AC Characteristics

&
Rectification
Converting AC to
DC

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only)

Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved.

1
 Introduction & Objectives

Objectives:
Upon completing the module on AC Characteristics and Rectification the student
should be able to do the following:
• Understand basic concepts of single & three phase AC, associated formulas, electrical degrees,
& time.
• Understand the difference between diodes and SCR’s, how these are biased for conduction,
current flow, & firing angles
• Understand how AC is converted to DC in single & three phase rectification.
• Understand testing of diodes & SCR’s and where the converter is used in a drive and what does
it actually do.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 2
 AC Characteristics “single phase”

• The figure below depicts an AC voltage waveform. Meaning the signal rises and falls with
time and has both a positive and negative polarity or half cycle.
One Cycle
V pk
| |

| |
Positive Half Cycle
| |

Negative Half Cycle

A typical voltage found in a common outlet is 110 VAC. The value of the 110 is actually
the RMS value. The peak voltage (Vpk) value of the sine wave is what an O’scope would
read. AC is reported as a positive number even though the potential alternates.

One cycle of power is defined as the time period for an AC signal to make
one positive and one negative rise and fall.

A half cycle can be described as either the positive or

negative part of the wave.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 3
 Basic AC Formulas & Definitions
Pk = Peak Value, is the maximum value or point along a voltage or current sine
wave. The peak value applies to either the positive or negative half cycle.

Vpk = 1.414 x RMS or x RMS

RMS = Root mean square, also known as the effective value is the most common
method of defining the amount of a sine wave voltage or current. This is done by
stating its value at 45 degrees which is 70.7% of the peak value. Electrical degrees
are explained further on the next page.

RMS = Vpk x .707 or Vpk /

Application Example:
1) A Digital meter is used to measure the AC voltage of a standard outlet.
The meter reads 110vac. Is this the peak value or the RMS value?
The digital meter shows the RMS value.

2) What is the peak value?

Vpk = 1.414 x RMS
= 1.414 x 110
= 155.54
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 4
 Electrical Degrees

The time scale is sometimes marked in

electrical degrees. There are 360 electrical
degrees in one cycle of power.

0º


360º

The start of a sine wave is said to be its zero degree point.

While the end of the complete cycle of power is the 360 degree point.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 5
 Measuring Frequency & Time
Problem 1:
• Frequency is defined as the inverse
of the period or time. The formula to If the time is 20 mS, what is
calculate the frequency of the sine
the frequency of the sine
wave?
wave is:
F=1/.020
F = 1/T
=50Hz
Where “T” = the time for one cycle of
power to be completed in seconds (S).

• The formula to calculate time for one

cycle of power is: T=1/60
=.0166 or 16.6mS
T = 1/F
Problem 2:
Where “F” = the frequency of the sine
wave in Hertz (Hz). If the Frequency is 60 Hz,
what is the period of the
sine wave?
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 6
 Converting AC to DC
Now that we discussed AC, lets convert AC to
Direct Current or DC. This can be accomplished
by using Diodes or SCR’s.

A diode is a two terminal device that normally allows current to flow

in only one direction. It acts like a an electronic light switch it is
either on (conducting) or off (not conducting). It can even be
compared to a mechanical check valve allowing fluid to flow only in
one direction.

The diode has a positive and

negative terminal. The Anode is (+)
and the Cathode is (-).

Anode (+)

Cathode (-)

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 7
 Rules for Diode Conduction

• 1) The diode must be forward biased to conduct. Forward biased means that the
electrical potential applied to the Anode is more positive than that applied to the
Cathode.
Anode (+)

Cathode (-)

• 2) The potential on the anode must be enough to break down the junction of the diode
for conduction to occur. The break down point for a silicon diode is .7v, for germanium
it is .3v
Example: Would the diode conduct & why?
Anode Cathode 1) Yes, the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode and the anode is more than .7v greater than
1) +10v 0v the cathode.
2) +5v +4.5v 2) The diode is forward biased but would only conduct
if made from germainum because the anode is only .5v
3) -4.5v +3v greater than the cathode.
4) -10v +10v 3 &4) No, both are reverse biased and would not
conduct. A +3v is greater than -4.5v, & +10v is greater
than -10v.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 8
 Current Flow

There are two “accepted” theories that explain how current flows in a
circuit. Just remember that whatever theory you choose to follow, the
same rules for biasing & conduction apply to both theories

• Conventional Flow Anode (+)

Conventional flow often referred to as hole flow, states
that current flows from the positive potential toward the Cathode (-)
negative potential. This theory is often taught in the
military and governmental divisions. Current Flow 

• Electron Flow
Electron flow is most commonly taught in the college or
university. This indicated that the negatively charged Anode (+)
electron is attracted or pulled toward the positively
charged anode. Meaning electrons flow from the
Cathode (-)
Cathode to the Anode.
 Current Flow

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 9
 Half Wave Rectification

 +
-
x +- 
110v “RMS” AC Input No conduction  Resulting DC Output
or 155.54 Vpk 

Notice that when half

wave rectification is
 used, only half the AC
signal gets to the load
  (VL).
The formula to convert AC to DC in a half wave
rectifier using the o-scope peak value is:
When the positive half cycle of the AC
signal is applied to the anode of D1, the Vdc “Average” = Vpk x .318
diode is forward biased and conducts. =155.54 x .318
The current flow is shown using = 49.46
conventional flow theory Note: above is not an RMS value. It is the
average rise & fall of a sine wave but for only one
When the negative half cycle of the AC half of the cycle.
signal is applied to the anode of D1, the RMS Equivalent:
diode is reverse biased and does not Vdc “RMS” = (Vpk x .707)/2
conduct. = 54.98

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 10
 Full Wave Rectification w/o Isolation
  
- +  

110v “RMS” AC Input X
+
X- Resulting DC Output
or 155.54 Vpk + -

- 
+ +  - Both half cycles are
rectified to DC with full
-
X X
+ 
wave rectification
     Calculating DC using:
  O’scope:
Vdc “Average” = Vpk x .636
Notice that during the positive half cycle D1 & D4 = 155.54 x .636
are forward biased while D2 & D3 are reverse = 98.92
biased. Current flow is shown using conventional
flow theory from (+) to (-)
RMS Equivalent:
During the negative half cycle, D2 & D3 are Vdc “RMS” = Vpk x .707
forward biased while D1 & D4 are reverse biased.
Notice that the current flow through the load = 110
remains in the same direction for either half cycle. Note: If using a digital meter we
This means both half cycles are now positive. would read the RMS value.
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 11
 Full Wave Rectification w/ Isolation
Using a center tapped transformer, we can isolate the primary from the secondary
circuits. This technique is often used to step the voltage down as shown below.
 
2:1
+ -
X
311.08 v “peak” AC Input
-  DC Signal Across the Load
+  

 
- 
+
- +
 X 
Since this transformer’s schematic does not show a phasing
The 311 volt input was
dot on the secondary, we know that the secondary signal is changed through the 2:1
inverted from that of the primary. This means when the transformer. The formula for
positive half cycle is at the top of the primary side of the converting AC to DC
transformer, it is coupled across to the bottom part of the
secondary. D2 would then be forward biased while D1 is remains the same for any
reverse biased. type of full wave rectifier. So
what is the DC RMS voltage
When the negative half cycle is at the top of the primary side across the load?
of the transformer, D1 becomes forward biased and D2 is 311.08pk/2= 155.54pk
reverse biased.
155.54pk x .707 = 110 RMS
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 12
 Diode Testing
While the schematic symbol of the diode always remains the same, the actual
packaging of the diode varies. Packaging can range from circuit board mount
to hockey puck style. In all cases. testing of the diode is best performed when
the device is removed or isolated from the circuit.

Digital Meter
When using a digital meter, set the meter to diode
check and place the positive meter lead on the
anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode.
This forward biases the diode using the meters
battery power. The .707 indicates the voltage drop
across a silicon type diode. When the meter leads
are reversed, a good diode will stop conducting and
read an over load.

Analog Meter
When using an analog meter, set the meter to
ohms check using the x1 scale. Place the
positive meter lead on the anode and the
negative meter lead on the cathode. This forward
biases the diode and will cause the meter to
deflect toward a small resistance reading. When
the meter leads are reversed, the indication
should change to near infinity.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 13
 Silicon Controlled Rectifiers “SCR’s”
The SCR is a three terminal device that normally allows current to flow in only
one direction. It requires proper biasing and a gate pulse to activate or conduct.
Rules of Operation:
The SCR must be forward biased. The
Gate (+)
Anode is positive with respect to the
cathode.
Anode (+)
The SCR must receive a positive gate
Cathode (-)
pulse when forward biased to begin
conduction. The gate pulse is only needed
to start the conduction, it is not required to
keep conduction.

The SCR must reach a minimum holding

current to break down the junction (.7v for
Gate (+)
silicon & .3v for germanium).
Anode (+)
Cathode (-)
Once turned on, the SCR will not turn off
until reverse biased or the current drops
below the minimum level.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 14
 Full Wave Rectification w/ SCR’s
The advantage of using SCR’s over Diodes in rectification is that they allow us to
control the amount of conduction during each half cycle by delaying the gate
pulse. Diodes either conduct full on or they are off. An SCR is like a dimmer
switch, they are either on or off when biased a certain way but when on, the
amount of conduction time or intensity can be controlled. The gate of the SCR
serves the same function as adjusting a dimmer switch.
(+) 
SCR3
SCR1

(+) Gate


 (+)

SCR2
SCR4

(-) 


  
The diagram above depicts a full wave bridge rectifier using SCR’s. When we gate the SCR’s full on
or early in the half cycle, we would see the same DC output results that a diode would provide.

The arrows above only show the positive half cycle of operation. Keep in mind the SCR acts just like
the diode did in the earlier slides but it requires a gate signal when forward biased to conduct.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 15
 SCR Firing Angles

Do you remember the earlier slide on electrical degrees? You need that information to
understand SCR firing angles. The displayed degrees are for the positive half cycle
only. Caution, the 180 degree point for the positive half cycle is actually the zero degree
point for the negative half cycle.
360°
If a positive gate signal occurs at the earliest time in the
 half cycle, the SCR’s have a zero degree firing angle. A
0°  zero degree firing angle allows the SCR to conduct for the
   entire half cycle and provides a maximum DC output.
180° When the next half cycle begins, the SCR becomes
reverse biased and turns off.
   90°


0°
 270°
 

If a positive gate signal occurs later in the half cycle,

the SCR can conduct for the remaining time of that   
half cycle then it becomes reverse biased and turns
off. The resulting DC power is reduced to some
number based on the time the gate is turned on in
that half cycle.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 16
 SCR Testing
Digital Meter
When using a digital meter, set the meter to diode
check and place the positive meter lead on the
anode and the negative meter lead on the cathode.
This forward biases the SCR using the meters
battery power but you need to gate the SCR for it to
conduct. The meter should read OL until you gate
the SCR by jumping the anode to the gate lead, then
it will read .707 which is the voltage drop across a
silicon type SCR. When in a circuit, the SCR would
continue to conduct when the gate is removed.
However, the power in a digital meter is not strong
enough to maintain conduction, when the gate is
removed. The SCR should read OL when reverse
biased even if you gate the SCR.

Analog Meter
When using an analog meter, set the meter to ohms
check using the x1 scale. Place the positive meter
lead on the anode and the negative meter lead on
the cathode. This forward biases the SCR but you
need to gate the SCR for it to conduct by jumping the
anode to the gate lead. Once gated it will cause the
meter to deflect toward a small resistance reading.
When the meter leads are reversed, the indication
should change to near infinity even if you gate the
SCR.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 17
 Three Phase AC
Earlier we discussed electrical degrees in a single phase ac waveform. For
ease of discussion, our zero degree point intersected with the zero volt line on
the graph. We know that the start of the cycle can be selected arbitrarily
“anywhere” but always ends 360 degrees later. When discussing three
phases, it is easiest to place the zero degree point where two cycles intersect.
The zero degree point for phase “B” occurs 120 degrees after phase “A”
because each phase is 120 degrees out of phase with each other. One cycle
of three phase power is based on the start and end of only one phase.
 One Cycle of Power 
0 degree point for phase “A” 360 degree point for phase “A”
 
 

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 18
 Three Phase AC

Notice how each phase is most positive for 120 degrees during one cycle of three
phase power. The same is true for the negative half cycle.
 One Cycle of Power 
 120°  120°  120° 


Pt of Commutation

At the time in which two phases intersect, both phases have the same potential.
This instant in time is a fraction of one cycle of power. This is important when
converting AC to DC and is called the natural point of commutation in three phase
bridge rectifiers. The natural point of commutation is the point when one diode
turns on and another other turns off because the biasing naturally caused it.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 19
 Three Phase Bridge Rectification
A three phase bridge rectifier is depicted below. Notice that the positive
diodes are across the top while the negative diodes are along the bottom of
the bridge. Text books always label the positive and negative diodes as
shown for each of the three phases of AC power. A three phase bridge
rectifier is also known as a converter.
Positive Diodes

1 3 5
In a three phase AC A
power system, each
phase is 120 degrees B
apart. C

4 6 2

Negative Diodes
Note: that there is one positive and one negative diode for each phase of
power. Only one of the individual diodes within that phase can conduct at
a given period of time & only two diodes will be conducting at the same
time. Its as simple as counting to six, lets see why on the next slide.
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 20
 Three Phase Bridge Rectifer
Fill in the chart below using the diagrams provided. “T1 through T8” represent frozen
moments in time, look at the phases along each time to see which one is most positive and
negative. Then apply what you know about the phases to the bridge and figure out which
diodes are conducting. It may take a few minutes to figure this out, so go slow.

Most Positve Phase Most Negative Phase "+" Diode Conducting "-" Diode Conducting Turn "On" Order
T1 C B 5 6 Skip

T2 A B 1 6 1
T3 A C 1 2 2
T4 B C 3 2 3
T5 B A 3 4 4
T6 C A 5 4 5
T7 C B 5 6 6
T8 A B 1 6 1
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 21
 Chart Summary

Most Positve Phase Most Negative Phase "+" Diode Conducting "-" Diode Conducting Turn "On" Order
T1 C B 5 6
T2 A B 1 6 1
T3 A C 1 2 2
T4 B C 3 2 3
T5 B A 3 4 4
T6 C A 5 4 5
T7 C B 5 6 6
T8 A B 1 6 1

From the chart and previous graph, you can see that each phase is the most
positive for 120 degrees, its positive diode splits conduction time (60 degrees)
with each negative diode of the other two phases.
In addition, each phase is also the most negative phase for 120 degrees, its
negative diode splits conduction time (60 degrees) with each positive diode of
the other two phases.

The turn on order of the diode bridge is as simple as counting to six and then
starting all over again.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 22
 The DC waveform illustrates the voltage across the load when using a three
phase SCR or diode bridge “converter”. Each hump also represents two
diodes conducting for 60 degrees. Six humps of 60 degrees each equals
one complete electrical cycle of power.

| |
3 phase AC input to
the converter | |
| |
| |
| |
| One 360° Cycle of Power |
6&1 2&3 4&5
| |
DC output 
5&6 | 1&2 3&4 5&6 |
| |
| |
60°
(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 23
 Where is the converter used in a
drive?
3 phase AC to the left of the picture enters the drive when the open set of
contacts close allowing AC power to enter the SCR converter. This starts the
pre-charge process. Since the converter is considered passive, it does not
require any further control after pre-charge. When the drive’s control circuitry
senses a start command, through a joystick, “HIM” or any other means, the
inverter becomes operational and the motor turns.

The converter
rectifies AC Power
into DC Power. DC
is now applied to the
3 phase AC
Bus. This Bus
voltage is filtered by
a capacitor bank
Encoder and applied to the
inverter section of
the drive.

Note: The other parts of the block diagram are explained in

separate training modules.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 24
Closing Statement

You have now completed this module, if

there are any parts of this module that are
still unclear, go back and review them.
Then get ready to take the test.

Passing the test for this module may be

required in order to participate in other
training courses. You may take the test as
many times as you want or need.

Once you have passed submit the test as

outlined on the web page.

(Confidential – For Internal Use Only) Copyright © 2007 Rockwell Automation, Inc. All rights reserved. 25