims.
● Minorities such as low-caste Hindus, Sikhs, and Shudders were to be
represented in the council.
● All members of the Executive Council would be Indians, except for the
Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
● An Indian would be appointed as the Foreign Affairs member in the
council.
● Defense would be in British hands until power was fully transferred to
Indian hands after independence.
● Both the Congress and the Muslim League were to nominate members of
the council, and if the plan succeeded, similar governance structures would
be implemented in the provinces.

Outcome and Failure:

The Simla Conference ultimately failed due to disagreements between the
Congress and the Muslim League:

● The Congress supported the idea of equal representation but also wanted
at least one Muslim seat for itself, as there were Muslims in the Congress
party.
● Muhammad Ali Jinnah, representing the Muslim League, argued that the
League was the sole representative of Muslims and should have the
exclusive right to nominate all Muslim members of the council. Jinnah
pointed out that the Muslim League had won every by-election for the past
two years, establishing its dominance as the representative of the Muslims.
● Jinnah also raised concerns about the inclusion of Sikhs and Scheduled
Castes, who would likely vote with Hindus, creating a permanent Muslim
minority in the council.
● The conference did not discuss the crucial issue of Pakistan, which further
widened the rift between the two parties.
● Lord Wavell could not find a solution to reconcile the differences between
the Congress and the Muslim League, leading to the collapse of the
conference. Congress leaders felt that Wavell had lost an opportunity by
not pushing the plan forward without the League.

Significance:

The failure of the Simla Conference deepened the divide between the Congress
and the Muslim League. The inability to form a united front on the issue of
governance highlighted the growing tensions between Hindus and Muslims,
leading to the eventual partition of India in 1947. The conference also
demonstrated the increasing importance of the Muslim League in Indian politics,
as it established itself as the sole representative of the Muslim population.

Paragraph for 14 mark questions:

Simla conference of 1945 remained one of the important factors during the 1940s
to the partition of the sub-continent. The Viceroy Lord Wavell called the Simla
Conference in June 1945 just at the end of WWII. The viceroy wanted to
establish an Executive Council in which all subjects except defense should be
given to Indians. He proposed that an equal number of Hindu & Muslim members
would be included in the Executive Council. For the first time the important
portfolios of foreign affairs, finance & the interior would be held by Indians.The
congress objected to the idea of equal number of Hindus & Muslims & desired
that one Muslim seat should be given to congress because there were many
Muslims in the congress party.

Quaid-e-Azam took a firm stand & explained that Muslim League being the sole
representative party of Muslims of India had the right to nominate all Muslim
members. The conference failed on a crucial point of the method of selection. But
it was clear that the point of partition of India was not on the agenda of the Simla
Conference. The Simla conference ended without achieving anything.
 1945-1946 Elections

The General Elections of 1945-46 were held after the failure of the Simla
Conference, where Lord Wavell's proposals for a new Executive Council were
rejected due to disagreements between the Congress and the Muslim League.
These elections were crucial because they would determine the future political
direction of India and play a key role in the formation of a Constituent Assembly
that would draft India’s constitution.

Key Points:

● Lord Wavell's Announcement: After the failure of the Simla Conference, Lord
Wavell, the then Viceroy of India, announced that general and provincial
elections would be held, which would help in the formation of a
constitutional assembly for India.
● Significance: Both the Congress and the Muslim League realized the
importance of these elections in shaping the future of India. These
elections were seen as a decisive moment for both parties to prove their
representative strength, especially the Muslim League, which sought to
establish itself as the sole representative of the Muslims in India.

Muslim League's Strategy:

● Goal: The Muslim League aimed to sweep the Muslim constituencies to

prove their claim of representing all Indian Muslims. The slogan of the
Muslim League during this campaign was focused on the creation of
Pakistan.
● Congress's Response: On the other hand, Congress wanted to win seats
to demonstrate that they also represented a portion of the Muslim
population. Congress’s slogan revolved around the unity of India and
securing a larger following against the idea of partition.

Election Results:

● In the central legislature elections held in December 1945, Congress

won about 80% of the general seats, while the Muslim League secured
91.3% of the reserved seats for Muslims, which amounted to winning all
30 reserved Muslim seats.
 ● The provincial elections in 1946 followed a similar pattern. The Muslim
League won 95% of the seats reserved for Muslims, while the Congress
secured all seats reserved for non-Muslims.

Significance of the Results:

The results of the 1945-46 elections solidified the political standing of the Muslim
League as the dominant representative of the Muslims in India, while Congress
emerged as the dominant representative of non-Muslims. The election outcomes
set the stage for future negotiations regarding independence and partition, as
they validated Jinnah’s demand for a separate state of Pakistan by showing
overwhelming Muslim support for the League.

These elections played a critical role in shaping the path toward India's
independence and the subsequent partition, as they demonstrated the deepening
divide between the Hindu and Muslim populations in political terms.