5TAI.

UBRAR

CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY OF

TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

The Open Court

Series

of Classics of Science and

Thilosophy, $(o.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO
THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY OF

TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
BY

GEORG CANTOR
TRANSLATED, AND PROVIDED WITH AN INTRODUCTION
AND NOTES, BY

PHILIP

E. B.

JOURDAIN

M. A. (CANTAB.)

CHICAGO AND LONDON

THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY

1915

Copyright in Great Britain under the Act of 191

STAT.

PREFACE

" BRAit

THIS volume contains a translation of the two very

important memoirs of Georg Cantor on transfinite
numbers which appeared in the Mathematische
Annalen for 1895 an ^ 1897* under the title:
"Beitrage zur Begriindung der transfmiten MengenIt seems to me that, since these memoirs

lehre."

are chiefly occupied with the investigation of the

various transfinite cardinal and ordinal numbers and

not with investigations belonging to what is usually

described as "the theory of aggregates" or "the
"
theory of sets (Mengenlekre theorie des ensembles},
y

elements of the sets being real or complex

the

numbers which are imaged as geometrical " points "

the title given
in space of one or more dimensions,
to them in this translation is more suitable.
These memoirs are the final and logically purified
statement of many of the most important results of
the long series of memoirs begun by Cantor in 1870.
It is,

to

think, necessary,

earlier researches
It

if

we

are to appreciate the

work on transfinite numbers,

have thought through and to bear in mind Cantor s
import of Cantor

full

was
*

in these

on the theory of point-aggregates.

that the need for the

researches

Vol. xlvi, 1895, pp. 481-512

v

vol. xlix, 1897, pp.

207-246.

PREFACE

vi

transfinite

numbers

showed

first

itself,

and

it is

only

by the study of these researches that the majority

of us can annihilate the feeling of arbitrariness and
insecurity about the introduction of these

even

numbers.

Furthermore,

it is

also necessary to trace

the
through Weierstrass,
course of those researches which led to Cantor s

backwards,

especially

have, then, prefixed an Introduction tracing

the growth of parts of the theory of functions during

work.

the nineteenth century, and dealing, in some detail,

with the fundamental work of Weierstrass and others,

and with the work of Cantor from 1870 to 1895.

Some notes at the end contain a short account of the
developments of the theory of transfinite numbers
^ n these notes and in the Introduction
since 1897.
I have been greatly helped by the information that
Professor Cantor gave me in the course of a long
correspondence on the theory of aggregates which

we carried on many years ago.

The philosophical revolution brought

about by
Cantor s work was even greater, perhaps, than the
With few exceptions, mathe
mathematical one.
maticians joyfully accepted, built upon, scrutinized,
and perfected the foundations of Cantor s undying

but very many philosophers combated it.

theory
This seems to have been because very few under
;

stood

it.

hope that

the subject better

mathematicians.

The

three

mathematics

this

known

men whose

book may help

to

make

to both philosophers

influence on

and indirectly modern

and

modern pure
and the

logic

PREFACE

vii

philosophy which abuts on it is most marked are

Karl Weierstrass, Richard Dedekind, and Georg

A great part of Dedekind s work has de

Cantor.
veloped along a direction parallel to the work of
Cantor, and it is instructive to compare with Cantor s
work Dedekind s Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen
and Was sind und was sollen die Zahlen ?, of which
excellent English translations have been issued
the publishers of the present book. *

by

There is a French translation f of these memoirs of

Cantor s, but there is no English translation of them.
For kind permission to make the translation, I

am

indebted to Messrs B.

and

Berlin,

G.

the publishers

Teubner of Leipzig

of the Mathematische

Annalen.

PHILIP
*

Essays on the Theory of Numbers

Numbers

II,

(I,

E. B.

JOURDAIN.

Continuity

and

Irrational

The Nature and Meaning of Numbers], translated by

W. W. Beman,

Chicago,

1901.

shall refer to this as

Essays on

Number.
t

By

F.

Marotte, Sur

trans/mis, Paris, 1899.

les

fondements de

la

theorie des

ensembles

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

PREFACE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

ix

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

ARTICLE

I.

ARTICLE

II.

NOTES
INDEX

(1895)

(1897)

...

85

137

.-

202

209

.V

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
FOUNDING OF THE THEORY
OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
INTRODUCTION
I

safe to trace back to any single man the

of
those conceptions with which pure mathe
origin

IF

it

is

matical analysis has been chiefly occupied during

the nineteenth century and up to the present time,

we must,

I think, trace it back to

Jean Baptiste
Fourier was first and
Fourier
Joseph
(1768-1830).
foremost a physicist, and he expressed very defin

itely his

by

view that mathematics only justifies itself

it gives towards the solution of
physical

the help

problems, and yet the light that was thrown on the

general conception of a function and its "con
tinuity," of

and of an

the "convergence"

of

infinite

series,

to shine as a result

first

began
of Fourier s original and bold treatment of the
This it was
problems of the conduction of heat.
that gave the impetus to the formation and develop
ment of the theories of functions.
The broadminded physicist will approve of this refining
integral,

INTRODUCTION

development of the mathematical methods which

arise from physical conceptions when he reflects
that mathematics is a wonderfully powerful and
economically contrived means of dealing logically
and conveniently with an immense complex of data,

and that we cannot be sure of the logical soundness

of our methods and results until we make every
The pure mathe
thing about them quite definite.
matician knows that pure mathematics has an end
in itself which is more allied with philosophy.
But
we have not to justify pure mathematics here we
have only to point out its origin in physical con
But we have also pointed out that
ceptions.
can
justify even the most modern develop
physics
ments of pure mathematics.
:

II

During the nineteenth century, the two great

branches of the theory of functions developed and
The rigorous foundation of
gradually separated.
the

results

of

Fourier on

trigonometrical

series,

which was given by Dirichlet, brought forward as

subjects of investigation the general conception of a
(one-valued) function of a real variable and the (in
particular, trigonometrical)

On

development of functions.

Cauchy was gradually led to

the
importance of what was subsequently
recognize
more special conception of function of
the
be
to
seen
the other hand,

a complex variable and, to a great extent independ

ently of Cauchy, Weierstrass built up his theory of
;

analytic functions of

complex

variables.

INTRODUCTION

These tendencies of both Cauchy and Dirichlet

combined to influence Riemann his work on the
theory of functions of a complex variable carried on
and greatly developed the work of Cauchy, while
" Habilitationsschrift " of
the intention of his
;

1854

was

to generalize as far as possible Dirichlet s partial

solution of the problem of the development of a

function

of

real

variable

in

trigonometrical

series.

Both these

sides of

impression on

Riemann

Hankel.

In

activity left a

deep

memoir of

1870,
Hankel attempted to exhibit the theory of functions
of a real variable as leading, of necessity, to the
restrictions

and extensions from which we

Riemann s theory
and yet Hankel

start in

of functions of a complex variable

researches entitle him to be called

the founder of the independent theory of functions

At about the same time, Heine
of a real variable.
initiated, under the direct influence of Riemann s

"

Habilitationsschrift," a

new

series of investigations

on trigonometrical series.
Finally, soon after this, we

Georg Cantor
memoir and applying to
find

both studying Hankel s

theorems on the uniqueness of trigonometrical de
velopments those conceptions of his on irrational
"
numbers and the
of point-aggregates
derivatives
number-aggregates which developed from the
rigorous treatment of such fundamental questions

or

given by Weierstrass at Berlin in the introduction to

his lectures on analytic functions.
The theory of
point-aggregates soon became an independent theory

INTRODUCTION

of great importance, and finally, in 1882, Cantor s

" transfinite numbers "
were defined independently

of the aggregates in connexion with which they

appeared

in

first

mathematics.
Ill

The investigations * of the eighteenth century on

the problem of vibrating cords led to a controversy

D Alembert

for the following reasons.

maintained

that the arbitrary functions in his general integral

of the

partial

differential

were

equation to which this

to have certain pro

problem
which
assimilate
them
to the analytically
perties
representable functions then known, and which would
led

restricted

prevent their course being completely arbitrary at

Euler, on the other hand, argued for
every point.
"
the admission of certain of these
arbitrary"
functions

into

produced

analysis.

solution

in

Then
the

Daniel

form

Bernoulli

an

of

infinite

and claimed, on certain

this
solution was as general
that
physical grounds,
As Euler pointed out, this was so
as d Alembert s.
trigonometrical

only

if

able in
*

series,

any arbitrary f function

a series of the form

0(ar)

were develop

my papers in the Archiv der Mathematik

Cf. the references given in

Physik^ 3rd series, vol. x,

1906, pp. 255-256, and Isis vol. i,

Much of this Introduction is taken from my
1914, pp. 670-677.
"
" The
account of
Development of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers
vol.
above-mentioned
the
in
x, pp.
Archiv, 3rd series,
254-281
vol. xiv, 1909, pp. 289-311; vol. xvi, 1910, pp. 21-43; vo1 xxn
~ 21
I 9 l $, PP- l
f The arbitrary functions chiefly considered in this connexion by
This word
Euler were what he called "discontinuous" functions.

und

does not

mean what we now mean

in /sis, vol.

i,

1914, pp. 661-703.

(after

Cauchy) by

it.

Cf.

my

paper

INTRODUCTION

That
is

this was, indeed, the case,

not necessarily developable

even when

in a power-series,

was

first shown by Fourier, who was led to study the

same mathematical problem as the above one by
his researches, the first of which were communicated

to the French

To

of heat.

Academy
Fourier

on the conduction

in 1807,

due also the determination

is

of the coefficients in trigonometric series,

0(#)
in the

+ 1
+#

cos ^r+^ 2 cos 2

x+a

sin

sin

form
+

bv

7T

0(a) cos
=-\
IT)
-

av =

vada,

7T

d>(a) sin vada.

TTj

77

7T

This determination was probably independent of

Euler s prior determination and Lagrange s analog
ous determination of the coefficients of a finite
trigonometrical series.
metrical proof of the

Fourier

also

gave a geo

convergence of his

series,

which, though not formally exact, contained

germ of Dirichlet s proof.

the

To

is

Peter Gustav Lejeune-Dirichlet (1805-1859)

due the first exact treatment of Fourier s series.*

He

expressed the sum of the

series
"

by

a definite integral,

first

n terms of the

and proved that the

Sur

la convergence des series trigonometriques qui servent a

representer une function arbitraire entre des limites donnees,"y<?r.

fur

Math.,

pp.

117-132,

vol.

iv,

1829,

pp.

157-169;

Ges.

IVerke,

vol.

i,

INTRODUCTION

6
limit,
is

when n

increases indefinitely, of this integral

is to be represented by the

the function which

trigonometrical

series,

provided that

the function

These conditions were

somewhat lightened by Lipschitz in 1864.
Thus, Fourier s work led to the contemplation
and exact treatment of certain functions which

satisfies certain conditions.

were totally different in behaviour from algebraic

These last functions were, before him,
functions.
be the type of all functions that
Henceforth it was part of
analysis.

tacitly considered to

can occur

in

the business of analysis to investigate such

non-

algebraoid functions.
In the

few decades of the nineteenth century

first

there grew, up a theory of more special functions of

an imaginary or complex variable.
This theory was

part at least, to Carl Friedrich Gauss

(1777-1855), but he did not publish his results, and
in

known,

so the theory

due to Augustin Louis Cauchy

Cauchy was less far-sighted and

is

(1789-1857).*
than
penetrating

Gauss,

the

theory

developed

slowly, and only gradually were

against

"

"

imaginaries

Cauchy s prejudices
overcome.
Through the

1814 to 1846 we can trace, first, the

strong influence on Cauchy s conceptions of Fourier s
ideas, then the quickly increasing unsusceptibility to

years

from

the ideas of others, coupled with the extraordinarily

Cauchy
prolific nature of this narrow-minded genius.
appeared to take pride in the production of memoirs
*

"

The Theory of Functions with

Cf. Jourdain,
Math. (3), vol. vi, 1905, pp. 190-207.

&ibl.

Cauchy and Gauss,"

INTRODUCTION

weekly meeting of the French Academy, and

was partly, perhaps, due to this circumstance that
his works are of very unequal importance.
Besides
that, he did not seem to perceive even approximately
the immense importance of the theory of functions
of a complex variable which he did so much to
create.
This task remained for Puiseux, Briot and
Bouquet, and others, and was advanced in the
most striking manner by Georg Friedrich Bernhard

at each
it

Riemann (1826-1866).
Riemann may have owed

to his teacher Dirichlet

both towards the theory of potential

which was the chief instrument in his classical

his

bent

development (1851) of the theory of functions of a

complex variable and that of trigonometrical series.
By a memoir on the representability of a function
by a trigonometrical series, which was read in 1854
but only published after his death, he not only laid
the foundations for all modern investigations into the
theory of these series, but inspired Hermann Hankel
(1839-1873) to the method of researches from which

we can date

the theory of functions of a real variable

as an independent science.
The motive of HankePs
research
tions of
variable.

was provided by reflexion on the founda

Riemann s theory of functions of a complex
It was HankePs object to show how the

needs of mathematics compel us to go beyond the

most general conception of a function, which was

implicitly formulated by Dirichlet, to introduce the
complex variable, and finally to reach that con
ception from which Riemann started in his inaugural

INTRODUCTION

For

dissertation.

"

Untersuchungen

this
liber

purpose Hankel began his

die unendlich oft oscilli-

renden und unstetigen Functionen ein Beitrag zur

"
Feststellung des Begriffes der Function iiberhaupt
;

of 1870

by a thorough examination of the various

possibilities contained in Dirichlet s conception.

Riemann, in his memoir of 1854, started

from

the general problem of which Dirichlet had only

solved a particular case
If a function is developable
:

in a trigonometrical series,

what

results

variation of the value of the function (that

what

about the
is

to say,

the most general way in which it can become

discontinuous and have maxima and minima) when
is

the argument varies continuously ?

The argument
a real variable, for Fourier s series, as Fourier had

is

already noticed, may converge for real .r s alone.

This question was not completely answered, and,

perhaps

in

consequence of
in

published
that part of

Riemann

this,

lifetime

the work was not

;

but fortunately

which concerns us more particularly,

and which seems to fill, and more than fill, the place
it

of Dirichlet s contemplated revision of the principles

of the infinitesimal calculus, has the finality obtained
by the giving of the necessary and sufficient condi
tions for the integrability of a function f(x)>

which

was a necessary preliminary to Riemann s investiga

tion.
Thus, Riemann was led to give the process
of integration a far wider meaning than that
contemplated by Cauchy or even Dirichlet, and
Riemann constructed an integrable function which
becomes discontinuous an infinity of times between

INTRODUCTION
any two

limits,

as close together as wished, of the

If,
independent variable, in the following manner
where x is a real variable, (x) denotes the (positive or
:

negative) excess of x over the nearest integer, or

zero if x is midway between two integers, (x) is
a one-valued function of

x with

discontinuities at

the points x= + J, where ^ is an integer (positive,

negative, or zero), and with \ and
\ for upper and

lower limits respectively.

Further, (vx), where
is discontinuous at the
points vx=

v is

an integer,
or ;r=-(/z

where the

+ J).

Consequently, the series

added to ensure convergence

may be supposed to be discon
tinuous for all values of x of the form xp\2n,
where/ is an odd integer, relatively prime to n. It
was this method that was, in a certain respect,
factor

i/j/

is

for all values of x,

generalized

by Hankel

in

In

1870.

Riemann

example appeared an analytical expression and

"
therefore a " function
in Euler s sense
which, on
account of its manifold singularities, allowed of no
such general properties as Riemann

" functions of

a complex variable," and Hankel gave a method,

whose principles were suggested by this example, of

forming analytical expressions with singularities at

He was thus led to state, with
every rational point.
some reserve, that every "function" in Dirichlet s
sense is also a " function" in Euler s
sense.

The

greatest influence on

Georg Cantor seems,

INTRODUCTION

io

not

to

have

been

that

exercised by
Riemann, Hankel, and their successors though
the work of these men is closely connected with
some parts of Cantor s work, but by Weierstrass,

however,

a contemporary of Riemann s,
of the same problems in the

functions of complex variables

who attacked many

theory of analytic

by very

different

and

more rigorous methods.

IV
Karl Weierstrass (1815-1897) has explained, in
on the occasion of his entry

his address delivered

into the Berlin

Academy

in

1857, that, from the

time (the winter of 1839-1840) when, under his

teacher Gudermann, he made his first acquaintance
he was power
"
branch
of
Now,
by
analysis.
was accustomed to take the highest

with the theory of

fully attracted

who

Abel,

elliptic functions,

this

standpoint in any part of mathematics, established

a theorem which comprises all those transcendents

which

arise

entials,

Euler

from the integration of algebraic

and has the same

differ

signification for these as

and
integral has for elliptic functions
in demonstrating the existence of
.

Jacobi succeeded

periodic functions of many arguments, whose funda

mental properties are established in Abel s theorem,

and by means of which the true meaning and real

essence of this theorem could be judged.
Actually
to represent, and to investigate the properties of
these magnitudes of a totally new kind, of which
analysis has jas yet no example, I regarded as one

IN TR OD UCTJON

1 1

of the principal problems of mathematics, and, as

soon as I clearly recognized the meaning and sig
nificance of this problem, resolved to devote myself
to

Of

it.

course

it

would have been

to think of the solution of such a

foolish even

problem without

a thorough study of the

having prepared myself by

means and by busying myself with

less

difficult

problems.
With the ends stated here of Weierstrass

we

now concerned only

are

incidentally

it

work
is

the

"
means the
thorough study of which he spoke
which has had a decisive influence on our subject

in

with the theory of functions.

We will,
his
over
work
which
was
then, pass
early
only
published in 1894 on the theory of analytic

common

functions, his later

work on the same

subject,

and

Abelian functions, and examine

his immensely important work on the foundations
of arithmetic, to which he was led by the needs of
his theory of the

a rigorous theory of analytic functions.

have spoken as if the ultimate aim of Weier

We

work was the investigation of Abelian

But another and more philosophical
functions.
view was expressed in his introduction to a course
of lectures delivered in the summer of 1886 and
" In order to
*
preserved by Gosta Mittag-Leffler
strass

penetrate into mathematical science it is indispens

able that we should occupy ourselves with individual
"Sur
d apres

les

fondements arithmetiques de la theorie des fonctions

Congres des Mathtmatiques a Stockholm

Weierstrass,"

1909, p. io.

INTRODUCTION

12

problems which show us its extent and constitution.

But the final object which we must always keep in
sight is the attainment of a sound judgment on the
foundations of science."
In

Weierstrass began his lectures on the

1859,

theory of analytic functions at the University of

The importance of this, from our present
Berlin.
point of view, lies in the fact that he was naturally
obliged to pay special attention to the systematic

treatment

of

the

theory,

and

consequently,

to

scrutinize its foundations.

In

the

first

Weierstrass
the method

place,

one of the characteristics of

theory of functions is the abolition of

of complex integration of Cauchy and

Gauss which was used by Riemann

and, in a
letter to H. A. Schwarz of October 3,
1875,
;

in a systematic
with
better to dispense
integration,

Weierstrass stated his belief that,

foundation,
as follows

it is

<c
.

The more

meditate upon the principles

of the theory of functions,

and I do this incessantly,
the firmer becomes my conviction that this theory
must be built up on the foundation of algebraic

and therefore that it is not the right way to

proceed conversely and make use of the trans
truths,

cendental (to express myself briefly) for the establish

ment of simple and fundamental algebraic theorems

however attractive may be, for example, the con

siderations by which Riemann discovered so many
of the most important properties of algebraic
functions,

That to the discoverer, qua

discoverer,

INTRODUCTION

permissible, is, of course, self-evident

only thinking of the systematic establishment

every route
I

am

13

is

of the theory.

"

In the second

than

portant

systematic

place,

and what

question of
treatment, ab initio,
the

is

far

more im

the
integration,
of the theory of

analytic functions led Weierstrass to profound in

vestigations in the principles of arithmetic, and the
his theory of
great result of these investigations
irrational

matics

numbers

has a significance for

mathe
and our

all

which can hardly be overrated,

subject may truly be said to be almost

wholly due to this theory and its development by
Cantor.

present

In the theory of analytic functions we often have

to use the theorem that, if we are given an infinity
of points

of the

complex plane

in

any bounded

region of this plane, there is at least one point of

the domain such that there is an infinity of the

given points in each and every neighbourhood round

it and
Mathematicians used to express
including it.

There
by some such rather obscure phrase as
a point near which some of the given points are

this
is

infinitely near to

one another."

If

we

apply, for the

method which seems naturally to

and which consists in successively

proof of this, the

suggest itself,
halving the region or one part of the region which
contains an infinity of points,* we arrive at what is
required,

namely,

the conclusion that there

point such that there

*

This method was

first

is

is

another point in any neigh-

used by Bernard Bolzano in 1817.

INTRODUCTION

t4

bourhood of
"
called

it,

that

is

to say, that there

is

a so-

point of condensation," when, and only

we
have proved that every infinite "sum*
when,
such that the sum of any finite number of its terms

does not exceed some given finite number defines a

The geometrical
(rational or irrational) number.
this
of
analogue
proposition may possibly be claimed
to

be evident

functions

but

if

our ideal in

which had, even

in

the theory of
Weierstrass s time,

been regarded for long as a justified, and even as a

is to found this theory on the
partly attained, ideal
conception of number alone,* this proposition leads to
the considerations out of which a theory of irrational

numbers such

as Weierstrass

on the existence of at

least

s is built.

The theorem

one point of condensa

was proved by Weierstsass by the method of

successive subdivisions, and was specially emphasized

tion

by him.
Weierstrass, in the introduction to his lectures on
analytic functions, emphasized that, when we have
admitted the notion of whole number, arithmetic

needs no further postulate, but can be built up in a

purely logical fashion, and also that the notion of a
*
The separation of analysis from geometry, which appeared in the
work of Lagrange, Gauss, Cauchy, and Bolzano, was a consequence of

the increasing tendency of mathematicians towards logical exactitude

in defining their conceptions and in making their deductions, and, con
and
sequently, in discovering the limits of validity of their conceptions
methods.
However, the true connexion between the founding of
"
arithmetization," as it has been
analysis on a purely arithmetical basis
called

shown

and logical rigour, can only be definitely and convincingly

after the comparatively modern thesis is proved that all the con

cepts (including that of number) of pure mathematics are wholly logical.

And this thesis is one of the most important consequences to which the
theory whose growth we are describing has forced us.

INTRODUCTION
one-to-one correspondence

is

fundamental

15
in

count

But it is in his purely arithmetical introduction

ing.
of irrational numbers that his great divergence from
This appears from a consideration
precedent comes.
of the history of incommensurables.
The ancient Greeks discovered the existence of in

commensurable geometrical magnitudes, and there

fore grew to regard arithmetic and geometry as
sciences of which the analogy had not a logical
This view was also probably due, in part at
basis.
to
an attentive consideration of the famous
least,
arguments of Zeno. Analytical geometry practi
cally identified geometry with arithmetic (or rather
with arithmetica universails}, and, before Weierthe introduction of irrational " number"
strass,

The
was, explicitly or implicitly, geometrical.
view that number has a geometrical basis was taken
by Newton and most of
to

the

nineteenth

his successors.

To come

Cauchy

explicitly

century,

At the beginning of his

adopted the same view.
Cours d analyse of 1821, he defined a " limit" as
follows:

"When

the

successive values

attributed

to a variable

approach a fixed value indefinitely

so as to end by differing from it as little as is
limit of all
wished, this fixed value is called the
"
the others"
and remarked that
thus an irrational
;

number

is

furnish

more and more approximate values of it."

consider as, however, Cauchy does not

If

we

the limit of the various fractions which

appear to have done, although many others have

the latter statement as a definition, so that an

INTRODUCTION

number is defined to be the limit of

sums of rational numbers, we presuppose
that these sums have a limit.
In another place
irrational"

certain

Cauchy remarked, after defining a series & u v

... to be convergent if the sum S n = u + u 1 + u 2
,

^2

+# w _i,

for values of n

always increasing,
approaches indefinitely a certain limit j, that, "by
the above principles, in order that the series
.

u^ u l9
and

sum
s

be convergent, it is necessary
sufficient that increasing values of n make the
z/

2,

may

converge indefinitely towards a fixed limit

sn

necessary and sufficient that,

values
of n, the sums s ny s H+l
great
differ from the limit s, and consequently

in other

words,

it is

for infinitely

s n+ z,

from one another, by infinitely small quantities."

Hence it is necessary and sufficient that the different

sums u n + u n+ i +

when n

+#+

for different

;/z s,

end,

by obtaining numerical values con

from one another by less than any

increases,

stantly differing

assigned number.
If we know that the sums s n have a limit

j,

we

can at once prove the necessity of this condition

but its sufficiency (that is to say, if, for any assigned

positive rational

e,

an integer n can always be found

such that
I

where r

is

any

*-**+

integer,

<
I

>

then a limit

s exists) re

of real
quires a previous definition of the system
is
to
be
limit
the
one.
which
of
supposed
numbers,

For

it

is

evidently a vicious circle to define a real

INTRODUCTION
number

17

as the limit of a

"convergent" series, as
the above definition of what we mean by a "con
"
series
a series which has a limit
in
vergent
volves (unless we limit ourselves to rational limits)
" real
a previous definition of what we mean by a
*
number."
It

we

if

seems, perhaps, evident to "intuition" that,

., for which the
lay off lengths s n s n+ly
,

is fulfilled, on a straight line, that

a (commensurable or incommensurable) "limiting"
length s exists and, on these grounds, we seem to

above condition

be justified in designating Cauchy s theory of real

number as geometrical. But such a geometrical
theory is not logically convincing, and Weierstrass

showed that it is unnecessary, by defining real

numbers in a manner which did not depend on a
process of "going to the limit."

To

we have the following

would-be
arithmetical f prelogical
Weierstrassian introductions of irrational numbers
repeat the point briefly,
error

in

all

we

start

with the conception of the system of

we

rational numbers,

define the

"sum"

(a limit of

a sequence of rational numbers) of an infinite series

of rational numbers, and then raise ourselves to the
conception of the system of real numbers which are

The error lies in overlooking

got by such means.
the fact that the
sum " (b) of the infinite series of
*

On

the attempts of Bolzano, Hankel, and Stolz to prove arithmetic

without an arithmetical theory of real numbers, the sufficiency of
the above criterion, see OstwalcCs Klassiker, No. 153, pp. 42, 95, 107.
t It must be remembered that Cauchy s theory was not one of these.
Cauchy did not attempt to define real numbers arithmetically, but

ally,

simply presupposed their existence on geometrical grounds.

INTRODUCTION

rational numbers can only be defined when we have

already defined the real numbers, of which b is one.
" I
believe," said Cantor,* a propos of Weierstrass s

"that

theory,

avoided

by

this logical

Weierstrass,

error,

escaped

which was
notice

first

almost

and was not noticed on

the ground that it is one of the rare cases in which
actual errors can lead to none of the more important
universally in

earlier times,

mistakes in calculation."

Thus, we must bear in mind that an arithmetical

theory of irrationals has to define irrational numbers
not as "limits"

(whose existence

is

not

always

beyond question) of certain infinite processes, but

in a manner prior to any possible discussion of the
question in what cases these processes define limits
at

all.

With Weierstrass, a number was said to be

"determined" if we know of what elements it is
composed and how many times each element
Considering numbers formed with
the principal unit and an infinity of its aliquot parts,
Weierstrass called any aggregate whose elements
occurs

in

it.

and the number

occurs in

it

f are

(finite)

known

of

times

each

a (determined)

element
" numerical

An aggregate consisting
quantity (Zaklengrosse}.
of a finite number of elements was regarded as equal
to the

sum

finite

number

when

of

elements, and two aggregates of a

of elements were regarded as equal

its

the respective sums of their elements are equal.

Math. Ann.,

It is

vol. xxi, 1883, p. 566.

not implied that the given elements are

finite in

number.

INTRODUCTION
A

19

number r was said to be contained in

numerical quantity a when we can separate from

rational

A numerical
a a partial aggregate equal to r.
if we could
"finite"
to
be
said
a
was
quantity
assign a rational

number

number contained

in

such that every rational

Two
is smaller than R.

were said to be " equal,"

when every rational number contained in a is con
When a and b are not
tained in b and vice versa.
numerical quantities

a, b

equal, there is at least one rational number which

is either contained in a without being contained in
by

or vice versa

in

"greater than" b
"
less than
b.

in

was
the second, a was

the

first

case, a

said to be
said to be

the numerical quantity c de

identical with) the aggregate whose

Weierstrass called
fined

by

(i.e.

elements are those which appear in a or b each of

these elements being taken a number of times equal
y

to the

number

of times

in

which

it

occurs

in

by the number of times in which it occurs

sum" of a and b. The "product" of
a and b was defined to be the numerical quantity
defined by the aggregate whose elements are ob
tained by forming in all possible manners the product
of each element of a and each element of b.
In the
was
defined
the product of any finite
same way
number of numerical quantities.
The "sum" of an infinite number of numerical
was then defined to be the
quantities a, by
aggregate (s) whose elements occur in one (at least)
increased
in b y

the

of

a,y

by

.,

each of these elements

being taken

INTR OD UCTION

20
a

number of times

(n) equal to the number of times

occurs in a, increased by the number of times
that it occurs in b, and so on.
In order that s be

that

it

and determined, it is necessary that each of the

elements which occurs in it occurs a finite number of

finite

and

times,

it

necessary and sufficient that we can

N such that the sum of any finite

is

number

assign a

number of the quantities a, 6, ... is less than N.

Such is the principal point of Weierstrass s theory
of real numbers.

It

should be noticed that, with

numbers were aggregates of

Weierstrass, the new

the numbers previously defined and that this view,
which appears from time to time in the better text
;

books, has the important advantage which was

is

that

first

This advantage
the existence of limits can be proved in

sufficiently

emphasized by Russell.

such a theory.
That is to say, it can be proved by
actual construction that there is a number which is
the limit of a certain series fulfilling the condition
"
When real
of
finiteness "or
convergency.
(

numbers are introduced

either without proper defini

tions, or as "creations of our

far worse,

as

minds,"

this existence

"signs,"*

or,

what

is

cannot be

proved.
If

we

consider

an

infinite

aggregate of

real

numbers, or comparing these numbers for the sake

of picturesqueness with the points of a straight
line, an infinite "point-aggregate," we have the

theorem

There

such that there

*

Cf. Jourdain,

in this domain, at least one point

an infinity of points of the aggre-

is,

is

Math. Gazette 9

]a.n.

1908, vol.

iv,

pp. 201-209.

INTRODUCTION

21

gate in any, arbitrarily small, neighbourhood of it.

Weierstrass s proof was, as we have mentioned,

by the process, named

of successively halving

Bolzano and him,

of the intervals
one
any
which contains an infinity of points.
This process
defines a certain numerical magnitude, the " point
"
of condensation (Hdufungsstelle) in question.
An
after

analogous theorem holds for the two-dimensional

region of complex numbers.

Of

real numerical

than some

less

limit,"

which

is

finite

magnitudes x, all of which are

"
number, there is an
upper

defined as

which

is

such that either certain

certain

(G,

numerical magnitude

x and

G or
equal
within the arbitrarily small interval
the end G being excluded.
Ana
(5),

are

;r s

" lower limit

logously for the

It

to

lie

JT S
.

not surpassed in magnitude by any

is

must be noticed

aggregate of

;r s,

that,

"

g.
if

one of these

we have
is

a finite

the upper limit,

and, if the aggregate is infinite, one of them may

be the upper limit.
In this case it need not also,
but of course may, be a point of condensation.
If

none of them
existence

the upper limit, this limit (whose

proved similarly to the existence of a

is

is

point of condensation, but is, in addition, unique]

a point of condensation.
Thus, in the above

is

explanation of the term "upper limit," we can

"
to "being
replace the words "either certain ;r s
"
excluded"
certain ;r s lie in the
arbitrary small

by

interval (G,

The theory

.,

of the

the end

being included*
and
lower
limit of a
upper

<S),

INTRODUCTION

22

" Dirichlet s
(general or
") real one-valued function
of a real variable was also developed and emphasized

by Weierstrass, and

If
is
especially the theorem
the upper limit of those values of y=f(x}* which
belong to the values of x lying inside the interval

from a to
point x

b,

=X

there

in this interval, at least

is,

such that the

which belong

to

neighbourhood of
lower

the

.r s

is

and analogously

and,

for the

limit.

If the j^-value corresponding to

upper

one

of the

ys
upper
in an arbitrarily small
limit

limit
if

called

is

is

;r=X

"maximum"

is G, the
of the y s

a continuous function of x, the

in other words, a con
a maximum

f(x)

upper limit

the

is

upper and lower limits.

That a continuous function also takes at least once
every value between these limits was proved by
Bolzano (1817) and Cauchy (1821), but the Weierstrassian theory of real numbers first made these

tinuous function attains

its

proofs rigorous,
It is of the utmost importance to realize that,
*j"

whereas until Weierstrass s time such subjects as

the theory of points of condensation of an infinite
aggregate and the theory of irrational numbers,
on which the founding of the theory of functions
*

is finite for every single x of the interval a-^x-^b, all

not be, in absolute amount, less than some finite number
= o, in the interval o<; x-^i),
(for example, f(x)=i/x for x>o, /(o)
but if they are (as in the case of the sum of a uniformly convergent
lower limit in the sense defined.
series), these ys have a finite upper and
t There is another conception (due to Cauchy and P. du BoisReymond), allied to that of upper and lower limit. With every infinite
of condensation,
aggregate, there are (attained) upper and lower points
"
Limites,
which we may call by the Latin name

Even

these

if

/ s need

INTRODUCTION

23

depends, were hardly ever investigated, and never

with such important results, Weierstrass carried
research

into

the principles of arithmetic farther

But we must also

had been carried before.
were questions, such as the nature
of whole number itself, to which he made no valuable
These questions, though logically
contributions.
than

it

realize that there

the first in arithmetic, were, of course, historically

the last to be dealt with.
Before this could happen,

arithmetic had to receive a development, by means

of Cantor s discovery of transfinite numbers, into a

theory of cardinal and ordinal numbers, both finite

and transfinite, and logic had to be sharpened, as
it was by Dedekind,
Frege, Peano and Russell to
a great extent

made

owing to the needs which

this

theory

evident.

V
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor was
Petersburg on 3rd March 1845, an d

born at St

lived there until 1856; from 1856 to 1863 he lived

in South Germany (Wiesbaden, Frankfurt a. M.
and Darmstadt); and, from autumn 1863 to Easter
He became Privatdocent at Halle
1869, in Berlin.
a. S. in 1869, extraordinary Professor in 1872, and
,

ordinary

Professor in

1879.*

When

a student at

Berlin, Cantor came under the influence of Weierstrass s teaching, and one of his first papers on
*

Those memoirs of Cantor s that will be considered here more

and which constitute by far the greater part of his writings,
are contained in Journ. fur Math. vols. Ixxvii and Ixxxiv, 1874 and
1878; KTath. Ann., vol. iv, 1871. vol. v, 1872, vol. xv, 1879, vol. xvii,
particularly,

1880, vol. xx, 1882, vol, xxi, 1883.

INTRODUCTION

24

mathematics was partly occupied with a theory of

irrational numbers, in which a sequence of numbers
satisfying Cauchy s condition of convergence was
used instead of Weierstrass s complex of an infinity

of elements

satisfying a condition which, though

equivalent to the above condition, is less convenient
for purposes of calculation.

This theory was exposed in the course of Cantor s

researches on trigonometrical series.
One of the

problems of the modern theory of trigonometrical

was to establish the uniqueness of a trigono

metrical development.
Cantor s investigations re
lated to the proof of this uniqueness for the most

series

general trigonometrical series, that

whose

series

trigonometrical

is

to say, those
are not

coefficients

necessarily supposed to have the (Fourier s) integral

form.
In a paper of 1870, Cantor proved the theorem
that,

if

a l9 # 2

.,

a vy

and

.-..,.;.

d ly

are two infinite series such that the limit of

a v sin

vx-\-

b v cos vx

every value of x which lies in a given interval

(a<x<b) of the domain of real magnitudes, is zero
with increasing y, both a v and b v converge, with
for

increasing

y,

to

criterion for the

series

zero.

This

theorem leads to a

convergence of a trigonometrical

INTRODUCTION
that

25

Riemann proved under the supposition

of the

In a paper im
integral form for the coefficients.
mediately following this one, Cantor used this

theorem

to prove that there is only one representation

of f(x} in the form of a trigonometrical series con
vergent for every value of x, except, possibly, a
finite

number

of

;r s

if

the sums of two trigono

number of ;r s, the

metrical series differ for a finite

forms of the series coincide.

Cantor gave a simpler proof of the

of
the representation, and extended this
uniqueness
If we have, for every value of ;r, a
theorem to
In

1871,

representation of the value o by a

trigonometrical series, the coefficients of this re
In the same year, he also
presentation are zero.

convergent

gave a simpler proof of

his

first

lim (a v sin vx-\-b v cos vx} = o for

lim a v and lim b v are zero.
In

theorem

a<x<b,

that,

if

then both

November

theorem by

1871, Cantor further extended his

proving that the convergence or equality

sums of trigonometrical series may be re

nounced for certain infinite aggregates of ;r s in the
interval O.
2ir without the theorem ceasing to

of the

hold.

To

describe

have

the

structure

such an
Cantor began

that

case,
aggregate may
with "some explanations, or rather some simple
indications, intended to put in a full light the
different manners in which numerical magnitudes,
in

to

in

this

number finite or infinite, can behave,"

make the exposition of the theorem in

as short as possible.

in

order

question

INTRODUCTION

26

The system

serves as basis

of rational
for arriving

numbers (including o)
at a more extended

notion of numerical magnitude.

ization with which we meet is
infinite

The first general

when we have an

sequence
a ly a 2

(i)

...,*...

of rational numbers, given by some law, and such

if we take the
as
positive rational number
small as we wish, there is an integer n l such that
that,

whatever the positive integer m is. * This property

Cantor expressed by the words, ct the series (i)
has a determined limit b" and remarked particularly
that these

enunciate

words, at that point, only

the

above property of the

served

different

series

because of

the

of the
fact

same

that

"limit"

supposed to be previously defined as

av
such that \b
(if such there be) b
small as

finitely

"
it,

of

Cantor

.,

to

be

may

the

number

becomes

in

it appears better to
with Heine, in his ex

increases,

avoid the word and say,

position

we

#,

However,

species.

the

and,

series,

just as we connect (i) with a special sign

must also attach different signs
",

to

theory,

the

series

(#)

is

number-series," or, as Cantor afterwards expressed

(a v )

is

"fundamental

series."

* It
may be proved that this condition (2) is necessary and sufficient
that the sum to infinity of the series corresponding to the sequence (i)
"
in Weierstrass s sense ; and
finite numerical magnitude
should be a
consequently Cantor s theory of irrational numbers has been described
as a happy modification of Weierstrass s,

INTRODUCTION

27

Let a second series

(O

a\,

<*

<* v

-,

2,

have a determined limit $

>

we

that (i) and

find

(i ) have always one of the three relations, which

exclude one another: (a) a n a n becomes infinitely
small as n increases (b) from a certain n on, it
;

remains always greater than e, where e

and rational (c) from a certain n on,

is

positive

it

remains

always

less

than

In

e.

these

cases

we

say,

respectively,
b

=b

b>b

f
,

or

b<b

Similarly, we find that (i) has only one of the

a
three relations with a rational number a (a) a n
:

becomes

infinitely

small as n increases

(b)

from

a certain n on, it remains always greater than

(Y) from a certain n on, it remains less than

We

e.

express this by
fi

respectively.

= a,

b>a,

or

Then we can prove

<#,

that b

a n becomes

infinitely small as n increases, which, consequently,

of the
justifies the name given to b of "limit

series (i).

"

Denoting the totality of the numerical magnitudes

by B, we can extend the elementary operations
with the rational numbers to the systems A and B
b

united.

Thus the formulae

INTRODUCTION

28

express that the relations

lim (a n

- a" n ) = o,

We

respectively.

- a" n ) = o,

=o
n -a"^

\\m(a n la
hold

lim (a n a

have

similar

definitions

when one or two of the numbers belong to A.

The system A has given rise to B by the same
;

process

B and A

Let the

C.

united give rise to a third system

series

(3)

...,,...
numbers from A

#1,

2,

and B (not all

becomes in
small
as
n
m is (this
whatever
finitely
increases,
condition is determined by the preceding definitions),
then (3) is said to have "a determined limit c."
The definitions of equality, inequality, and the

be composed

of

from A), and such that

b n+m

bn

elementary operations with the members of C, or

with them and those of B and A, are analogous to

Now, whilst B and A are such

we can equate each a to a &, but not inversely,

the above definitions.

that

we can equate each b to a c and inversely.

Although
thus B and C can, in a certain measure, be regarded
*

as identical,

essential in the theory here expose.d, according to which the numerical magnitude,
it

is

not having in general any objectivity at

first,*

only

appears as element of theorems which have a certain

objectivity (for example, of the theory that the

numerical magnitude serves as limit for the corre

sponding series), to maintain the abstract distinction
*

This

is

(see below).

connected with Cantor

formalistic view of real

numbers

INTRODUCTION

29

between B and C, and also that the equivalence of

and b does not mean their identity, but only
expresses a determined relation between the series
to which they refer."
b

L
After considering further systems C, D,
.,
of numerical magnitudes which arise successively,
and B, Cantor dealt
and C from
as B did from
.

with the relations of the numerical magnitudes with

If the
the metrical geometry of the straight line.
a
a
on
has
from
fixed
O
line
distance
point
straight

rational

ratio

with

the

of measure,

unit

it

is

expressed by a numerical magnitude of the system

otherwise, if the point is known by a con

we can always imagine a

and having with the distance

struction,

series such as

(i)

in

question a

relation such that the points of the straight line to

which the distances a ly

a^

.,

av

...

refer

approach, ad infinitum, as v increases, the point to

We express this by saying The
be determined.
:

distance from the point to

point

is

equal to

6,

be

determined to the

where b

is

the numerical

We

can
magnitude corresponding to the series (i).
then prove that the conditions of equivalence,
majority, and minority of known distances agree
with those of the numerical magnitudes which
represent these distances.
It now follows without difficulty that the numerical
are also
.,
magnitudes of the systems C, D,
the
known
of
distances.
But,
determining
capable
to complete the connexion we observe between the
.

systems of numerical magnitudes and the geometry

INTRODUCTION

30

of the straight line, an axiom must still be added,

which runs To each numerical magnitude belongs
:

determined point of the straight

is
equal to this numerical
This theorem is called an axiom, for

also, reciprocally, a

line

whose co-ordinate

magnitude.*
nature

cannot be demonstrated generally.

also serves to give to the numerical magnitudes
a certain objectivity, of which, however, they are
in its

it

It

completely independent.

We consider, now, the relations which present them

when we are given a finite or infinite system of
numerical magnitudes, or "points," as we may call
them by what precedes, with greater convenience.
selves

we

are given a system (P) of points in a finite

interval, and understand by the word "limit-point"
(Grenzpunkf) a point of the straight line (not
If

necessarily of P) such that in any interval within

which this point is contained there is an infinity of

points of P,

we can prove Weierstrass

theorem

if P is infinite, it has at least one limit-point.

Every point of P which is not a limit-point of P
was called by Cantor an "isolated" point.

that,

Every

point, then, of the straight line either

is

or

not a limit-point of P and we have thus defined,

at the same time as P, the system of its limit-points,
which may be called the "first derived system "
is

(erste
finite

Ableitung)

number

of points,

If

is

we can

not composed of a
deduce, by the same

*
To each numerical magnitude belongs a determined point, but to
each point are related as co-ordinates numberless equal numerical
magnitudes.

INTRODUCTION

31

process, a second derived

system P" from F

by

we

of

analogous operations,
"
derived
i/th
system P
(

example, P

whose
O and

composed of

is

from

all

abscissae are rational

and,

arrive at the notion

P.

for

If,

the points of a line

and comprised between

(including these limits or not), P is com

of
all the points of the interval (o
i),
posed
and P
P", ... do not
including these limits
i

If

P.

is

from

differ

of the points

composed

whose

abscissae are respectively

I,

is

1/2, 1/3,

composed of the

does not

rise

give

and

happen

that, after

.,

single point o, and derivation

It may
to any other point.

case

this

...,!/..

alone

P^

interests

here

us

of a finite

composed
operations,
of points, and consequently derivation does
In this case
not give rise to any other system.
v

is

number

the primitive
(Art),"
(y

and thus P

2)th,

P",

... are of the (i/-i)th,

theorem

trigonometrical

is

now

equation
^! cos x-\-

is

" vth
species

species respectively.

The extended
If the

said to be of the

is

satisfied for all values of

x except

those which

correspond to the points of a system P of the i/th

is an integer as great as is pleased,
species, where
j/

in the interval (o

271-),

then

INTRODUCTION

32

Further information as to the continuation of

these researches into derivatives of point-aggregates
was given in the series of papers which Cantor
c<

Ueber unendliche,
"
Although these
papers were written subsequently to Cantor s dis
began

1879 under the

in

title

lineare Punktmannichfaltigkeiten.

covery (1873)

the conceptions of " enumerability

"

"

power" (Mdchtigkeit\ and

(Abzaklbarkeif) and
these conceptions formed the basis of a classification
of aggregates which, together with the classification
by properties of the derivatives to be described
directly,

was dealt with

by Cantor

own

in these papers, yet, since,

indications,* the discovery even of

derivatives of definitely infinite order was made in

1871, we shall now extract from these papers the

parts concerning derivatives.

point-aggregate P is said to be of the "first

kind" (Gattung) and j/th "species" if P

it
of merely a finite aggregate of points
"
"
be of the
second kind if the series

(l/)

p ,ip"

P(")
>

consists

said to

,...

All the points of P",

points of P while a point of P
point of P.
is infinite.

is

P
is

are always
not necessarily a

",

" dialectic
* In
generation of conceptions,
1880, Cantor wrote of the
which always leads farther and yet remains free from all arbitrariness,
necessary and logical," of the transfinite series of indices of derivatives.
"I arrived at this ten years ago [this was written in May 1880] on
;

exposition of the number-conception, I did not

And in a letter to me of 3ist August 1905, Professor
refer to it."
Was die transfiniten Ordnungszahlen betrifft, ist es
Cantor wrote
mir wahrscheinlich, dass ich schon 1871 eine Vorstellung von ihnen
gehabt habe. Den Begriff der Abzahlbarkeit bildete ich mir erst

the occasion of
:

1873."

my

INTRODUCTION
Some
...

(a

33

of the points of a continuous * interval

the extreme points being considered as

or

all

/3),

belonging to the interval, may be points of P

none are, P is said to be quite outside (a
/3).
.

if

If

(wholly or in part) contained in (a ... /3), a

remarkable case may present itself every interval
in it, however small, may contain points
(5)
(y

is

Then P

of P.

said to be

is

"

every where dense"

For example, (i) the

/3).
are all the points
elements
whose
point-aggregate
of (a ... /5), (2) that of all the points whose
and (3) that of all the
abscissae are rational,
points whose abscissae are rational numbers of the
w where m and n are
form
integers, are
(2/2 -f- i)/2
It
results
from this
in
dense
...
(a
everywhere
/3).
the interval (a ...

in

a point-aggregate is not everywhere dense

there must exist an interval (y
S)
/3),
in
(a ... /3) and in which there is no
comprised
that,

if

in (a

...

of P.

point
in

...

(a

/3),

Further,
not only

if

is

everywhere dense

the same

is

true for

7
,

We

but P consists of all the points of (a ... /3).

might take this property of P as the definition
the

of

(a.

expression:

"P

is

everywhere dense

in

,8)."

is necessarily of the second kind, and

a
hence
point-aggregate of the first kind is every
where dense in no interval. As to the question

Such a P

whether

inversely

every

of

point-aggregate

the

At the beginning of the first paper, Cantor stated: "As we shall

show later, it is on this notion [of derived aggregate] that the simplest
and completest explanation respecting the determination of a continuum
"
rests

(see below).

INTR OD UCTION

34

second kind

everywhere dense
Cantor postponed it.
is

some

in

intervals,

Point-aggregates of the first kind can, as we have

seen, be completely characterized by the notion of
derived aggregate, but for those of the second kind
this notion does not suffice, and it is necessary to
give it an extension which presents itself as it

were of

own accord when we go deeper

its

It

question.

may

into the

here be remarked that Paul du

Bois-Reymond was

led by the study of the general

to
a partly similar development
of
functions
theory
of the theory of aggregates, and an appreciation of

In 1874,
importance in the theory of functions.
he classified functions into divisions, according to

its

the variations of the functions required in the theory

of series and integrals which serve for the repre
He then
sentation of " arbitrary" functions.

considered

An

certain

of

distributions

singularities.

aggregate of points which does not form

a continuous line may be either such that in any
line, however small, such points occur (like the points
infinite

corresponding to the rational numbers), or in any

part, a finite line in which are none of those points
exists.

In the latter case, the points are infinitely

dense on nearing certain points

infinite
finite.

number, all
But also not

in

"for

they are
their distances cannot be

all

if

distances

their

in

an

for, if so, the

arbitrarily small line can vanish
So their distances can be
first case would occur.
;

zero only in points, or, speaking

Here
in infinitely small lines."

more

we

correctly,

distinguish:

INTRODUCTION

35

The points k condense on nearing a finite

number of points k2 (2) the points k2 condense at
a finite number of points
Thus, the
3
(i)

o=

sin

condense near ;r=o, those of

near

/sin \\x

of o = sin \\x

roots

the

preceding

roots,

The

functions with such singularities fill the space

between the " common " functions and the functions

with singularities from

du Bois-Reymond
a

In

line.

Finally,
point to point.
discussed integration over such

note

of

remarked that

he

1879,

criterion for the integrability of a function

not sufficient, for we can also distribute intervals

Dirichlet
is

an everywhere dense fashion (pantachisch) that

we can so distribute intervals D on the

in

to say,

is

interval

TT

+ TT)

that

in

TT
portion, however small, of (
intervals
occur.
Let, now,

Ds

and

by

Ds

interval

which

in the points of

then

<[>(x)

inside

is
TT

TT

+ TT)

^>(.r)
.

connected

any
.

connected

be o

+ TT)

these

not integrable, although any

+ TT) contains lines in
.

"To

continuous (namely, zero).

it. is

in

not covered

distribution of intervals

we

are led

this

when we seek

the points of condensation of infinite order whose ex

istence 1 announced to Professor Cantor years ago."

Consider a series of successive intervals on the

those bounded by the points
in the interval (i/i/
i/i/,

line like
.

.,

i,
.

1/2,

1/3,

i/(j/+ i))

point-aggregate of the first kind and j/th

Now, since each term of the series of
species.
derivatives of P is contained in the preceding ones,

take

and consequently each P

(l/)

arises

from the preceding

INTRODUCTION

36

by the falling away (at most) of points, that

no new points arise, then, if P is of the
second kind, P will be composed of two pointaggregates, Q and R Q consisting of those points
of P which disappear by sufficient progression in
the sequence P P",
and R of the
P<*>, \
p(f-i)

is

to say,

points kept
the above example,

Cantor

zero.

in all the

terms of this sequence.

In

consists of the single point

denoted
by P (oo) and called it

"the derived aggregate of P of order oo (infinity)."

The first derivative of P<> was denoted by p(+D,
and so on for
p(o>+2) ,

p(co+3)

j.

P(oo-M
i
,

(oo)
may have a derivative of infinite order
Again, P
which Cantor denoted by p( 2o
and, continuing
)

conceptual constructions, he arrived at de

rivatives which are quite logically denoted by

these

pO+)

where

he went

still

and n are positive

farther, formed the

integers.

But
of

aggregate

.common

points of all these derivatives, and got a

2
derivative which he denoted p( ), and so on without

Thus he got

end.

(*/-!
+ oo

i>i

-1-

derivatives of indices

...

T- IV,

oo

...

oo

...

oo

CO

" Here we see a dialectic

generation of concep
which
leads
tions,*
always
yet farther, and remains
both free from every arbitrariness and necessary

and
*

logical in itself."
*

I was led to this genera

passage Cantor added the note
note was written in May 1880], but when
exposing my theory of the number-conception I did not refer to it."

To

this

tion ten years ago [the

INTRODUCTION
We

37

that point-aggregates of the first kind

characterized by the property that P (co) has no

.re

see

lements, or, in symbols,

and also the above example shows that a pointaggregate of the second kind need not be every
where dense in any part of an interval.
of his papers of 1882, Cantor extended
"
derivative
and
conceptions
everywhere

In the
the

dense

"

first

to

aggregates

situated in

continua of

dimensions, and also gave some reflexions on the

question as to under what circumstances an (infinite)
These reflexions, though
aggregate is well defined.

important

for

the

purpose

of

emphasizing

the

legitimacy of the process used for defining P (oo)

P (2oo)
are more immediately connected with
.,
,

the conception of "power," and will thus be dealt

with later.
The same applies to the proof that it is
to
remove an everywhere dense aggregate
possible

from a continuum of two or more dimensions in

such a way that any two points can be connected

by continuous circular arcs consisting of the re

maining points, so that a continuous motion may
be

possible

in

discontinuous

space.

To

this

Cantor added a note stating that a purely arith

metical theory of magnitudes was now not only
known to be possible, but also already sketched out
in its

leading features.
must now turn our attention to the develop
of
the conceptions of " enumerability " and
ment

We

INTR OD UCTION

power," which were gradually seen to have a

very close connexion with the theory of derivatives
and the theory, arising from this theory, of the
1

numbers.
1873, Cantor

transfinite

In

from

out

set

the

question

whether the linear continuum (of real numbers)

could be put in a one-one correspondence with the
aggregate of whole numbers, and found the rigorous
This proof, together
proof that this is not the case.
with a proof that the totality of real algebraic
numbers can be put in such a correspondence, and
hence that there exist transcendental numbers in

published

the

of

interval

every

number

which
equation of the form
real

a Qy a ly

n,

algebraic
a Q a l9
.

number
.,

The

common

be called the

a
\

"

height
positive integer correspond a

of

a>

numbers whose height

Thus we can arrange the totality
numbers in a simply infinite series
(0

19

o)

finite

algebraic

av,

and

divisor,

positive whole

+a n = o,

a n are integers, is called a real

n and a positive,

.,

a n to have no

N=n- +

we may suppose

to be irreducible.

may

a root of a non-identical

is

co

a wn + al wn

(4)

where

was

number-continuum,

in 1874.

(4)

number

an

and to each
number of real

is

that

integer.

of real algebraic

by arranging the numbers corresponding

to

the

INTRODUCTION

39

height N in order of magnitude, and then the

various heights in their order of magnitude.
Suppose, now, that the totality of the real

numbers

the

in

interval

(a

where a</3,

/3),

could be arranged in the simply infinite series

(5)

i,

*....,*...

Let a /3 be the two first numbers of (5), different

from one another and from a, /3, and such that
a </3
similarly, let a", /3", where a"</3", be the
y

numbers

different

first

The numbers

a, a",

in

indices increase constantly

numbers
Each of
(a"

/3

(3",

the

/3"),

... of

intervals
.

/3 ),

members

and similarly

...

/3),

We

can then only conceive two cases

number

(a

(l/)

(l/)
.

/3

is

for the

magnitude.
(a

{} ),

those which follow.

all

the

of intervals

and so on.
whose

of (5)

decreasing
(a

includes

(a

are

finite

then, since there

is

either (a)

the last be

let

in this interval at

most one number of (5), we can take in it a number

which does not belong to (5)
or (b) there are

r\

infinitely

many

interval s.

Then, since a a
,

a",

<

increase constantly without increasing ad infinitum,

they have a certain limit a (oo) and similarly /3, /3
,

/3",

limit

decrease

(oo)
.

/3

If

when applying

towards

constantly
"

a (o

= f3

(ca)

certain

(which always happens

method to the system (<o)), we

cannot be in (5).*
easily see that the number ^ =
(oo)
in
< /3 (co \ every number
If, on the contrary, a
this

OD )

ct

rj

For

but that

were, we would have rj = u^, p being a determined index

not possible, for up is not in (^) .
.
009), whilst 7;, by

if it
is

definition,

is.

INTR OD UCTION

40

(03)
or equal to one of
the interval (G^ }
/3
)
ends fulfils the condition of not belonging to (5).
.

its

The property
numbers
to-one

is

or

of the totality of real algebraic

that the system (V) can be put in a one(i, i ^correspondence with the system

and hence results a new proof of Liouville s

(V),
theorem that, in every interval of the real numbers,
there is an infinity of transcendental (non-algebraic)
numbers.

This conception of (i, ^-correspondence between

aggregates was the fundamental idea in a memoir
of 1877, published in 1878, in which some import
ant theorems of this kind of relation between various

made

of a

two well-defined aggregates can be put

into

aggregates were given and suggestions

classification of aggregates on this basis.
If

such a

to

is

say, if,
(i,
^correspondence (that
element to element, they can be made to correspond
i

completely and
of

the same

uniquely),

power

they are

said

to

be

or

to

be

"

(Macktigkeit *)

"

When an aggregate
(aequivalenf).
equivalent
is finite, the notion of power corresponds to that of
number (Anzahl), for two such aggregates have the
same power when, and only when, the number
their elements

is

of

the same.

part (Bestandteil any other aggregate whose

elements are also elements of the original one) of a
finite aggregate has always a power less than that
;

*
The word "power" was borrowed from Steiner, who used it in a
quite special, but allied, sense, to express that two figures can be put,
element for element, in protective correspondence,

INTRODUCTION

not always the

for example, the

of the aggregate itself, but this

case with infinite aggregates,*
series of positive integers

41

is

easily seen to have the

is

same power as that part of it consisting of the even

and hence, from the circumstance that
integers,
an

infinite

aggregate

is

part of

(or

is

equiva

we can only conclude that the

than that of N if we know that

lent to a part of N),

power of M is less
these powers are unequal.

The

series of positive integers has, as is easy to

the
smallest infinite power, but the class of
show,

aggregates with this power

extraordinarily rich

is

and extensive, comprising, for example, Dedekind s

finite corpora," Cantor s "systems of points of
the yth species," all ^-ple series, and the totality of
4

real

Further,
(and also complex) algebraic numbers.
is an aggregate of
easily prove that, if

we can

power, each infinite part of

this first infinite

the

same power

as

M, and

if

M", ...

is

has

a finite

or simply infinite series of aggregates of the first

power, the aggregate resulting from the union of

these aggregates has also the first power.

By the preceding memoir, continuous aggregates
f rst power, but a greater one
and
Cantor proceeded to prove that the analogue, with
a continuum of many
continua, of a multiple series
dimensions has the same power as a continuum of

have not the

*
This curious property of infinite aggregates was first noticed by
Bernard Bolzano, obscurely stated ("
two unequal lengths [may
be said to] contain the same number of points") in a paper of 1864 in
which Augustus De Morgan argued for a proper infinite, and was used
as a definition of "infinite" by Dedekind
(independently of Bolzano
and Cantor) in 1887.
.

INTRODUCTION

42

Thus

one dimension.

appeared that the assump

Riemann, Helmholtz, and others that the
essential characteristic of an n-p\y extended con
it

tion of

tinuous manifold

is

that

elements depend on n

its

continuous, independent variables (co-ordin

ates), in such a way that to each element of the
manifold belongs a definite system of values x^ x^
real,

.,

*i>

xn and

*z>

>

reciprocally to each admissible system

a certain element of the

xn belongs

manifold, tacitly supposes that the correspondence

of the elements and systems of values is a continuous
If we let this supposition drop,f we can prove
one. *
that there is a (i, ^-correspondence between the

elements of the linear continuum and those of a

n-ply extended continuum.
This evidently follows from

the

proof of the

theorem: Let x^ x^
.,xn be real, independent
can
take any value o ^^^ I
of
which
each
variables,
.

then to this system of n variables can be made to

correspond a variable t(p<.t<_\) so that to each
t corresponds one system of
and vice versa.
determined values of x^ x^
., xn
To prove this, we set out from the known theorem
that every irrational number e between o and i can
be represented in one manner by an infinite con

determined value of

tinued fraction which

(a 1? a 2
*

may
,

.,

be written
a,,,

.)

That is to say, an infinitely small variation in position of the element

and reciprocally.
implies an infinitely small variation of the variables,
t In the French translation only of this memoir of Cantor s is added
here: "and this happens very often in the works of these authors
(Riemann aifd Helmholtz)." Cantor had revised this translation.

INTRODUCTION

43

where the

s are positive
There is thus
integers.
a (i, i ^correspondence between the
s and the
various series of a s.
n
Consider, now,
variables,

each of which can take independently all the ir

rational values (and each only once) in the interval
(o

I)

*i==(ai,

i,

= (a
^2
=
^
(a,
2,

these

ai,

2,

l>

Ot2, 2>

i)

a,

irrational

i)th irrational

>

ft,

the relation between a and

(6)

ft

I/

_i) +/x

!/>)>

numbers uniquely determine

number in (o ... i),

<*=(ft> ft>
if

...),...

a-2, vy

2>

,)>

ai,

>

=a M|I ,*

(/x=

I, 2,

.)>

/3
.

..,

|;=I, 2,

.00)

Inversely, such a rt determines

uniquely the series of /3 s and, by (6), the series of
the a s, and hence, again of the e s.
have only
7

established.

is

We

now, that there can exist a (i, ^-corre

spondence between the irrational numbers o < e < i

to show,

and

(irrational and rational) numbers

For this purpose, we remark that all
the rational numbers of this interval can be written
in the form of a simply infinite series

the

real

o<.^<.i.

01)
* If

is

we

0i

arrange the n series of a

means

this

>

</->2>

that

Wj 1}

a
lt

we
2

s in a double series with

are to enumerate the a s in the order 04

o 2f

>

an d that the

*/th

term of

n rows,
-

[f

a.,

this series

frv.

t This

is

as follows
Let pjg be a rational number
lowest terms, and put/ + ^ = N. *To each p\q

done most simply

of this interval in

its

INTR OD UCTION

44

Then

in (o

qv

= V 2/2"), and

i)

we take any

.1)

numbers

irrational

x=

{//,

<

*=
if

we

write a

{A,

oo

$ for

is

equivalent to that of the

c\j b

{h,

*} v

}*

formula

last

^-i,

and

e=

0J,

rj vy

and we can also write the

Now,

of

..., /,... (for example,

h take any of the values of
s and j/s, so that

q ly q 2

let

except the

series

infinite

mv}-

the aggregate of the a s

s," and notice that a(\>a,

b c\j c imply a c\)

c,

and that two aggre

gates of equivalent aggregates of elements, where the

elements of each latter aggregate have, two by two,

no

common

element, are equivalent,

h 00

t] v

/Z,

00 ^-1, $ v

we remark

that

02v,

and

generalization of the above theorem to the case

xv
of x^ x.i,
being a simply infinite series
.

(and thus that the continuum may be of an infinity

of dimensions while remaining of the same power
as the linear continuum) results from the observa

tion that,

^ = (a Ml i,

between the double

cv,

<V,

,,)

series
for

{c^,

},

M =i,

2,

where
.

.00

belongs a determined positive integral value of N, and to each such

belong a finite number of fractions pjq. Imagine now the numbers//^
precede
arranged so that those which belong to smaller values of
those which belong to larger ones, and those for which N has the same
the
after
the
smaller.
value are arranged
greater
* This notation means
the aggregate of the ^r s is the union of those
s
and analogously for that of the s.
and
of the ^ s, 7/y s,
;
v

<?

INTRODUCTION

45

and the simple series {/3 X }, a (i, ^-correspondence

can be established * by putting

and the function on the right has the remarkable

property of representing all the positive integers,
and v inde
and each of them once only, when
pendently take all positive integer values.
/m.

"And now

we have proved," concluded

that

Cantor, "for a very rich and extensive

field

of

manifolds, the property of being capable of corre

spondence with the points of a continuous straight
line or

with a part of

tained

in

the

it),

many and what

the

same or

it

(a manifold of points

arises

question

classes

different

we say

(if

Into

con

how

that manifolds of

power are grouped in the same

do linear manifolds

or different classes respectively)

a process of induction, into the further

description of which we will not enter here, we are
fall ?

By

led to the

theorem that the number of classes

is

two

the one containing all manifolds susceptible of being

brought to the form functio ipsius y, where v can
and the other
receive all positive integral values
:

manifolds reducible to the form functio

containing
ipsius x, where x can take all the real values in the
all

interval (o

i)."

In the paper of 1879 already referred to, Cantor

*

Enumerate the double

series

{ a/Xi v }

diagonally, that

is

to say,

in the order

a l,

The term

of

this

a l,

series

2, 1

a
l,

3>

whose index

2, Ji

is

a 3,
(/j.,

y)

is

the

\th,

where

INTR OD UCTION

46

of aggregates * both
according to the properties of their derivatives and
After some repetitions,
according to their powers.

considered

the classification

a rather simpler proof of the theorem that the con

tinuum is not of the first power was given.
But,

though no essentially new results on power were

published until late in 1882, we must refer to the
discussion (1882) of what is meant by a " welldefined

"

aggregate.

The conception

of power f which contains, as a

particular case, the notion of whole number may,
said Cantor, be considered as an attribute of every

" well-defined
nature

its

"

aggregate, whatever conceivable

" An
elements may have.
aggregate of

elements belonging to any sphere of thought is said

to be
well defined when, in consequence of its
definition and of the logical principle of the excluded
it must be considered as intrinsically deter
mined whether any object belonging to this sphere

middle,

to

belongs

the

aggregate or not, and, secondly,

whether two objects belonging to the aggregate

are
in

equal or not, in spite of formal differences

In fact,
the manner in which they are given.

we

cannot, in general, effect in a sure and

manner these determinations with the means

disposal

but here

it is

precise
at our

only a question of intrinsic

determination, from which an actual or extrinsic

*
Linear aggregates alone were considered, since all the powers of
the continua of various dimensions are to be found in them.
t "That foundation of the theory of magnitudes which we may
consider to be the most general genuine moment in the case of

manifolds."

INTRODUCTION
determination

47

by perfecting the
can, without any

to be developed

is

Thus, we
be intrinsically determined
whether a number chosen at will is algebraic or
means."

auxiliary

conceive

doubt,

it

to

was only proved in 1874 that e is

transcendental, and the problem with regard to TT
was unsolved when Cantor wrote in 1882.*
In this paper was first used the word "enumer
"
able to describe an aggregate which could be put
not; and yet

in

it

^-correspondence with the aggregate of

(i,

the positive integers and is consequently of the first

and here also was the important
(infinite) power
;

theorem In a /^-dimensional space (A) are defined

an infinity of (arbitrarily small) continua of n
dimensions f (a) separated from one another and
:

most meeting
the a

s is

For

at their boundaries

the aggregate of

enumerable.

refer

by means of reciprocal

radii vectores

an n-p\y extended figure B within a (;z-f-i)dimensional infinite space A and let the points of
to

B have
of

part b

the constant distance

To every
of B with a

from a fixed point

a corresponds

^-dimensional

and the

definite content,

are

enumerable, for the number of b s greater in con

tent than an arbitrarily small number y is finite, for
their

sum

less

is

than 2

VJ

(the content of B).

Lindemann afterwards proved that tr is transcendental. In this

passage, Cantor seemed to agree with Dedekind.
t With every a the points of its boundary are considered as belong
ing to it.
+ In the French translation (1883) of Cantor
was corrected to 2ir(n +

When n

i)/2/r((+

the theorem

is

memoir,

this

number

i)/2).

that every aggregate of intervals on a

INTR OD UCTION

48

if

Finally, Cantor made the interesting remark that,

we remove from an ^-dimensional continuum any

enumerable and everywhere-dense aggregate, the

remainder (21), if n^2, does not cease to be con*
connected, in the sense that any two
of 21 can be connected by a continuous

tinuously

points N,
line

composed of

belong to

circular arcs all of

whose points

21.

VI

An
bility

application of Cantor

conception of enumera-

was given by a simpler method of condensation

of singularities, the construction of functions having

a given singularity, such as a discontinuity, at an
enumerable and everywhere-dense aggregate in a

This was suggested by Weierand published by Cantor, with Weierstrass s

given real interval.

strass,

in

examples,
indicated
single

1882.*

Let

</>(#)

The method may be thus

be a given function with the

and

singularity ;tr=o,

aggregate

where the

(ov)

any enumerable

put

cv s

are so chosen that the series and

those derived from

it

in the particular cases treated

and

converge unconditionally

uniformly.

Then

or infinite) straight line which at most meet at their ends is

The end-points are consequently enumerable, but not
always the derivative of this aggregate of end-points.
* In a letter to me of
29th March 1 905 Professor Cantor said : "At the
at
conception of enumerability, of which he [ Weierstrass] heard from me
Berlin in the Christmas holidays of 1873, ne was at fi rst quite amazed,

(finite

enumerable.

it became his own and

helped him
wonderful theory of functions."

but one or two days passed over, [and]

to

an unexpected development of

his

INTRODUCTION
f(x) has at
larity as

all

<f)(x)

49

points ^=0^ the same kind of singu

at.r = o, and at other points behaves,

The singularity at x ^^ is
regularly.
exclusively to the one term of the series in

in general,

due
which

/m

the aggregate (&))

may

be any enumer

able aggregate and not only, as in Hankel s method,

the aggregate of the rational numbers, and the

superfluous and complicating oscillations produced

by the occurrence of the sine in Hankel s functions
is

avoided.

" LJeber
"
unendliche, lineare Punktmannichfaltigkeiten con
tained six theorems on enumerable point-aggregates.
If an aggregate Q (in a continuum of n dimensions)

The

is

fourth (1882) of Cantor

such that none of

its

points

is

papers

a limit-point,*

it is

Then, round every point of

O a sphere can be drawn which contains no other
point of O, and hence, by the above theorem on
said to be "isolated."

the enumerability of the aggregate of these spheres,

is

enumerable.
Secondly,

if

is

3)(P,

then

is

isolated

enumerable, P

and therefore enumerable, and R

R is contained in P so

also enumerable, since

is

three theorems state

Cantor expressed

Number,
If

enumerable.

The next

let

P>R, P-R^Q;t

is

For

is.

this

2)(Q,

Q = o.
)

Cf.

if

Dedekind

P^, or
Essays on

p. 48.

an aggregate B is contained in A, and

is taken from A, we write

when B

that,

is

the aggregate

left

INTRODUCTION

So
p(

a)
j

where a

is

any one of the "definitely defined

symbols of infinity (bestimmt

is

keitssymbole)"
If the aggregates P 1? P 2

common

no

point, for the

Unendlich-

definirte

enumerable, then P
.

is.

have, two by two,

aggregate P formed by

the union of these (the " Vereinigungsmenge") Cantor

now used the notation

Now, we have the following

and

identity

thus, since

_P" p"_p"

p("-i)__ p(0

is
and therefore enumerable, if P
enumerable, then P is also.
Now, suppose that P (oo) exists then, if any par
ticular point of P does not belong to P (co) there is a
first one among the derivatives of finite order, P
to which it does not belong, and consequently P^- 1

are

isolated

all

(l/)

(l/)

contains

it

as an isolated point.

Thus we can write

and consequently, since an enumerable aggregate of

enumerable aggregates is an enumerable aggregate
of the elements of the latter, and P (oo) is enumerable,
This can evidently be extended to
then P is also.
x

P (a)

if it

exists, provided that the aggregate of all

x

the derivatives from P to P (a)

The

considerations

which

is

enumerable.

arise

from

the

last

INTRODUCTION

51

observation appear to me to have constituted the

reason for considering these definitely infinite

final

indices independently *

on account of their con

nexion with the conception of " power," which
Cantor had always regarded as the most funda
mental one in the whole theory of aggregates.

The

series

to

up

that,

of the indices found, namely, is such

any point (infinity or beyond), the

aggregate of them

always enumerable, and yet

a process exactly analogous to that used in the
proof that the continuum is not enumerable leads
is

to the result that the aggregate of all the indices

if a is any index, the aggregate of all the

such that,

indices preceding a

but

is

as

enumerable,
the

is

not

enumer

of the series of

just
power
positive integers is the next higher one to all finite
ones, the next greater infinite power to the first.
able,

And we
first

is,

can again imagine a new index which

is

the

after all those defined, just as after all the finite

ones.

We

Cantor

at the

shall see these

thoughts published by
end of 1882.
It remains to mention the sixth theorem,
in
which Cantor proved that, if P is enumerable, P
has the property, which is essential in the theory
of integration, of being "discrete," as Harnack
"
called it,
integrable," as P. du Bois-Reymond did,

"

unextended,"
" content-less."
*

or,

as

it

is

now

generally called,

When considered independently of P, these indices form a series

beginning with the finite numbers, but extending beyond them ; so
that it suggests itself that those other indices be considered as infinite
(or transimite) numbers.

INTRODUCTION

52

VII

We

have thus seen the importance of Cantor

"

defined

definitely

theorem that

by what precedes, be inverted

is

the

in

infinity"
symbols
P (a) vanishes, P and therefore P, is
This theorem may, as we can easily

if

enumerable.
see

of

enumerable, there

is

as follows

If

an index a such that P (a)

defining these indices in an inde

manner
as real, and in general transfinite,
pendent
was enabled to form a conception
Cantor
integers,
*
of the enumeral
of certain infinite

vanishes.

By

series,

(Anzahl)

and such

series

infinite

ascending

means

of defining a series of
"powers." The conceptions of

gave a

"enumeral" and "power" coincided

in

the case of

aggregates, but diverged in the case of infinite

aggregates but this extension of the conception of
finite

enumeral served, in the way just mentioned, to

develop and make precise the conception of power
used often already.
Thus, from the new point of view gained, we get

new

insight

Cantor put

has

in finito,
splits, in

it

as
into the theory of finite number
"The conception of number which,
;

manner

when we

of speaking,
into the

and enumeral

descend to the

finite,

see

raise our

two conceptions of

selves to the infinite,

power

of enumeral,

only the background

and,

just

when
as

again

clearly

and

beautifully how these two conceptions again unite

to form that of the finite integer."
* I
have invented this woid to translate
with the word " number" (Zahl).

"

Anzahl,"

to avoid confusion

INTRODUCTION
The
of

all

Cantor

53

significance of this distinction for the theory

and

(finite
s

arithmetic

infinite)

own work

and, above

all,

appears in
the later

in

work of Russell.
Without this extension of the conception of
number to the definitely infinite numbers, said
Cantor, "it would hardly be possible for me to

make without constraint the least step forwards in

the theory of aggregates," and, although "I was
them

[these numbers] many years ago,

without arriving at a clear consciousness that 1
possessed in them concrete numbers of real signi
led

to

{<

ficance," yet

my

will,

was

because

logically forced, almost against

in opposition to traditions

had become valued by me in the course of

researches extending over many years,

which

scientific

to

the

of

the

not

considering
infinitely great,
form of the unlimitedly increasing,
and in the form, closely connected with this, of

thought

merely

in the

convergent

infinite series,

matically by numbers

completed

infinite.

but also to

in
I

the

do not

be

it

it

mathe

form of a
then, that

believe,

any reasons can be urged against

"
unable to combat.

The

fix

definite

which

am

indices of the series of the derivatives can

conceived

as

the

series

of

finite

numbers

followed by a series of transfinite

i, 2,
numbers of which the first had been denoted by the
,

symbol "OQ."

Thus, although there

is

no greatest

*
of the translations of Cantor
Cf., for example, pp. 113, 158-159
memoirs of 1895 and 1897 given below.

INTRODUCTION

54
finite

number,

that there
tradiction,

or,

in other

words, the supposition

a greatest finite number leads to con

there is no contradiction involved in

is

postulating a new, non-finite, number which is to be

the first after all the finite numbers.
This is the

method adopted by Cantor

* to define his

numbers

independently of the theory of derivatives we shall

see how Cantor met any possible objections to this
;

system of postulation.
Let us now briefly consider again the meaning of
"
the- \vord
Mannichfaltigkeitslehre" j- which is
In a
usually translated as "theory of aggregates."
note to the Gtundlagen^ Cantor remarked that he

meant by

this

word

much, which hitherto

only

in

the

special

a doctrine embracing very

have attempted to develop

form

of

an

arithmetical

or

of

geometrical theory
aggregates (Mengenlehre),
By a manifold or aggregate I understand generally

any multiplicity which can be thought of

(jedes Viele, welches sick als

Bines denken

as

one

lasst}, that

any totality of definite elements which

can be bound up into a whole by means of a law."
is

to say,

* "
Ueber unendliche, lineare
V."
Punktmannichfaltigkeiten.
[December 1882], Math. Ann., vol. xxi, 1883, pp. 545-591 ; reprinted,
einer
with an added preface, with the title
Grundlagen
allgemeinen
:

Ein mathematisch-philosophischer Versuch in

Mannichfaltigkeitslehre.
der Lfhre des Unendlichen, Leipzig, 1883 (page n of the Grundlagen is
page n + 544 of the article in the Math. Ann.}. This separate publica
tion, with a title corresponding more nearly to its contents, was made
" since it carries the
subject in many respects much farther and thus is,
"
for the most part, independent of the earlier essays
In
(Preface).
Acta Math., ii, pp. 381-408, part of the Grundlagen was translated
into French.

"
f Or
"Mannigfalligkeitslehre"
theorie des ensembles.
French,
has not come into general usage.

more

"

"

in

usually,
Mcngenlchre
The English " theory of manifolds
or,

"

INTRODUCTION

55

This character of unity was repeatedly emphasized

by Cantor, as we shall see later.

The above quotations about the slow and sure
way in which the transfinite numbers forced them
selves on the mind of Cantor and about Cantor s
philosophical and mathematical traditions are taken
Both here and in Cantor s
from the Grundlagen.
later works we constantly come across discussions
of opinions on infinity held by mathematicians and
philosophers of all times, and besides such names as
Aristotle,

Descartes,

Spinoza,

Hobbes, Berkeley,

Locke, Leibniz, Bolzano, and many others, we find

evidence of deep erudition and painstaking search
after

new views on

infinity to analyze.

devoted

many pages
Fathers of the Church.

to

the

Cantor has

Schoolmen and the

The Grundlagen begins by drawing a distinction

between two meanings which the word "infinity"
The mathematical
may have in mathematics.
infinite, says Cantor, appears in two forms
Firstly,
:

as an

improper

infinite (Uneigentlich-Unendliches}^

a magnitude which either increases above all limits

or decreases to an arbitrary smallness, but always
remains finite so that it may be called a variable
;

finite.

Secondly,

as

(Eigentlich-Unendliches),

a proper infinite
represented
by certain

definite,

geometry, and, in the theory of

the
by
point infinity of the complex plane.
In the last case we have a single, definite point,

conceptions

in

functions,

and the behaviour of (analytic) functions about this

point is examined in exactly the same way as it is

INTRODUCTION

56

about any

other point.*
Cantor s infinite real
integers are also properly infinite, and, to emphasize
" oo which was and is used also
this, the old symbol
,"
for the

To

improper

define his

was here replaced by " co. "

new numbers, Cantor employed the
infinite,

The

following considerations.

series of

the real

positive integers,
(I)

i,

2,

3,

.,

,.

.,

from the repeated positing and uniting of

units which are presupposed and regarded as equal
the number v is the expression both for a definite
arises

finite enumeral of such successive positings and for

the uniting of the posited units into a whole.
Thus
the formation of the finite real integers rests on the
principle of the addition of a unit to a number

which has already been formed

Cantor called

this

moment

the first principle of generation (ErzeugungsThe enumeral of the number of the class
princip}.
is infinite, and there is no greatest
so
formed
(I)

among them.

Thus, although

it

would be contra

dictory to speak of a greatest number of the class (I),

there is, on the other hand, nothing objectionable
in imagining a new number, o>, which is to express
that the whole collection (I) is given
its natural order of succession (in the
v is

by its law
same way

in

as

the expression that a certain finite enumeral of

is united to a whole), f
By allowing further

units
*

"The

behaviour of the function in the neighbourhood of the

shows exactly the same occurrences as in that
of any other point lying infinite, so that hence it is completely justified
to think of the infinite, in this case, as situated in a point."
" It is even
t
permissible to think of the newly and created number

infinitely distant point

INTRODUCTION
positings of unity to
number o>, we obtain

the

follow

ft)

positing

of the

with the help of the

principle of generation the further

0)+I,

57

+2,

...,

ft>

numbers

+ y,

first

...

Since again here we

come to no greatest number, we

a
new
which
we may call 2co, and which
one,
imagine
is to be the first which follows all the numbers v and
to

+ v hitherto formed.
2ft)

The

2co

.,

principle re
to the numbers

first

which has given us the

obviously different from the

function

and

o>

we come

2co,

2ft>+2,

I,

logical

numbers

Applying the

number

peatedly to the

is

2co

principle; Cantor called

it the second
principle
of
real
of generation
integers, and defined it more
If there is defined any definite
closely as follows

first

succession of real integers, of which there is no

greatest, on the basis of this second principle a new

number is created, which is defined as the next greater

number to them all.
By the combined application of both principles
we get, successively, the numbers
:

3ft),

o>

3ft)

as the limit to

v,

that

is

i/,

/Zft),

yUft)

V,

which the numbers

understood than that

numbers

3ft)

o> is

to

to say, is

v strive, if by that nothing else is

be the first integer which follows all the
to be called greater than
every /." Cf.

the next section.

If we do not know the reasons in the
theory of derivatives which
prompted the introduction of w, but only the grounds stated in the text
for this introduction, it naturally seems rather
arbitrary (not apparently,
because of the mere fact that it can apparently be
useful) to create
defined in a manner free from contradiction.
Thus, Cantor discussed
(see below) such introductions or creations, found in them the dis
tinguishing mark of pure mathematics, and justified them on historical

grounds (on logical grounds they perhaps seem to need no

justification).

INTRODUCTION

58

number jnuo + v
new next number to all

and, since no
a

denoted by

numbers

o>

To

2
.

this

we

greatest,

these,

follow,

which
in

create

be

may

succession,

Aft)

and

is

we come

further,

to

JULO)

V,

numbers of the form

and the second principle then requires a new number,

which may conveniently be denoted by

And

so on indefinitely.

Now,

the

all

power of the first number-class (I).

numbers preceding co" are contained

where

that

difficulty

the numbers preceding any of the

numbers and hitherto defined is of the

aggregate of
infinite

without

seen

is

it

/m y

VQ)

j/

1?

v^

Thus, all the

formula

in the

have to take

positive, integral values including zero

all

finite,

and exclud

= 0. As is
ing the combination v = v^
=1/^
well known, this aggregate can be brought into the
form of a simply infinite series, and has, therefore,
.

the power of
(itself of the

which has the

Since,

(I).

first
first

further,

every sequence

power) of aggregates, each of

power, gives an aggregate of the

we

obtain, by the con

tinuation of our sequence in the above way, only
first

power,

it

is

clear that

such numbers with which this condition

is fulfilled,

INTRODUCTION

59

Cantor defined the totality of all the numbers a

formed by the help of the two principles
w,

(II)

+i,

.,

i/oft^

+ iy^-H

+iv_i

w+1

>,

the numbers, from i on, preceding a

form an aggregate of the power of the first number-

such that

all

class (I), as the

"second number-class

The

(II)."

power of (II) is different from that of (I), and is,

indeed, the next higher power, so that no other
power

lies

principle

between them.

demands the

which follows
first

all

Accordingly, the second

creation of a

the

numbers of

new number
(II)

and

is

(i~2)

the

of the third number-class (III), and so on.*

in spite of first appearances, a certain

Thus,

completion can be given to the successive formation

of the

numbers of

limitation

the

first

(II)

present with
principle,

and

which
(I).

so

is

similar to

that

There we only used

was impossible to

it

emerge from the series (I) but the second principle

must lead not only over (II), but show itself indeed
;

as

a means, which,

in

combination with the

first

principle, gives the capacity to break through every

The abovelimit in the formation of real integers.

mentioned requirement, that all the numbers to

be next formed should be such that the aggregate
*
It is particularly to be noticed that the second principle will lake
us beyond any class, and is not merely adequate to form numbers which
are the limit-numbers of some enumerable series (so that a "third
The first and second principles
principle" is required to form H).
together form all the numbers considered, while the "principle of
"
limitation
enables us to define the various number-classes, of un-

brokenly ascending powers in the series of these numbers.

INTRODUCTION

60

numbers preceding each one should be of a certain

power, was called by Cantor the third or limitation-

of

(Hemmungs- oder Beschrankungsprincip},*

in such a manner that the class (II)
with its aid can be shown to have a higher

principle

and which acts

defined

power than

(I)

and indeed the next higher power to

two first principles together define

In fact, the

it.

sequence of integers, while the

third principle lays successively certain limits on

an absolutely

infinite

this process,

so that

we

obtain

natural

segments

(Abschnitte), called number-classes, in this sequence.

Cantor

older

(1873,

1878)

conception of the

"

power of an aggregate was, by this, developed

With finite aggregates the
and given precision.
with
the
enumeral of the elements,
coincides
power
for such aggregates have the same enumeral of
elements

in

every order.

on the other hand, the

With

infinite aggregates,

transfinite

numbers

afford a

means of defining the enumeral of an aggregate, if

it be "well ordered," and the enumeral of such an
aggregate of given power varies, in general, with
The smallest
the order given to the elements.
evidently that of (I), and, now for
the successive higher powers also
in fact, the
receive natural and simple definitions
infinite

the

power

first

is

time,

power of the yth number

By
*

"This

class

is

the yth.

"well-ordered" aggregate, f Cantor underprinciple

(or

requirement,

or

condition)

circumscribes

each number-class."
f The origin of this conception can easily be seen to be the denning
of such aggregates as can be "enumerated" (using the word in the
In
wider sense of Cantor, given below) by the transfinite numbers.
of a well-ordered aggregate simply indicates
fact, the above definition
(limits]

INTRODUCTION

61

any well-defined aggregate whose elements

stood

have a given definite succession such that there is

a first element, a definite element follows every one
is

(if it

not the

and to any

last),

finite or

infinite

aggregate a definite element belongs which is the

next following element in the succession to them
(unless there are no following elements in the

all

Two

well-ordered aggregates are, now,

of the same enumeral (with reference to the orders

succession).

of succession of their elements previously given for

them) if a one-to-one correspondence is possible
between them such that, if E and F are any two

elements of the one, and E p.id F the

corresponding elements (caweqccfifly different) of
different

the

other,

if

respectively precedes or

correspondence
possible at

is

is

all,

or

precedes

follows

follows

preceding numbers (from

The

number

a such that

on) in the natural

enumeral of both well-ordered aggregates,

infinite, or a

is

This ordinal

same enumeral, we must put a

succession have the

for the

then

evidently quite determinate, if it

and since there is, in the extended

number-series, one and only one

its

F,

if

if

is finite.

essential difference

between

finite

and

infinite

aggregates is, now, seen to be that a finite aggregate

has the same enumeral whatever the succession of
the construction of any aggregate of the class required when the first
two principles are used, but to generate elements, not numbers.
An important property of a well-ordered aggregate, indeed, a
characteristic property,
is that any series of terms in it, a^
a2
.,
av
must be finite. Even if the well., where a v +i precedes av
,

ordered aggregate in question

can never be infinite.

is infinite,

such a series as that described

INTRODUCTION

62
the elements

may

be, but

in general, different

an

infinite

aggregate has,
enumerals under these circum

However, there is a certain connexion

between enumeral and power an attribute of the
aggregate which is independent of the order of the
elements.
Thus, the enumeral of any well-ordered
stances.

aggregate of the first power is a definite number of

the second class, and every aggregate of the first

power can always be put in such an order that its

enumeral is any prescribed number of the second
Cantor expressed this by extending the
class.
meaning of the word "enumerable" and saying:

Every aggregate of the power of the first class is

enumerable by tru-^-b^rs of the second class and only
by these, and the aggregate can abyvs be so
ordered that it is enumerated by any prescribed
number of the second class and analogously for
;

the higher classes.

From

his

above remarks on the

"absolute"*

* Cantor said
"that, in the successive formation of number-classes,
we can always go farther, and never reach a limit that cannot be sur
so that we never reach an even approximate comprehension
passed,
The Absolute can
I cannot doubt.
(Erfassen) of the Absolute,
only be recognized (anerkannt), but never apprehended (erkannt),
even approximately. For just as inside the first number-class, at any
finite number, however great, we always have the same
power of
greater finite numbers before us, there follows any transfinite number
of any one of the higher number-classes an aggregate of numbers and
classes which has not in the least lost in power in comparison with the
whole absolutely infinite aggregate of numbers, from I on. The state
ich zieh
of things is like that described by Albrecht von Haller
sie ab [die ungeheure Zahl] und Du [die Ewigkeit] liegst ganz vor mir.
The absolutely infinite sequence of numbers thus seems to me to be, in
a certain sense, a suitable symbol of the Absolute ; whereas the infinity
of (I), which has hitherto served for that purpose, appears to me, just
because I hold it to be an idea (not presentation) that can be appre
hended as a vanishing nothing in comparison with the former. It also
seems to me remarkable that every number-class and therefore every
:

INTRODUCTION

63

numbers and that of

be expected that Cantor would

infinity of the series of ordinal

powers,

it

was

to

derive the idea that any aggregate could be arranged

in a well-ordered series, and this he stated with a

promise to return to the subject later.*

The

addition and multiplication of the transfinite

(including the finite) numbers was thus defined by

and M x be well-ordered aggregates

and /3, the aggregate which arises
when first M is posited and then M x following it,
and the two are united is denoted M + M l and its
enumeral is defined to be a + /3.
Evidently, if a
and /3 are not both finite, a + /3 is, in general,
different from /3 + a.
It is easy to extend the con
Cantor.

Let

of enumerals a

sum to
summands in a

cept of

a finite or transfinite aggregate of

definite order, and the associative

law remains valid.

Thus,

in particular,

If we take a succession (of enumeral /3) of equal

and similarly ordered aggregates, of which each is
of enumeral a we get a new well-ordered aggregate,
whose enumeral is defined to be the product /3a,
,

corresponds to a definite number of the absolutely infinite

indeed reciprocally, so that corresponding to
7 there is a (7th) power so that the various
powers also form an absolutely infinite sequence. This is so much the
more remarkable as the number 7 which gives the rank of a power
(provided that 7 has an immediate predecessor) stands, to the numbers
of that number-class which has this power, in a magnitude-relation
whose smallness mocks all description, and this the more 7 is taken to
be greater."
* With this is
connected the promise to prove later that the power of
the continuum is that of (II), as stated, of course in other words, in 1878.
See the Notes at the end of this book.

power

totality of numbers, and

any transfinite number

INTRODUCTION

64

where /3 is the multiplier and a the multiplicand.

Here also ($a is, in general, different from a/3 but
;

we

"

have, in general,

Cantor also promised an investigation of the

"
prime number-property of some of the transfinite

numbers * a proof of the non-existence of infinitely

small numbers, f and a proof that his previous
theorem on a point-aggregate P in an ^-dimensional
domain that, if the derivate P (a) where a is any
integer of (I) or (II), vanishes, P and hence P, is
of the first power, can be thus inverted
If P is
such a point-aggregate that P is of the first power,
there is an integer a of (1) or (II) such that P (a) = o,
This last
and there is a smallest of such a s.
of
the
transfinite
theorem shows the importance
numbers in the theory of point-aggregates.
,

Cantor s proof that the power of (II) is different

from that of (I) is analogous to his proof of the

Suppose that
non-enumerability of the continuum.
we could put (II) in the form of a simple series
:

(7)

we

a ly a 2

>

av

number which has the

shall define a

properties

both of belonging to (II) and of not being a member

of the series (7) and, since these properties are
contradictory of one another if the hypothesis be
;

granted,
*

we must conclude
A

The property in question is:

the resolution a = Py is only possible
t See the next section.

that (II) cannot be put

"prime-number"
when = I or = a.

is

such that

INTRODUCTION
form

in the

and therefore has not the power of

be the first number of (i) which is

(7),

Let a K

(I).

greater than a x
so on

65

so that

a* the first greater

than a

and

we have

and

and
/

aK

Now

it

on,

all

< a*.A

may happen
following

it

if v

that,

< KAfrom a certain number

in the series (7) are smaller

If, on
evidently the greatest.
the other hand, there is no such greatest number,
imagine the series of integers from i on and smaller

than

it

then

it

is

than a l9 add to it the series of integers

>a K then the series of integers ^a* and
,

so on

we

numbers of

thus get a

and

definite

which

part

^ ai
<a K

>

and
and

of successive

evidently of the
first power, and consequently, by the definition of
which is
(II), there is a least number /3 of (II)
Therefore
numbers.
all
of
these
than
greater
/3> a K
(I)

(II)

is

and thus also {3>a v and also every number /3 </3

is surpassed in magnitude by certain numbers a K
,

If there is a greatest a K

=y, then the number y +

is a member of (II) and not of (7)

not a greatest, the number /3 is a
and not of (7).

and

if

there

member

is

of (II)

Further, the power of (II) is the next greater to

that of (I), so that no other powers lie between
5

INTR OD UCTION

66

them, for any aggregate of numbers of

is

of the

Zx

(I)

and

(II)

In fact, this aggregate

power of (I) or (II).
when arranged in order of magnitude, is well-

ordered, and

may

(js)>

(/3

be represented by

= w,

o>

a,

where we always have /3<2, where

number of (III); and consequently
finite

or of the

power of

(I) or

is

the
is

(ap)

of that

first

either

of (II),

From this results the theorem

any well-defined aggregate of the second
power, M is a part of M and M" is a part of M
and we know that M" is of the same power as M,
then M is of the same power as M, and therefore
as M" and Cantor remarked that this theorem is
generally valid, and promised to return to it.*
Though the commutative law does not, in general,

quartum non datur.

If

is

hold with the transfinite numbers, the associative

law does, but the distributive law is only generally
valid in the form
:

where a + /3,

a,

and

/3

mediately recognize by

are multipliers,

"as we im

inner intuition."

The subtraction, division, prime numbers, and

addition and multiplication of numbers which can
be put in the form of a rational and integral function
of
*

w of the
From

transfinite

numbers were then

the occurrence of this theorem

which we now know (see the
been a forestalling of the theorem that any
we may conclude that this latter theorem

xlvi, 1895,

on

p.

dealt with

484 of the Math. Ann.>

note on p. 204 below) to have

aggregate can be well-ordered,
was used in this instance.

INTR OD UCTION
much

in

the

same way

translated below.

as in the

67

memoir

of 1897

In the later memoir the subject

more completely, and was drawn up

more attention to logical form than was the

isjltreated far

with far

Grundlagen.

An

interesting part of the Grundlagen is the

discussion of the conditions under which we are to

regard the introduction into mathematics of a new

The result of
conception, such as eo, as justified.

was already indicated by the way in

<c
which Cantor defined his new numbers
We may
numbers
as
whole
actual
the
in
so
far as
regard

this discussion

they, on the ground of definitions, take a perfectly

determined place in our understanding, are clearly

distinguished from all other constituents of our

thought, stand in definite relations to them, and

thus modify,
our mind."
*

in so far as

in

We

a definite way, the substance of

"
"
may ascribe actuality to them

they must be held to be an expression

or an image (Abbild) of processes and relations in

the outer world, as distinguished from the intellect."

Cantor s position was, now, that while there is no

doubt that the first kind of reality always implies
the

second,*

difficult

matics,
reality,

the

is

most
pure mathe

often

metaphysical problem but, in

we need only consider the first kind
and consequently " mathematics is, in

development, quite
*

proof of this
;

free,

of
its

and only subject to the

This, according to Cantor, is a consequence of "the unity of the

which we ourselves belong," and so, in pure mathematics, we
need only pay attention to the reality of our conceptions in the first
sense, as slated in the text.
All, to

TNTR OD UCTION

68

self-evident condition that

from contradiction

free

fixed

in

particular,

and

formed
in the

by

arranged

relations,

previously

conceptions are both

themselves and stand

its

in

tested

to

definitions,

In

conceptions.

new numbers,

introduction of

it

only obligatory to give such definitions of them

as will afford them such a definiteness, and, under
is

certain circumstances, such a relation to the older

numbers, as permits them to be distinguished from
one another in given cases.
As soon as a number
satisfies all

these

it

conditions,

can and must be

considered as existent and real in mathematics.

this

In

we must regard the

and complex numbers as just as

see the grounds on which

rational, irrational,

existent as the positive integers."

There is no danger to be feared for science from
this

freedom

in the

formation of numbers,

for,

on

the one hand, the conditions referred to under which

this freedom can alone be exercised are such that

they leave only a very small opportunity for arbi

and, on the other hand, every mathe
matical conception has in itself the necessary

trariness

corrective,

if

is

it

unfruitful

shows

this very soon by

then abandoned.

To

support

the

idea

its

that

or

inconvenient,

it

and

is

unusability,

conceptions
not subject

in

pure

and
to any
metaphysical control, Cantor quoted the names
of, and the branches of mathematics founded by,
some of the greatest mathematicians of the nineteenth
century, among which an especially instructive
mathematics

are

free,

INTR OD UCTION
example
numbers

in

physics,

is

69

introduction of his " ideal"

Rummer s

"

"

into the theory of numbers. But

applied
such
as
mechanics
and
mathematics,
analytical

and

in

its

both

metaphysical

"

ends.

If

it

in

its

seeks to free

foundations
itself

of this,

was proposed

lately by a celebrated physicist,*

it degenerates into a
describing of nature, which
must lack both the fresh breeze of free mathematical

as

thought and the power of explanation and grounding

of natural appearances. "
The note of Cantor s on the process followed in
the correct formation of conceptions is interesting.
In his judgment, this process

is

everywhere the same

we

posit a thing without properties, which is at first

nothing else than a name or a sign A, and give it

order different, even infinitely many, predicates,

whose meaning for ideas already present is known,
and which may not contradict one another.
By
in

this

the

to the conception already

particular to the allied ones, are

relations of

present, and

determined

in

when we have completed

this, all the

conditions for the awakening of the conception A,

which slumbers in us, are present, and it enters

completed into "existence"

its

existence

"

in the first

in the

sense; to
is then

second sense

prove
a matter of metaphysics.
This seems to support the process by which Heine,
*

This

is

evidently Kirchhoff.
iiber

As

is

well

known, Kirchhoff pro

mathematische Physik,

vol. i, Mechanik,
Cf. E. Mach in his prefaces to his Mechanics
and
(3rd ed., Chicago
London, 1907 Supplementary Volume, Chicago
and London, 1915), and Popular Scientific Lectures; 3rd ed., Chicago
and London, 1898, pp. 236-258.

posed

Vorlesungtn
Leipzig, 1874) this(

INTRODUCTION

70
in a

paper partly inspired by his discussions with

Cantor, defined the real numbers as signs, to which

But
subsequently various properties were given.
Cantor himself, as we shall see later, afterwards
pointed out

emphatically the

Kronecker and von Helmholtz

mistake into which

fell

when they

started

number-concept with the

and most unessential thing the ordinal words

in their expositions of the

last

theory of number so that

think, regard this note of Cantor s as
indication that, at this time (1882), he was a

or signs

in the scientific

we must,
an

or at
supporter of the formalist theory of number,
least of rational and real non-integral numbers.
as to what is meant
mathematics notions which
are intimately connected with his introduction of
irrational and transfinite numbers
were in substance
"
identical with those of Hankel (1867) on
possible

In

fact,

Cantor

by "existence"

notions

in

or impossible numbers."
Hankel was a formalist,
not
a
consistent
one, and his theory was
though

with great acuteness by Frege in 1884.

But these criticisms mark the beginning of the
logical theory of mathematics, Cantor s earlier work
belonging to \heformal stage, and his later work to
what may be called the psychological stage.
Finally, Cantor gave a discussion and exact de

criticized

termination

of the

"continuum."

meaning of the conception of

After briefly referring to the dis

cussions of this concept due to Leucippus,

Demo-

critus, Aristotle, Epicurus, Lucretius, and Thomas

Aquinas, and emphasizing that we cannot begin, in

INTRODUCTION

71

with the conception of time or

that of space, for these conceptions can only be
this determination,

by means of a continuity-concep
which must, of course, be independent of them,
he started from the ^-dimensional plane arithmetical
clearly explained

tion

space
values

GH

that

is

to say, the totality of

which every x can receive any

in

to

co

by

value from

independently of the others.

Every
called an "arithmetical point" of

co

such system

Gn

real

systems of

is

the "distance" of two such points

is

defined

the expression

and by an "arithmetical point-aggregate" P con

in G n is meant any aggregate of points

tained

;,

selected out of

it

by a

law.

Thus the

investi

gation comes

to the establishment of a sharp and

as general as possible a definition which should
allow us to decide when P is to be called a "con

tinuum."

P is of the power of (I),

number a of (I) or (II) for which
P (a) vanishes but if P is not of the power of (I),
P can be always, and in only one way, divided into
two aggregates R and S, where R is "reducible,"
that is to say, such that there is a first number y
If the first derivative

there

is

first
;

of (I) or (II) such that

INTRODUCTION

72

and S

such that derivation does not alter

is

it.

Then

S^S
and consequently also

and S is said to be " perfect. " No aggregate can

be both reducible and perfect, "but, on the other
hand, irreducible
imperfect

is

exactly

much

not so

the

same

as

as

perfect,

reducible,

as

nor

we

easily see with some attention."

Perfect aggregates are by no means always every

where dense an example of such an aggregate

which is everywhere dense in no interval was given
;

Thus such aggregates

by Cantor.
for the

are not fitted

definition of a continuum, although

complete

we must grant that the continuum must be perfect.

The other predicate is that the aggregate must be
connected (zusammenhdngend), that is to say, if t
and t are any two of its points and e a given arbi
trarily small positive number, a finite number of
r

t v of P exist such that the dis

points /j, t^
are all less than e.
tances #!, // 2
., t v t
"All the geometric point-continua known to us
.

are,

now,

as

and I believe,
two
recognize
predicates
and connected the necessary and sufficient

is

that
5

easy to

see,

connected
in

these

perfect
characteristics of a point-continuum."
Bolzano s (1851) definition of a

certainly not correct,

for

it

property of a continuum, which

continuum

expresses
is

only

also possessed

is

one

by

INTRODUCTION
aggregates which arise from
aggregate is removed from

73

G n when

any isolated
and
also
in those
it,
Also
continua.
consisting of many separated
Dedekind * appeared to Cantor only to emphasize
another property of a continuum, namely, that which
it

common

with

has

in

We

will pass over the

all

other perfect aggregates.

development of the theory

Benof point-aggregates subsequently to 1882
on
the
s
and
s
researches
Cantor
dixson
power of
adherences "
perfect aggregates, Cantor s theory of
"
the
of
and
*

Cantor,
investigations
others
and
on the
Stolz, Harnack, Jordan, Borel,
"content" of aggregates, and the applications of
coherences,"

the

the

of point-aggregates to

theory

made by

functions

theory of

Jordan, Broden, Osgood, Baire,

Arzela, Schoenflies, and

trace the development,

many

others,

and

will

now

in Cantor s hands, of the

of
the
transfinite
cardinal
and ordinal numbers
theory

from 1883 to 1895.

VIII

An

account of the development that the theory

mind

of transfinite numbers underwent in Cantor

from

articles

to

1883

published

in

1890

is

described

in

his

Zeitschrift fur Philosophic und

Kritik for 1887 and 1888, and

the

philosophische
collected and published in 1890 under the title Zur
Lehre vom Transfiniten.
great part of this little

book

is

taken up with detailed discussions about

philosophers

denials of the possibility of infinite

*

Essays on

Number

>

p.

u.

INTR OD UCTION

74

numbers, extracts from

letters to and from philo

and
"All sosophers
theologians, and so on.*

called proofs of the impossibility of actually infinite

numbers," said Cantor, "are, as may be shown in

every particular case and also on general grounds,

false

in

numbers

that
in

they begin by attributing

all

question

numbers, whereas the

to be thinkable in

the

to

of

properties

the
finite

numbers, if they are

must
constitute quite
any form,
infinite

a new kind of number as opposed to the finite

numbers, and the nature of this new kind of number
is dependent on the nature of things and is an object

of investigation, but not of our arbitrariness or our

"

prejudice.

In 1883 Cantor had begun to lecture on his view

of whole numbers and types of order as general
concepts or universals (unum versus alia) which
relate to aggregates

when we
"

and

arise

from these aggregates

abstract from the nature of the elements.

Every aggregate of

as a unitary thing in

distinct things can be regarded

which the things

are constitutive elements.

If

we

first

mentioned

abstract both from

the nature of the elements and from the order in

which they are given, we get the

or

power
which the

cardinal

number

of the aggregate, a general concept in

elements, as so-called units, have so

one another to make a

unitary whole that no one of them ranks above the

grown organically

into

Hence results that two different aggregates

others.
have the same cardinal number when and only when
*
Cf.

VII, near the beginning.

INTRODUCTION

75

they are what I call equivalent to one another,

and there is no contradiction when, as often happens
with infinite aggregates, two aggregates of which

one

is

a part of the other have the same cardinal

I regard the non-recognition of this fact

number.
the

principal

infinite

numbers.

as

to,

obstacle

the

to

introduction

of

If the act of abstraction referred

when we have

to do with an aggregate ordered

one or many relations (dimensions), is

according to

only performed with respect to the nature of the

elements, so that the ordinal rank in which these

elements stand to one another

is kept in the general

whole
the
arising is what I call
organic
concept,
ordinal type, or in the special case of well-ordered

aggregates

an

ordinal

number.

This

ordinal

the same thing that I called, in my

Grundlagen of 1883, the enumeral (Anzahl) of a
Two ordered aggregates
well-ordered aggregate.

number

is

have one and the same ordinal type if they stand

to one another in the relation of
similarity,
be exactly defined.
These are
the roots from which develops with logical necessity

which relation

will

the organism of transfinite theory of types and in

particular of the transfinite ordinal numbers, and

which

hope soon to publish

in a

systematic form."

The contents

of a lecture given in 1883 were also

a
of 1884.
In it was pointed out
in
letter
given
that the cardinal number of an aggregate
is the

general concept
equivalent to

"One

under which

M, and

that

of the most

fall

all

aggregates

important problems of the

INTR OD UCTION

76

theory of aggregates, which

my

as to its principal part in

believe

have solved

Grundlagen, consists

the question of determining the various powers

of the aggregates in the whole of nature, in so far
in

we can know

This end

have reached by
the development of the general concept of enumeral
of well-ordered aggregates, or, what is the same
as

it.

The
of the concept of ordinal number."
concept of ordinal number is a special case of the
thing,

concept of ordinal type, which relates to any simply

or multiply ordered aggregate in the same way as
ordinal number to
The problem here arises

the

ordinal

numbers

When
part

of

powers

a well-ordered

aggregate.

of determining the various

in nature.

Cantor said that he had solved the chief

the
in

problem of determining the various

meant that he had almost

nature, he

proved that the power of the arithmetical continuum

the same as the power of the ordinal numbers of
In spite of the fact that Cantor
the second class.

is

firmly believed this, possibly on account of the fact

that all known aggregates in the continuum had

been found to be either of the

first

power or of the

power of the continuum, the proof or disproof of

this theorem has not even now been carried out,
and there

is

some ground

for

believing

that

it

cannot be carried out.

Cantor, in his Grundlagen, had noted as the
relation of two well-ordered aggregates which have
the same enumeral was here called the relation of

What

"

similarity,"

and

in the

laws of multiplication of

INTRODUCTION

77

two ordinal numbers he departed from the custom

followed in the Grundlagen and wrote the multiplier
The
on the right and the multiplicand on the left.
importance of this alteration
that we can write
a^.a Y = a^ +Y
:

is

seen by the fact

whereas we would

in the notation of the

have to write,

Grundlagen

afi.av-tf+fi,

the end of this letter, Cantor remarked that

may, in a sense, be regarded as the limit to which

At

CD

number tends. Here " o> is

transfinite ordinal number which is greater
finite numbers
exactly in the same way

the variable finite whole

the least

than all

j/

that ^/2 is the limit of certain variable, increasing,

rational numbers, with this difference the difference
:

between *J2 and these approximating fractions be

comes as small as we wish, whereas <o v is always
But this difference in no way alters the
equal to w.
fact that to is to be regarded as as definite and com
pleted as ^2, and in no way alters the fact that
has no more trace of the numbers which tend to
j/

a)

it

has of the approximating fractions.

The
transfinite numbers are in a sense new irrationalities,

than

^2

and indeed

in

my

finite irrational

my

eyes the best method of defining

numbers

is

method of introducing

the same in principle as

transfinite

numbers.

We

can say that the transfinite numbers stand or fall

with finite irrational numbers, in their inmost being

they are

alike,

for

both are definitely marked off

modifications of the actually infinite."

With

this

is

connected

in principle

an extract from

INTR OD UCTION

78

((

a letter written in 1886:

Finally

have

still

to

explain to you in what sense I conceive the minimum

of the transfinite as limit of the increasing finite.

For

this

purpose

we must

consider that the concept

domain of finite numbers has two

essential characteristics.
For example, the number
i is the limit of the numbers #= i
where v is
i/j/,
a variable, finite, whole number, which increases
of

limit

above

in the

difference

zv

finitely small

In

limits.

finite

all

is

the

first

place

the

a magnitude which becomes in

second place i is the least of

in the

numbers which are greater than all magnitudes z v

Each of these two properties characterizes the finite
number i as limit of the variable magnitude z v
all

Now

if

we wish

transfinite limits

characteristics

extend the concept of limit to

as well, the second of the above
used
the first must here be

to

is

allowed to drop because

finite limits.

it

Accordingly

has a meaning only for

call co the limit of the

increasing, finite, whole numbers v because co is the

least of all numbers which are greater than all the
,

finite

numbers.

But

CD

v is

co, and
numbers
increasing
indeed any number
off from co as the least

always equal to

we cannot say that the

come as near as we wish to o>

therefore

however great is quite as far

Here we see especially clearly the
finite number.

very important fact that

my

least transfinite ordinal

and consequently all greater ordinal

o>,
numbers, lie quite outside the endless series i, 2, 3,
and so on. Thus o> is not a maximum of the finite
"
numbers, for there is no such thing.

number

INTRODUCTION

79

In another letter written in 1886, Cantor empha

In all
sized another aspect of irrational numbers.
of the definitions of these numbers there is used,

indeed essential, a special actually infinite

In both this and
aggregate of rational numbers.
as

is

1886, Cantor returned in great

to the distinction between the "potential"

another letter of
detail

and "actual" infinite of which he had made a great

The
point under other names in his Grundlagen.
potential infinite is a variable finite, and in order

may be completely known, we

must be able to determine the domain of variability,
and this domain can only be, in general, an actually

that such a variable

infinite
infinite

Thus every potential

aggregate of values.
an
actually infinite, and these
presupposes

"domains of

variability" which are studied in the

theory of aggregates are the foundations of arith
metic and analysis. Further, besides actually infinite

aggregates, we have to consider in mathematics

natural abstractions from these aggregates, which
form the material of the theory of transfinite

numbers.
In 1885, Cantor had developed to a large extent
his theory of cardinal numbers and ordinal types.
In the fairly long paper which he wrote out, he
on the theory of ordinal types

laid particular stress

and entered

into details

which he had not published

before as to the definition of ordinal type in general,

number is a particular case. In

of which ordinal
this paper also

an aggregate

he denoted the cardinal number of

by M, and the ordinal type of

INTR OD UCTION

8o

by

that

thus indicating by lines over the letter

of abstraction is to

double or single act

be performed.
In the theory of cardinal numbers, he defined the
addition and multiplication of two cardinal numbers
and proved the fundamental laws about them in

much

the

1895 which

same way

as he did in the

translated below.

is

memoir

of

It is characteristic

of Cantor s views that he distinguished very sharply

between an aggregate and a cardinal number that
" Is not an
to it
out
an

belongs

aggregate

side us, whereas

cardinal

its

picture of it in our
In an ordered

mind

number

object

is

an abstract

"
?

aggregate of any number of

dimensions, such as the totality of points in space,
as determined by three rectangular co-ordinates, or
a piece of music whose dimensions are the sequence
of the tones in time, the duration of each tone in
time, the pitch of the tones, and the intensity of the
tones, then "if we make abstraction of the nature

of the elements, while

we

retain their rank in all the

n different directions, an intellectual picture, a general

concept, is generated in us, and I call this the /z-ple
The definition of the " similarity of
ordinal type."

ordered aggregates " is

"Two n-p\y ordered aggregates

and

so

to

make

called

similar

if

is

it

possible

are

their

elements correspond to another uniquely and com

pletely that, if E and E are any two elements of

and F and F the two corresponding elements of

N, then for

I,

2,

n the relation of rank of

INTR OD UCTION
E

to

in

the

direction inside the aggregate

*/th

exactly the same as the relation of rank of F to

in the i/th direction inside the aggregate N.
is

M
F

We

such a correspondence of two aggregates

which are similar to one another an imaging of the

will

call

"
one on the other.
The addition and multiplication of ordinal types,
and the fundamental laws about them, were then
dealt with much as in the memoir of 1895 which is

The

translated below.
to

consideration

rest of the

of problems

paper was devoted

about ^-ple finite

types.

In 1888, Cantor, who had arrived at a very clear

notion that the essential part of the concept of number
lay in the unitary concept that we form, gave some

on the essays of Helmholtz and

Kronecker, which appeared in 1887, on the concept
of number.
Both the authors referred to started
with the last and most unessential feature in our
treatment of ordinal numbers the words or other
interesting criticisms

signs that we use to represent these numbers.

In 1887, Cantor gave a more detailed proof of the

non-existence of actually infinitely small magnitudes.

This proof was referred to in advance in the Grundlagen^

and was

later put into a

more rigorous form

by Feano.

We

have already referred to the researches of

in 1883 and

Cantor on point-aggregates published

only other paper besides those already

dealt with that was published by Cantor on an
later

the

important

question

in

the

theory of

transfinite

INTRODUCTION

82

numbers was one [published

in 1892.
In this paper
see the origins of the conception of
cover
ing" (Belegung) defined in the memoir of 1895 trans
lated below.
In the terminology introduced in this

we can

memoir, we can say that the paper of 1892 contains

a proof that 2, when exponentiated by a transfinite
cardinal number, gives rise to a cardinal number

which

is

greater than

the

cardinal

number

first

mentioned.
introduction of the concept of " covering" is
the most striking advance in the principles of the

The

theory of transfinite numbers from 1885 to 1895,

and we can now study the final and considered form

which Cantor gave to the theory in two important

memoirs of 1895 an ^ 1897. The principal advances
in the

theory since 1897 will De referred to in the

notes at the end of this book.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
FOUNDING OF THE THEORY OF
TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
FOUNDING OF THE THEORY OF
TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

[481]

(FIRST ARTICLE)
"

Hypotheses non

"

Neque enim

"
fingo.

leges intellectui aut rebus

damus

ad arbitrium nostrum, sed tanquam scriboe

fideles ab ipsius naturae voce latas et prolatas
excipimus et describimus."

"Veniet tempus, quo ista quae nunc latent, in

lucem dies extrahat et longioris sevi diligentia."

The Conception

of

Power or Cardinal Number

BY an "aggregate" (Menge) we

are to understand
whole {Zusammenfassung zu
of definite and separate objects m

collection into a

any

.einem Ganzeri)
of our intuition or our thought.
"
of M.
called the "elements

In signs

we express

We
.

denote the uniting of many aggregates M, N,

which have no common elements, into a

single aggregate
(2)

M = {**}.

(1)

P,

this thus

These objects are

by
(M, N,

P,

85

.)-

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

86

The elements
elements of

We

of this aggregate are, therefore, the

of N, of P,
., taken together.

M,

the

will call

name "part"

or "partial
by
of
an
aggregate
aggregate
any other aggregate
whose elements are also elements of M.
x

"

If

is
2

is a part of
2
a part of M.

Mj and

is

a part of

M has a definite

M, then

"

power," which
we will also call its " cardinal number."
We will call by the name " power" or "cardinal

Every aggregate

number "

the general concept which, by means

of our active faculty of thought, arises from the
when we make abstraction of the
aggregate
of

nature of

its

various elements

and of the order

which they are given.

in

[482]

We

denote the result of this double act of

abstraction, the cardinal

its

number

or

power of M, by

M.

(3)

Since every single element m, if we abstract from

nature, becomes a "unit," the cardinal number

a definite aggregate composed of units, and

this number has existence in our mind as an intel
is

lectual

We

image or projection of the given aggregate M.

"
say that two aggregates M and N are
equi

valent," in signs
(4)

M oo N

or

<\>

M,

possible to put them, by some law, in such a

relation to one another that to every element of each
if it is

one of them corresponds one and only one element

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

87

there corre
To every part 1 of
of N, and
a
definite
x
equivalent part
sponds, then,

of the other.

inversely.
If

a law of co-ordination of two

we have such

equivalent aggregates, then, apart from the case

of them consists only of one element, we

when each

We can, for
can modify this law. in many ways.
to
take
that
a
care
instance, always
special element
;/z

of

M a special

element n of

N corresponds.

For

according to the original law, the elements m Q

and n do not correspond to one another, but to the
if,

the element n l of N corresponds,

m of
and to the element n Q of N the element m of M

element

which

we

take the modified law according to

corresponds to n Q and ;;z x to n^ and for the

corresponds,

other elements the original law remains unaltered.

By this means the end is attained.

Every aggregate

equivalent to itself

MooM.

(5)

If

is

two aggregates are equivalent

equivalent to one another

(6)

from

M oo P

and

to a third, they are

that is to say
:

oo P

follows

M oo N.

Of fundamental importance is the theorem that

two aggregates M and N have the same cardinal
number if, and only if, they are equivalent thus,
:

(7)

from

M oo N

we

get

from

we

get

M oo N.

N,

and
(8)

= N

Thus the equivalence of aggregates forms the neces-

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

88

sary and sufficient condition for the equality of their

cardinal numbers.

[483] In

according to the above definition of

fact,

remains unaltered if
power, the cardinal number
in the place of each of one or many or even all
elements

of

other things are substituted.

If,
oo N, there is a law of co-ordination by
now,
means of which
and N are uniquely and recipro

and by it to the
cally referred to one another
element
of
corresponds the element n of N.
;

Then we can imagine, in the place of every element

m of M, the corresponding element n of N substi
tuted, and, in this

way,

M transforms

alteration of cardinal number.

into

N without

Consequently

M = N.
The converse of the theorem results from the re
mark that between the elements of M and the
different units of its cardinal number M a recipro
cally univocal (or bi-univocal) relation of correspond

ence subsists.
speak, out of
of
element

we can say

For, as we saw, M grows,

M in such a way that from
M a special unit of M arises.

every

Thus

that

M oo M.

(9)

same way
by (6), M oo N.
In the

We

so to

oo N.

If

then

M = N,

we

have,

mention the following theorem, which

results immediately from the conception of equivalwill

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
ence.

M, N,

If

P,

are aggregates which have

P
are also aggre

M N

no common

elements,
gates with the same property, and
,

M oo M

N oo N

89

if

P oo P

we always have

then

(M, N,

P,

oo (M

.)

P;

.)

" Greater" and

If for

numbers
(a)
(b}

two aggregates
a

There
There

if

in

= M and b = N,

are fulfilled,

hold

"Less" with Powers

is

no part of

is

a part

it

is

them

with the cardinal

:

M which

Nj_

is equivalent to N,
of N, such that N x oo M,

obvious that these conditions

and

and

both the conditions

equivalent aggregates
press a definite relation
a

and

still

by two
and N
Thus they ex
of the cardinal numbers
are replaced
.

to one another.

and N, and
[484] Further, the equivalence of
thus the equality of a and b, is excluded for if we
had
oo N, we would have, because N x oj M, the
;

M
M

oo N,
equivalence N x oo N, and then, because
there would exist a part MJ of
such that
x oj M,
and therefore we should have Mj c\; N
and this

contradicts the condition

Thirdly, the relation

(a).

of a to

makes impossible the same

is

such that

relation of b to a

it

for if

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

90
in

and

(a)

(6)

arise

tradictory to the former ones.

express the relation of a to

We

(a)

"

and

(b)
"

greater

a is

by saying:
than a in signs

characterized

"less" than

or

by
is

a<b

(1)

We

and N are
which are con

the parts played by

interchanged, two conditions

or

b>a.

can easily prove that,

(2) if a

< b and

Similarly,
that,

if

Px

follows a

We

<

from the
is

c,

then

we always have

definition,

from P

<b

<

c.

follows at once

it

part of an aggregate

< P and

P,

follows Pj

from

< Pl

< b.

have seen that, of the three relations

a

= b,

a<b, b<a,

each one excludes the two others.

On

the other

theorem that, with any two cardinal

numbers a and b, one of those three relations must
necessarily be realized, is by no means self-evident
and can hardly be proved at this_stage.
Not until later, when we shall have gained a

hand,

the

survey over the ascending sequence of the transfinite

cardinal numbers and an insight into their connexion,

theorem
two
cardinal numbers, then
any

will result the truth of the

A. If a and
either a

=b

or a

are

<b

or a

> b.

From this theorem the following theorems, of

which, however, we will here make no use, can be
very simply derived
;

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
two aggregates

If

B.

equivalent to a part

M, then
If

C.

and

MJ

is

M
M of

and N are such that

N and N to a part

of

are equivalent
a part of an aggregate

is

M,

is

of the aggregate
and if the aggregates
1?
and
are
then
2
equivalent,
Mj is equivalent to

part

91

both

and

with two aggregates

and N, N
to
nor
to
neither
a
equivalent
part of M, there
D.

If,

a part
E. If

that

equivalent to
and N are not equivalent,
two aggregates
and there is a part N t of N that is equivalent to M,
x

of

is

is

is

then no part of

is

[485]

equivalent to N.

The Addition and Multiplication

of

Powers

two aggregates
and N which
elements was denoted in
i, (2),
" union
by (M, N). We call it the
-aggregate
and N."
(Vereinigungsmenge) of

The union

have no

of

common

two other aggregates without

common elements, and if M ou M and N oj N we
saw that we have
If

and

are

(M, N) ro

Hence the

cardinal

upon the cardinal

(M

number

put

(i)

).

of (M,

N) only depends
and N = b.
of the sum of a and b.

numbers M = a

This leads to the definition

We

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

92

Since in the conception of power, we abstract from

the order of the elements, we conclude at once that
(2)

+ b = b + a;

ci

and, for any three cardinal numbers

a

(3)

We

now come

+ (b + c) = (a + b) +

a,

b,

c,

we have

c.

to multiplication.

Any

element

can be thought to be bound up

with any element n of another aggregate N so as
we denote by (M N)
to form a new element "(m n)
of an aggregate

the aggregate of all these bindings (m, n), and call

it the "aggregate of bindings
(Verbindungsmehge)
of

and N."

Thus

(M.N) = {(,)}.

(4)

We

power of (M N) only depends on

and N = b for, if we replace the
and N by the aggregates

see that the

the powers

aggregates

M=a
M

W = {m}

N ={#

and

respectively equivalent to them, and consider ;;/,

and n ri as corresponding elements, then the
y

aggregate

(M NO = {(*
.

)}

brought into a reciprocal and univocal corre

spondence with (M N) by regarding (m, n) and
Thus
n } as corresponding elements.
(;

is

(5)

We now
(6)

(M N )oo(M.N).
.

define the product a

a

= (M

N).

by the equation

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
An

[486]
a

aggregate with the cardinal number

made up out of two aggregates

also be

may

93

with the cardinal numbers a and b according

to the following rule
We start from the aggregate
N and replace in it every element n by an aggregate

and

w r>o
if,
then, we collect the elements of
these aggregates
M to a whole S, we see that
;

all

Sco(M.N),

(7)

and consequently

=a.b.
For, if, with any given law of correspondence of the
two equivalent aggregates M and M n we denote
by m the element of M which corresponds to the
,

element

mn

of

Mw

we have
S

(8)

= {*};

and thus the aggregates S and (M.N) can be re

ferred reciprocally and univocally to one another by
regarding m n and (m, n) as corresponding elements.

From

our definitions result readily the theorems

a.b = b.a,

(9)

a.(b.c) = (a.b).c,

(10)

(u)
because

a(b

+ c) = ab + ac;

(M.N)ro(N.M),
(M.(N.P))ou((M.N).P),
(M (N, P)) cv ((M N), (M
.

P)).

Addition and multiplication of powers are subject,

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

94

therefore, to the commutative, associative, and dis

tributive laws.

The Exponentiation
By

of

a " covering of the aggregate

Powers

with elements

of the aggregate M," or, more simply, by a "cover

with M," we understand a law by which
ing of

with every element n of N a definite element of

is bound up, where one and the same element of

M
M

can come repeatedly into application.

The element
of
bound up with n is, in a way, a one-valued

and

may be denoted by f(n) it is

function
of n."
The correspond
covering
of
N
will
be
called
ing covering
/(N).
[487] Two coverings /^(N) andy^(N) are said to
function of

n^

((

called a

be equal

if,

and only

if,

for all

elements n of

the

equation

/i()=/2 ()

(i)

so that if this equation does not subsist

even a single element n = n ^fl (N) and^(N) are
For ex
characterized as different coverings of N.
is fulfilled,

for

ample,

if

is

fix that, for all

a particular element of

f(n)
this

M.
are

M, we may

=m

;,

law constitutes a particular covering of N with

Another kind of covering results if m g and m

two

different particular elements of

particular element of N, from fixing that

and n a

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

for all

which are different from n

95

totality of different coverings of N with

forms a definite aggregate with the elements /(N)

The

we
of

call

it

with

M"

and denote

(N

(2)

If

M oo W

and

the cardinal

it

by (N

N we
,

Thus

M).

easily find that

M) oo (N

M)={/(N)}.

c\;

(N

(3)

Thus

the " covering-aggregate (Beltgungsmenge)

number

of

).

(N M) depends only
and N = b it serves
|

on the cardinal

numbers M = a

us for the definition of a

= (NpS).

a*

(4)

For any three aggregates, M, N,

P,

we

easily prove

the theorems:
(5)

(6)

((N
((P

(7)

M)

M)
(P

(P

(P

(N

M))

c\j

((N, P)

N))

ex.

(P

M))

fX>

(M

((P N)

M),
N)),

M),

if we put P = c, we have, by (4) and by

attention
to
3, the theorems for any three
paying
cardinal numbers, a, b, and c

from which,

.a

(8)

(9)

a r .b f

(10)

( a t)t

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

96

[488] We see how pregnant and far-reaching

these simple formulae extended to powers are by the
If we denote the power of the
following example.

continuum X (that is, the totality X of real

numbers x such that x>_ and <^i) by o, we easily

linear

see that

it

may

the formula

be represented by, amongst others,

= 2^,

(n)
where
2^

is

6 gives the meaning of N O

the power of

all

In fact, by (4),

representations

(where f(y) = o or

If we pay
of the numbers x in the binary system.
attention to the fact that every number x is only
represented once, with the exception of the^numbers

x=

-< i,

which are represented twice over, we

have, if we denote the

the latter by \s v },

2* =

enumerable"

totality of

*}. X).

" enumerable "

If we take away from X any
aggre
the
remainder
X
have
denote
we
and
by
1;
gate {/}

x =({*}, x )=({^-i}, {M,

1

so
Jr },

X),

xj,

OF TRANSFIN1TE NUMBERS
and thus

i)

2 No

From

(11) follows

0.0 = 2^

= X=0.

by squaring (by
.

2^

= 2^^"^

6, (6))

= 2^ =

and hence, by continued multiplication by

where

we

o,

0*=0,

(13)

If

y;

v is

we

any

raise

finite

cardinal number.

both sides of

to the

(n)

power* N O

get
Ko

But

since,

by

= (2 N ) Ko =2 Ko

6, (8),

N O .N O =:N O we have
,

o^-o.

(14)

The

Ko

(13) and (14) mean that both the

y-dimensional and the ^-dimensional continuum have

formulae

the power of the one-dimensional continuum.

the whole contents of

my

paper

in Crelle s

Thus

Journal\

Ixxxiv, 1878,1 are derived purely algebraically

with these few strokes of the pen from the fundamental

vol.

formulae of the calculation with cardinal numbers.

[489]

The

We
have

will

laid

Finite Cardinal

Numbers

next show how the principles which we

down, and on which later on the theory

of the actually infinite or transfinite cardinal numbers

*

[In English there is an ambiguity.]

of the Introduction.]
t [See Section

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

98

be built, afford also the most natural, shortest,

and most rigorous foundation for the theory of
finite numbers.
To a single thing
if we subsume it under the
of
an
concept
aggregate E = (V ), corresponds as

will

cardinal
i

number what we

"one" and denote by

call

we have

=E

(1)

Let us now unite with

call

another thing

el

and

the union-aggregate Ej, so that

E = (E

(2)

The

number

cardinal

denoted by

of

*!>

=(

is

*i)-

<>.

"two" and

called

is

(3)

By

= Er

new elements we

addition of

get the series of

aggregates

E 8 = (E

E 2^( E *,
i>

which give us successively,

the

other

noted by

make

3,

4,

5,

of these

We

it

have,

(5)

The

numbers
number

unlimited sequence,
numbers" de

if

by

i/

E = (E
v

is

which we here

use

as suffixes
is

is

understood the number im

v in

.i,

by

a cardinal number.

the above series,

.!>

justified

only used as a suffix

has been defined as

mediately preceding
(4)

*3 ), ...,

so-called "finite cardinal

the fact that a

when

in

2,

*) = (*<>,

e l9

e v ).

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
From

the definition of a

sum

in

follows

99

E^E^-i+i;

(6)

to say, every cardinal number, except

the sum of the immediately preceding one and

that

is

the following three theorems

Now,

foreground
A. The terms

come

I,

is

i.

into the

cardinal

the unlimited series

of

numbers
2, 3,

i,

are

...,?,...

from one another (that

different

all

of finite

is

to say,

the condition of equivalence established in

fulfilled for the corresponding aggregates).

is

not

[490] B. Every one of these numbers v is greater

than the preceding ones and less than the following
ones ( 2).
C.

There are
lie

magnitude,
v

and

i/+

We

no cardinal numbers which, in

between two consecutive numbers

2).

make

the proofs of these theorems rest on

and E.
the two following ones,
shall, then,

We

in

next

the

place, give the latter theorems rigid

proofs.

is an aggregate such that it is of

If
equal
of its parts, then the aggregate
none
with
power
by the addition of a
(M, e), which arises from

D.

new element

has the same property of

with
none of its parts.
of
being
equal power
E. If N is an aggregate with the finite cardinal

single

number

y,

and

Nx

is

ey

any part of N, the cardinal

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

TOO

number

of

numbers

is

2, 3,

i,

.,

one of the preceding

to

equal

i.

Proof of D.

Suppose that the aggregate (M, e)

is equivalent to one of its parts which we will call
Then two cases, both of which lead to a con
N.
tradiction, are to be distinguished

The aggregate N

(a)

N = (Mj_,

e)

then

a part of (M,

contains

a part of

is
1

As we saw

e].

as element

in

because

let

is

the law of

i,

correspondence of the two equivalent aggregates

(M, e) and (M 1 e) can be so modified that the
,

element
element

e
e

this contradicts the supposition that

not equivalent to

is

and univocally to one

reciprocally

But

another.

referred

are

one corresponds to the same

of the other
and Mj
by that, then,
the

of

its

part

Mr

part N of (M, e) does not contain e as

that N is either
or a part of M.
so
In
element,
of
between
and
the law
correspondence
(M, e)
N,

The

(b)

which

lies

element
latter

at the basis of our supposition, to the

of the former let the element
of the

correspond.

N = (M X

Let

/)

then

the

is put in a reciprocally univocal relation

aggregate
is a part of N and hence of M.
But
with
x
r
would be equivalent to one of its
So here too

parts,

and

this

Proof of E.

contrary to the supposition.

is

We

will

suppose the correctness

of the theorem up to a certain v and then conclude

its validity for the number v+i which immediately
follows, in the following

the aggregate

K,,

= <>

e l9

manner
.

.,

e v)

We

start

from

as an aggregate

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
with the cardinal number
true for

this

v+

theorem

If the

i.

for

aggregate,
aggregate with the same cardinal
Let E be any part of
follows at once by
i.

we

is

any other
number j/+i

truth

its

101

distinguish the following cases

(a) E does not contain e v as element, then

E,,

is

either E v _i [491] or a part of

_!, and so has as
cardinal number either v or one of the numbers
2

i)

>

true

3>

>

number
(b)

fore

we supposed

aggregate

consists of the

consists of e v

//

because

>

_!,

our theorem

with the cardinal

v.

E =i.
(c) E
E = (E

l/

the

for

E"

element

single

e v)

then

and an aggregate E", so that

_! and has there
number one of the

a part of
e v ).
supposition as cardinal
is

by
But now E = E"-fi>
i.
numbers i, 2, 3,
., v
and thus the cardinal number of E is one of the
numbers 2, 3,
., v.
.

Every one of the aggregates which

Proof of A.

we have denoted by E, has

being equivalent

to

suppose that this

from the theorem

is

the property of not

For if we
any of its parts.
as
far
as
a
so
certain j/, it follows

D that

following number v+i.

it is

so for the immediately

For

i/=

i,

we

recognize at

once that the aggregate E 1 = (^ e t ) is not equivalent

to any of its parts, which are here (e ) and (^).
,

Consider, now, any two

numbers

series

if p.

1,2,

the later,

3,

E^

is

then,
a part of
;

is
_!.

/x

and

of the

the earlier and

Thus

E^ and

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

102

not

are

,,_!

equivalent,

numbers

cardinal

= EM _

and

accordingly

and

=E

their

not

are

equal.
If of the two finite cardinal numbers
Proof of B.
and v the first is the earlier and the second the
For consider the two aggregates
later, then ^ < v.
M = E M _! and N = _!; for them each of the two
ILJL

conditions in
dition (a)

is

M=E

of

/X

M<N

for

is

fulfilled.

The con

because, by theorem E, a part

only have one of the cardinal

fulfilled

can

numbers i, 2, 3,
and therefore, by
.,
I,
/*
theorem A, cannot be equivalent to the aggregate
.

N=E

J/

itself

is

The

1.

less

condition (b)

is

fulfilled

because

a part of N.

Let

Proof of C.
is

v+

than

I.

be a cardinal number which

Because of the condition

(b)

of

a part of E,, with the cardinal number

| 2,
theorem
a.
E, a part of E^ can only have one
By
of the cardinal numbers i, 2, 3,
Thus a is
v.

there

is

one of the cardinal numbers i, 2, 3,

., v.
than
theorem
none
of
these
is
v.
B,
By
greater
Consequently there is no cardinal number a which

equal to

is

less

than

v+i and

Of importance
theorem
F.

for

greater than v.
what follows is the following

If

is

any aggregate of

different

finite

cardinal numbers, there is one, /q, amongst them

which is smaller than the rest, and therefore the

smallest of

all.

[492] Proof.

The aggregate

either contains

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
the

number

or

it

i,

does not.

aggregate of
i,

2,

in

3,

.,

all

103

the least, K I = I,
In the latter case, let J be the

which case

is

it

those cardinal numbers of our series,

which are smaller than those occurring

number v belongs to J, all numbers less

But J must have one element
belong to J.
that
such
!>!+!, and consequently all greater
j/j
not
do
numbers,
belong to J, because otherwise
in

K.

than

If a

would contain all finite numbers, whereas the

numbers belonging to K are not contained in J.
Thus J is the segment (Abscknitt) (i, 2, 3,
., Vl ).
The number V I +I=K I is necessarily an element of
K and smaller than the rest.

From F we

conclude

Every aggregate K={/c} of different finite

cardinal numbers can be brought into the form of
G.

a series

K=

(/c 1 ,

K2

AC

S,

.)

such that

The Smallest

Number

Transfinite Cardinal

Aleph-Zero
Aggregates with

finite cardinal

"finite aggregates,"

all

finite

and

(<

aggregates"

transfinite cardinal

The

first

others
their

numbers are

we

will call

cardinal

called

"trans-

numbers

numbers."

example of a

given by the totality of

transfinite aggregate

finite cardinal

numbers

is
v

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

104

we

call its

denote

it

cardinal

by N O

number

we

thus

"
(

i)

Aleph-zero

"

and

define

o={^-

(1)

That N O

is

a transfinite number, that is to say, is

finite number /x, follows from the

not equal to any

simple fact that,

new element

if
,

to the aggregate {v}

the

is

union-aggregate

added

is

({/},

For we
equivalent to the original aggregate {y}.
can think of this reciprocally univocal correspond
ence between them to the element e of the first
:

corresponds the element i of the second, and to the

element v of the first corresponds the element v + i of
the other.

By

we

thus have

N O + I= NO-

(2)

But we showed in
5 that /x-f i is always different
from /x, and therefore N O is not equal to any finite

number /x.
The number N O

is

greater than any finite

number /x

N O >M-

(3)

This follows,

[493]

we pay

if

attention

from the three facts that /x = (i, 2, 3,

no part of the aggregate (i, 2, 3,
.,
lent to the aggregate {j/}, and that (i,
.

a part of {i/}.
the other hand,

/x)

2,

to

3,

., /x),

that

is

equiva

3,

.,

/x)

is itself

On

cardinal number.

number
(4)

different

If a

NO
is

is

from N O then
,

the least

any

transfinite

transfinite cardinal

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

105

This rests on the following theorems

A. Every transfinite aggregate T has parts with
:

the cardinal
Proof.

number N O
by any

If,

number

finite

we have taken away

rule,

of elements

tv

there

2
_^
/j,
always remains the possibility of taking away a
further element t v
The aggregate {t v }, where v
denotes any finite cardinal number, is a part of T
.

.,

with the cardinal number N O because {^,}ou{y} ( i).

B. If S is a transfinite aggregate with the cardinal
,

number N O and S x
,

is

any

transfinite part of S, then

Si = NO-

We

have supposed that S cx> {i/}. Choose

Proof.
a definite law of correspondence between these two
aggregates, and, with this law, denote by s v that

element of S which corresponds to the element

of

{y}, so that

S = {*,}.

The part B! of S consists of certain elements S K

of S, and the totality of numbers /c forms a transfinite part

of

of the aggregate

the aggregate

K=U},
where
K V <K V +I

we have

By theorem G

can be brought into the

form of a series

consequently

{j/}.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

io6

Hence

follows that S x

From

no S, and therefore S^NQand B the formula (4) results, if we have

regard to

From

2.

(2)

we

by adding

conclude,

to both sides,

and, by repeating this

(5)

We

have also
NO

(6)

[494] For, by (i) of

({& v }j

{}

+ NO = NO-

3,

MO

+ MO is the cardinal number

because

Now, obviously

M=({2,,-I}, {2,}),
({2,- I}, {2,,}) 00 ({*}, {6 V }),
and therefore

I^})=R = N

(Kl,

The equation

(6) can also

NO

be written

= NO

by adding N O repeatedly

and,

to both sides,

find that

NO

(7)

We

also

(8)

= v.

NO

NO

NO = NO

have

= NO-

we

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
Proof.

number

By

of

(6)

NO NO

3,

is

107

the cardinal

of the aggregate of bindings

where ^ and

any finite cardinal numbers which

are independent of one another.
If also X repre
sents any finite cardinal number, so that {X}, {/*},
and { v \ are only different notations for the same
aggregate of all finite numbers, we have to show
v

are

that

{(^v}}^{\\.
Let us denote

/x

numerical values
I

elements

+ y by

(I,/)--

3, 4,

2,

(/x,

i),

j/)

then p takes

.,

p-2),

the

all

and there are

in

= p namely
im +

which

for

(2,

.,

(p-i,

all
:

i).

first the element (i, i),

which p=2, put, then the two elements for
which p 3, then the three elements for which
= 4, and so on. Thus we get all the elements
p

In this sequence imagine

for

(/UL,

v) in

a simple series

and here, as we easily see, the element

at the Xth place, where
(9)

The
.

(^c,

v)

comes

= M + V"

variable X takes every numerical value

once.
.,
Consequently, by means of

2,

3,

(9),

i,

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

io8

reciprocally univocal relation subsists

aggregates

{v}

and

between the

{(/x, i/)}.

[495] If both sides of the equation (8) are multi

3
2
and, by repeated
plied by N O we get ^ = ^ = ^
we
the
N
multiplications by
get
O
equation, valid
,

for

every

finite cardinal

(10)

KO"

The theorems E and

on

finite

number

aggregates

= NO-

of

lead to this theorem

aggregate E is such that it is

none of its parts.
This theorem stands sharply opposed to the
following one for transfinite aggregates
C.

finite

Every

equivalent to

D. Every transfinite aggregate T

has parts T x which are equivalent to
Proof.
a part S

Let

T=

By theorem

is

such that

it

it.

of this paragraph there

is

{/} of T with the cardinal number N O

is composed of those
(S, U), so that
.

which are different from the elements

= (5!, U) then T x is
fv
Let us put S 1 = {/ J/+ i},
a part of T, and, in fact, that part which arises out
Since
of T if we leave out the single element / r
S oo S ly by theorem B of this paragraph, and
elements of

U r\j U, we

have, by
i,
In these theorems C and

T oo T r

the essential differ

ence between finite and transfinite aggregates, to

which I referred in the year 1877, in volume Ixxxiv
[1878] of Crelle

Journal

p.

242, appears in the

clearest way.

After

we have

introduced the least transfinite

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
cardinal

number N O and derived

its

109

properties that

most readily to hand, the question arises

the higher cardinal numbers and how they
shall show that the transproceed from N O

lie

as

the

to

We

numbers can be arranged according

finite cardinal

to their magnitude,

and, in this order, form, like

the finite numbers, a "well-ordered aggregate" in
an extended sense of the words.
Out of N O pro

ceeds, by a definite law, the next greater cardinal

number & 19 out of this by the same law the next

But even the

greater N 2 and so on.
of
cardinal
numbers
sequence
,

does

not

exhaust

the

We

cardinal number.

a cardinal

which shows
as

conception of transfinite
will prove the existence of

number which we denote by N W and

itself

the numbers & v

way

unlimited

to be the

out of

it

next greater to

proceeds

N X out of N a next greater

in

N^+I,

all

the same

and so on,

without end.
[496] To every transfinite cardinal number a
there is a next greater proceeding out of it accord
ing to a unitary law, and also to every unlimitedly
ascending well-ordered aggregate of transfinite
a next greater pro
ceeding out of that aggregate in a unitary way.
For the rigorous foundation of this matter, dis
covered in 1882 and exposed in the pamphlet
cardinal numbers, {a}, there

Grundlagen
lehre

is

einer allgemeinen

(Leipzig,

1883) and

in

MannicJifaltigkeits-

volume xxi of the

no THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

Mathematische Annalen, we make use of the so"
called "ordinal types
whose theory we have to
set forth in the following paragraphs.

The Ordinal Types

Simply Ordered
Aggregates

We

its

and

elements m, so that, of every two elements

one takes the " lower " and the other the
2

;;/

"

higher
;/z

2,

and
is

;/z

The
l

rank,
3,

mv

and so
say,

that,

is

of three elements

then

3,

;;/

2,

ly

and

of lower

is

s.

relation of

two elements

has the lower rank

cedence and
formulae

if

of lower rank than

of lower rank than

rank than

an aggregate
"simply ordered" if a
order of precedence " (Rangordnung) rules

call

definite

over

of

;;z

the

and

;# 2

in

which

the given order of pre

higher, is expressed by the
in

m^^m^ m

(i)

^m

Thus, for example, every aggregate P of points

defined on a straight line is a simply ordered
aggregate

if,

two points p^ and / 2 belong

whose co-ordinate (an origin and

of every

that one

ing to it,
a positive direction having been fixed upon)
lesser is given the lower rank.

is

the

evident that one and the same aggregate can

"
"
be
simply ordered according to the most different
laws.
Thus, for example, with the aggregate R of
It is

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

numbers //^ (where/ and q are

relatively prime integers) which are greater than o
and less than i, there is, firstly, their "natural"
all

positive rational

order according to magnitude

arranged (and in this order

then they can be

will denote the

we

aggregate by R ) so that, of two numbers f 1 /g 1 and

AA?- f r which the sums p + q and / 2 + ^2 have
that

different values,

sponding sum
Pi

+ 4i = /2 + ^2>

numbers

number

for

which the corre

lower rank, and, if

then the smaller of the two rational

is

less takes the

the lower.
this order of
[497] 1
since
our
to
one and the
aggregate,
precedence,
of rational
of
a
finite
number
same value
p + q only
numbers//^ belongs, evidently has the form
is

R = 0v
o

>*

>

r-

= (!.

*> T> f> ii v, f> T>

)>

where
r,

Always,
ordered

"

< ^+i-

when we speak of a "simply

aggregate M, we imagine laid down a
then,

definite order or precedence of

its elements, in the

sense explained above.
There are doubly, triply, y-ply and a-ply ordered
aggregates, but for the present we will not consider

what follows we will use the shorter

"ordered
aggregate" when we mean
expression
"simply ordered aggregate."
Every ordered aggregate M has a definite "ordinal
type," or more shortly a definite "type," which we
will denote by
them.

(2)

So

in

M.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

H2
By

we understand the general concept which

M if we only abstract from the nature

this

results

from

of the elements m, and retain the order of precedence

Thus the ordinal type M is itself an

ordered aggregate whose elements are units which
have the same order of precedence amongst one

among them.

another as the corresponding elements of M, from

which they are derived by abstraction.

We

and N
aggregates
be
can
into
a bithey
put
(ahnlicK)
univocal correspondence with one another in such
call

similar

manner

two

"

ordered
if

that, if

m^ and m^

are

any two elements

and n and n 2 the corresponding elements of N,

is the
then the relation of rank of m^ to m% in
n
in
a
n
to
Such
N.
of
that
as
same
correspond
2
l
"
ence of similar aggregates we call an
imaging"
on
one
In
these
of
another.
aggregates
(Abbildung)
of

imaging, to every part which obviously

of
also appears as an ordered aggregate
x
corresponds a similar part N x of N.

such an

We

express the similarity of two ordered aggre

and N by the formula
gates

(3)

M oo N.

Every ordered aggregate is similar to itself.

If two ordered aggregates are similar to a third,
they are similar to one another.
shows that two
[498] A simple consideration
same
ordinal type if,
the
.have
ordered aggregates
so
are
similar,
and only if, they
that, of the two
formulae

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

M = N, MooN,

(4)

one

is

If,

113

always a consequence of the other.

with an ordinal type
we also abstract from

the order of precedence of the elements,

is,

types

that

i)

to say, ordered

is

aggregates of equal

always have the same power or cardinal

from the similarity of ordered aggregates

number

On

follows their equivalence.

aggregates

We

at the

the ordinal

M = N,

get

number M of the ordered aggregate M,

same time, the cardinal number of
From M = N always follows
type M.

the cardinal

which

we

may

the other hand, two

be equivalent without being similar.

Greek alphabet
an ordinal type,

will use the small letters of the

denote ordinal types.

we understand by

If a

to

is

(5)

corresponding cardinal number.

The ordinal types of finite ordered aggregates
For we easily convince
offer no special interest.

its

ourselves that, for one and the

number

same

finite

cardinal

y,
simply ordered aggregates are similar
to one another, and thus have one and the same

all

Thus the finite simple ordinal types are

subject to the same laws as the finite cardinal
numbers, and it is allowable to use the same signs
type.

i,

2,

3,

.,

i/,

for

them, although they are

conceptually different from the cardinal numbers.

The case is quite different with the transfinite
ordinal types

for

to

one and the same cardinal

8

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

ii4

number belong innumerably many

different types of
ordered
simply
aggregates, which, in their totality,
constitute a particular "class of types " ( Typenclasse).
Every one of these classes of types is, therefore,

determined by the transfinite cardinal number a

which is common to all the types belonging to the

Thus we call it for short the class of types [a].

That class which naturally presents itself first to us,
and whose complete investigation must, accordingly,
be the next special aim of the theory of transfinite
aggregates, is the class of types [N O ] which embraces
class.

the

all

number

types

NO

with the least transfinite cardinal

From

the

cardinal

determines the class of types

number

tinguish that cardinal

[499]
latter

^
is

has,

[a]

[a]

number

we have

which

which
to

dis

for its part

determined by the class of types [a].

The
the cardinal number which (
the
class
i)
in

so

far

as

it

represents a well-defined

aggregate whose elements are all the types a with

the cardinal number a.
We will see that a is
different from a, and indeed always greater than a.

an ordered aggregate
all the relations of
of
its
elements are inverted, so that
precedence
" lower " becomes
"
"
"higher "and
higher becomes
"lower" everywhere, we again get an ordered
aggregate, which we will denote by
If in

*M

(6)

and

call

the

ordinal type of
(7)

"inverse" of M.

*M,

if

a = M, by

We

denote the

OF TRANSFfNITE NUMBERS
It

may happen

that *a

= a,

as, for

example,

115
in the

case of finite types or in that of the type of the

aggregate of all rational numbers which are greater

than o and
precedence.
the notation

than

less

in

we

This type

their natural order of

will investigate

under

>/.

We

remark further that two similarly ordered

aggregates can be imaged on one another either in
one manner or in many manners in the first case
the type in question is similar to itself in only one
Not only
way, in the second case in many ways.
;

all finite

types, but the types of transfinite

ordered aggregates," which

" well-

occupy us later
" ordinal
numbers,"
are such that they allow only a single imaging on

and which we
themselves.

will

call transfinite

On

other hand,

the

the type

similar to itself in an infinity of ways.

will make this difference clear by

We

r\

is

two simple

By o> we understand the type of a wellexamples.

ordered aggregate
\^l>

in

^2>

>

^vy

)>

which
ev

<

*,+i,

and where v represents all finite cardinal numbers

Another well-ordered aggregate
turn.
L/lJ

-/2>

>

Jv>

in

/>

with the condition

fv -^.A+ii

of the

same type & can obviously only be imaged

ii6

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

on the former

such a

in

way

that

ev

and

are

For e 11 the lowest element

corresponding elements.
in rank of the first, must, in the process of imaging,
be correlated to the lowest element /j of the second,
the next after e in rank (* 2 ) to/2 the next after/x
,

and so

[5]

Every other bi-univocal corre

spondence of the two equivalent aggregates {e v } and
{fv } is not an "imaging" in the sense which we
on.

have fixed above

On

for the

theory of types.
the other hand, let us take an

ordered

aggregate of the form

where

represents

integers, including o,

This

aggregate
element in rank.
a

sum given

in

It is similar to

positive and negative

and where likewise

all

has
Its

no lowest and
type

is,

by the

finite

no highest
definition of

8,

itself in

an infinity of ways.

let us consider an aggregate of the

{/,

For

same type

},

where
fv ^.fv +I

Then the two ordered aggregates can be so imaged

on one another that, if we understand by VQ a
definite

one of the numbers

to the element e v of
<

i/,

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
the

first

Since

the element
is

j/

f^
v

arbitrary,

>

117

of the second corresponds.

here an infinity of

we have

imagings.

The concept of " ordinal type" developed here,

when it is transferred in like manner to " multiply
ordered aggregates," embraces, in conjunction with
the concept of "cardinal number" or "power"
introduced

in

I,

everything capable

numbered (Anzahlmdssige) that

is

of being

thinkable,

and

be further generalized.
It
contains nothing arbitrary, but is the natural ex
It deserves to
tension of the concept of number.
in

this

be

sense

especially

equality (4)
the concept

cannot

emphasized that the criterion of

with absolute necessity from
of ordinal type and consequently

follows

The chief cause of the

permits of no alteration.
s
in
Veronese
errors
G.
grave
Grundziige der
Geometric (German by A. Schepp, Leipzig, 1894)
the non-recognition of this point.
On page 30 the "number (Anzahl oder Za/il)
"
of an ordered group is defined in exactly the same
is

way
a

as

what

simply

\ve

have called the "ordinal type of

"
aggregate
(Zur Lehre vom

ordered

Transfiniten, Halle, 1890, pp.

from the Zeitschr. fur Philos.
for

1887).

must make

68-75

und

reprinted

philos.

Kritik

[SOI] But Veronese thinks that he

an addition to the criterion of equality.

page 31: "Numbers whose units

correspond to one another uniquely and in the
same order and of which the one is neither a part

He

says

on

of the other nor equal to a part of the other are

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

n8

"

equal.

and

circle

the

This definition of equality contains a

thus is meaningless.
For what is
of

meaning

other

"

"not

in this addition

we must

unequal.

of

his

equal to

To answer

of

part

the

this question,

know when two numbers

first

or

are equal

Thus, apart from the arbitrariness

definition

of

it

equality,

presupposes

definition of equality, and this again presupposes

a definition of equality, in which we must know
again what equal and unequal are, and so on ad

After Veronese has, so to speak, given

up of his own free will the indispensable foundation
for the comparison of numbers, we ought not to
infinitunt.

be surprised at the lawlessness with which, later

on, he operates with his pseudo-transfinite numbers,

and ascribes properties to them which they cannot

possess simply because they themselves, in the
form imagined by him, have no existence except
on paper.
Thus, too, the striking similarity of his

"numbers"
in

to the very absurd "infinite

Fontenelle

becomes

numbers"

Geometrie de tlnfini (Paris,

comprehensible.

Recently,

W.

1727)
Killing

has given welcome expression to his doubts con

cerning the foundation of Veronese s book in the

Index lectionutn of the Miinster

Academy

for

1895-

" Numeri
* In the
original Italian edition (p. 27) this passage runs
corrispondono univocamente e nel medesimo ordine,
e di cui 1 uno non e parte o uguale ad una parte dell altro, sono uguali."
t [Veronese replied to this in Math. Ann., vol. xlvii, 1897, pp. 423:

le unita dei quali si

432.

Cf. Killing, ibid., vol. xlviii, 1897, pp.

425-432.]

OF TRANSFIN1TE NUMBERS

119

Addition and Multiplication of Ordinal Types

The union-aggregate (M, N)

M and N can,

and

of

two aggregates

are ordered, be conceived

as an ordered aggregate in which the relations of
precedence of the elements of
among themselves
if

as well as the relations of precedence of the elements

of N among themselves remain the same as in

or

respectively, and

lower rank than

N
N

all

elements of

ordinal type of (M,

M=a

and

If M
M rv> M

and
and

N)

the

so

N) depends only on the ordinal

N=

/3.

Thus, we define:

a+j8=(M,N).

(1)

In the

have a

the elements of N.

all

two other ordered aggregates,

oo N [502] then (M, N) oo (M
are

types

sum

a-f /3

we

call a

the

"augend" and

ft

the

" addend."

For any three types we easily prove the associa

law

tive

(2)

a + (/3 + y)

= (a + /3) + y.

On

the other hand, the commutative law is not

valid, in general, for the addition of types.

We

see this by the following simple example.

If co is the type, already mentioned in
the well-ordered aggregate

7,

of

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

120

then

+co

element,

not equal to co+

is

we have by

(i)

For,

I.

if

/is a new

+<=(/, E),
a>+ i=(E,/>
i

But the aggregate

(/,E)=(/^,^2
is

...,^, ...)

similar to the aggregate E,

and consequently

On the contrary, the aggregates E and (E, f) are

not similar, because the first has no term which is
highest in rank, but the second has the highest
term/
Out
the

of

Thus w+ I is different from w= i +a>.

two ordered aggregates M and N with

types a and

/3

we can

set

up an

ordered

aggregate S by substituting for every element n of

N an ordered aggregate n which has the same

type a as
(3)

M,

so that

M^-a;

and, for the order of precedence in

(4)

we make

S = {M B }

the two rules

two elements of S which belong to
Every
(1)
one and the same aggregate M are to retain in
S the same order of precedence as in M w
of S which belong to two
(2) Every two elements
different aggregates M Wl and M W2 have the same
relation of precedence as n l and n% have in N.
:

OF TRANSFfNITE NUMBERS

121

ordinal type of S depends, as we easily

on
the types a and ft we define
only

The

see,

(5)

./3

= S.

"
multiplicand
[503] In this product a is called the
and ft the "multiplier."

"

In any definite imaging of

on
w let m n be the
element of M w that corresponds to the element m
of

M; we can then

also write

S=

(6)

Consider a

the ordinal type P

a

{;*,}.

third ordered

ft= {m n },

ft

= y,
.

y=

aggregate P

{/} with

then, by (5),
{#/},

(a

ft)

y = {(^),},

But the two ordered aggregates

and
{(#/) }
{^(np \}
are similar, and are imaged on one another if we
regard the elements (m n ) and ^/.\ as correspond
ing.

Consequently, for three types

a, /3,

and y

the associative law

(a./3).y =

(7)

subsists.

From

(i)

and

.(/3.y)

(5) follows easily the dis

tributive law

(8)

in this form, where the factor with two

the multiplier.
On the contrary, in the multiplication of types
as in their addition, the commutative law is not

but only

terms

is

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

122

For example,
by (5),

generally valid.
different types

2.00

and

co.2

are

for,

while
o>

{j, ^ 2

>

-5

^i/>

y i> y2>

>

./

vi

obviously different from w.

If we compare the definitions of the elementary
operations for cardinal numbers, given in
3, with
is

those established here for ordinal types, we easily

see that the cardinal number of the sum of two

types is equal to the sum of the cardinal numbers

of the single types, and that the cardinal number
of the product of two types is equal to the pro
duct of the cardinal numbers of the single types.

Every equation between ordinal types which pro

ceeds from the two elementary operations remains
correct, therefore,

by

their cardinal

if

we

replace in

it

all

the types

numbers.

[504]

The Ordinal Type of the Aggregate R of all

Rational Numbers which are Greater than
o and Smaller than i, in their Natural
r\

Order of Precedence

By R we

understand, as in

7,

the system of

numbers p\q (p and q being relatively

>o and < I, in their natural order
of precedence, where the magnitude of a number

all

rational

prime) which

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
determines
of

by

rj

We

rank.

its

123

denote the ordinal type

*=R.

(1)

But we have put the same aggregate in another

order of precedence in which we call it R
This
order is determined, in the first place, by the
.

magnitude of p + q, and in the second place for

numbers for which p + q has the same value
the
The aggregate
magnitude of p\q itself.
by
R is a well-ordered aggregate of type co

rational

(2)

R = (>

(3)

RO

= ^-

and

Both

!,

r2

.,

R =N

elements,

we

.),

where

rv

<rv+l

have the same cardinal number

since they only differ

of their

rv

order of precedence

in the

since

and,

we

obviously have

also have

R= =N

(4)

7;

Thus the type

r\

belongs to the class of types [N O ].

Secondly, we remark that in R there is neither

an element which is lowest in rank nor one which
Thirdly, R has the property
highest in rank.
that between every two of its elements others lie.
is

This property we express by the words

"
"
everywhere dense (ilberalldichf).

We

will

now show

characterize the type

following theorem

Y\

is

that these three properties

of R, so that we have the

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

124

we have

If

a simply ordered aggregate

such

that
(a)
(b}

M=N
M has

no element which
and no highest
is everywhere dense

lowest in rank,

is

(c)

then the ordinal type of

is

r\

M=iy.
Proof.

Because of the condition (a),

can be
the form [5S]
f a well-ordered

into

brought
aggregate of type u>
form, we denote it by

(5)

We

1,

having fixed upon such a

M
m^

and put
.

.,

.).

have now to show that

MooR

(6)

that

on

= (w

to say,
in such a

is

we must prove that M can be imaged

way that the relation of precedence

any and every two elements in M is the same

two corresponding elements in R.
r in R be correlated to the
the
element
Let
The element r2 has a definite
element m^ in M.
of

as that of the

relation of precedence to r in R.
condition (b), there are infinitely

of

to

Because of the

many elements

which have the same relation of precedence

;% as r2 to 1\ in R of them we choose
let it
that one which has the smallest index in
to
r
it
The
r
correlate
element
has
be m and
2
s
in

in

definite relations of precedence to r

because

of the conditions (b} and

(c)

and r2

there

is

an

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

elements

infinity of

of

relation of precedence to

and r2 to

which have the same

and m in M as r3 to r^
t

them we choose

of

which has the smallest index

it

to r3

According to

of

process

correlation

125

this

in

that

law

let it

be

we imagine

continued.

and correlate
If

the

the

to

elements

of

are correlated, as images, definite elements

which have the same relations of precedence amongst

as the corresponding elements in
one another in
R, then to the element rv+l of R is to be correlated
of M which has the smallest
that element m
lv+l

index

in

same

relations

correlated

definite

of those which have the

of precedence to

in

M
In

as rv+l to rl9 r2
this

elements

lv

the elements

of

iv

.,

rv in R.

we have

manner
to

all

have

in

the elements rv of R, and

the same order of pre

cedence as the corresponding elements r v

we have still to show that the elements
all the

elements

of

M,

or,

what

is

thing, that the series

[506]

is

only a permutation of the series

i,

2, 3,

...

r,

...

in R.

tv

But

include

the

same

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORV

126

We

this

prove

show

the

imaging, that
following element m v+l

in

the elements

if

that,

a complete induction

by

the

also

is

ly

case

we

will

appear
with the
v

Let A be so great that, among the elements

m m^ m^

ly

m, K

the elements

m^

;!,

.,

which, by supposition, appear in the imaging, are

It may be that also m v+l is found
contained.

among them
But

if

then

m v+

m v+

then

not

is

among

has with

ordinal

definite

m v+

appears in the imaging.

the elements

respect

to

in

position

these elements a
;

infinitely

many

have the same ordinal position in R

with respect to rly r2
., rA
amongst which let
rA+0 be that with the least index in R
Then m v+l
elements

in

has, as

make

we can

sure, the same ordinal

easily
position with respect to

in

as rA+(7 has with respect to

*

^1> ^2>

in R.
in the

index

Since

m^ m

imaging,
in

respect to

2,

>

^A+<r-l

tn v

have already appeared

m v+i is that element with the smallest

which has

this

ordinal position with

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

127

Consequently, according to our law of correlation,

Thus,

case too, the element in v+ \ appears

is the element of R which

in this

the imaging, and rA+0

correlated to it.

We

in
is

by our manner of correlation,

M is imaged on the whole
and R are similar aggregates,

see, then, that

the whole aggregate

aggregate

which was to be proved.

From the theorem which we have just proved
result, for example, the following theorems
:

[507] The
negative

ordinal type of the aggregate of all

and positive rational numbers, including

zero, in their natural order of precedence,

is

>/.

The

ordinal type of the aggregate of all rational

numbers which are greater than a and less than b,
in their natural order of precedence, where a and b

are any real numbers, and a<b, is rj.

The ordinal type of the aggregate of all real alge
braic numbers in their natural order of precedence is rj.

The

ordinal type of the aggregate of

all real

alge

numbers which are greater than a and less

than $, in their natural order of precedence, where
a and b are any real numbers and a<b, is
For all these ordered aggregates satisfy the three
conditions required in our theorem for M (see
braic

>/.

C relic s Journal, vol. Ixxvii, p. 258).*

If we consider, further, aggregates with
according to the definitions given in
[*

Cf. Section

of the Introduction.]

the types
written

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

128

/>

those three conditions are also

Thus we have the theorems

we

fulfilled

with them.

(7)

(8)
(9)

(10)

(l+j;+

(II)

The repeated application

every finite number v

1)17=17.

of (7) and (8) gives for

i.v =

(12)

(13)

On

the other hand

we

i,

= n-

easily see that, for

v>

I,

the

types 1+17, 77+1, v.tj, i+fj+i are different both

We have
from one another and from y.

*i+i+n =

(14)

but

+v+

Finally,

Yi,

it

for j/>

i,

is

*l,

different

from

?;.

deserves to be emphasized that

%-f.

(15)

10

[508]

The Fundamental

Series contained in a

Transfinite Ordered Aggregate

Let us consider any simply ordered transfinite

Every part of M is itself an ordered
aggregate M.
aggregate.

For the study of the type M, those

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

129

which have the types w and *o> appear to

parts of
be especially valuable we call them " fundamental
series of the first order contained in M," and the
former of type &> we call an " ascending " series,
the latter of type *&> a " descending " one.
Since
;

we

the consideration of funda

limit ourselves to

mental series of the

order (in later investiga

tions fundamental series of higher order will also

occupy us), we
mental series."
series

"

is

first

here simply call them "funda

Thus an "ascending fundamental

will

of the form

{*},

(1)

where

av

<a +i;
v

"
a " descending fundamental series

{},

(2)

The
in

letter

i/,

where

as well as K

bv

and

X,

>b
/m,

of the form

is

v+l

has everywhere

our considerations the signification of an arbitrary

finite cardinal

number

or of a finite type (a finite

ordinal number).

We call two ascending fundamental series

{a

in

"coherent" (zusammengehorig),

(3)
if,

for

II

{*

{a v } and
in signs

},

every element a v there are elements a\ such

that
<*

and also

for

<

<*\,

every element a

there are elements a^

such that
a

-<^.
9

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

130

Two
in

if

descending fundamental series {b v } and {b

are said to be "coherent," in signs

(4)

{<U

for

II

v}

{* ,},

every element b v there are elements b\ such

that

and

every element b

for

there are elements b^ such

that
b

>V

An

ascending fundamental series {a v } and a

descending one {} are said to be "coherent," in
v

signs

[509]
if

K1MM,

(5)

(a) for all values of v

and

//,

and ($) in M exists at most one (thus either only

one or none at all) element ;/2 such that, for all j/s,

Then we have
A.

If

the theorems
two fundamental series
:

are coherent to a

third, they are also coherent to one another.

B.

same

Two

fundamental

proceeding in the
part of the other are

series

direction of which one

is

coherent.
If there exists

in

an element

;^

which has

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

131

such a position with respect to the ascending funda

mental series {a v } that

(a) for every v

every element

(b) for

we

av

^>-

will call

;;/

elemenf) of {a v } in
{Hauptelement) of

y>V

;//

"limiting element (Grenz-

a
"

that precedes
such that

j/

for

m,

of

;;/

number

there exists a certain

then

and also a " principal element

M." In the same way we call

"
a " principal element of
and also " limiting
"
if
element of {b v } in
these conditions are

satisfied

(a) for

(b)

for

every

number
bv

every element

exists a certain

>-

;;/,

of

that follows

;;/

such that

i/

for

i/^

fundamental series can never have more than

one limiting element

in

but

has, in general,

many principal elements.

We perceive the truth of the following theorems
C. If a fundamental series has a limiting element

in

M,
same
in

all

fundamental series coherent to

it

have the

limiting element in M.
D. If two fundamental series (whether proceeding
the same or in opposite directions) have one and

the same limiting element in M, they are coherent.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

132
If

and

two similarly ordered aggregates,

are

so that

M=M

(6)

and we

upon any imaging of the two aggregates,

then we easily see that the following theorems
fix

hold:
[510]

To

E.

fundamental

every

series

in

corresponds as image a fundamental series in M

and inversely to every ascending series an ascending
one, and to every descending series a descending
one
to coherent fundamental series in M corre
spond as images coherent fundamental series in M
and inversely.
F. If to a fundamental series in M belongs a
,

limiting element in

fundamental
and
in

M, then

series in

inversely

to the corresponding

belongs a limiting element

and these two limiting

elements are images of one another

G. To the principal elements of

in the

imaging.
correspond as

and -inversely.
images principal elements of
consists of principal elements,
If an aggregate
so that every one of its elements is a principal
,

element,

we

call it

an

<c

aggregate which
y

mental series

in

dense

is

every funda
Menge)S
is
there
a limiting element in M,

in itself (insichdichte

If to

" closed
a
we call
(abgeschlossene) aggregate."
An aggregate which is both dense in itself" and
" closed" is called a
If an
"perfect aggregate."
aggregate has one of these three predicates, every

similar

aggregate has

the

same predicate

thus

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

133

these predicates can also be ascribed to the corre

"
types
sponding ordinal types, and so there are

which are dense

perfect

in

types,"

types" ( 9).
For example,
itself," and, as

themselves,"

and
is

also

" closed
types,"
every where-dense

a type which

we showed

in

9,

it

is

is

" dense

also

in

"every

where-dense," but it is not "closed." The types

a) and *co have no principal elements, but uo + v and
+ *fc> each have a principal element, and are
" closed"
The type (0.3 has two principal
types.
elements, but is not "closed"; the type w.$ + v
i/

has three principal elements, and

is

"closed."

.1

The Ordinal Type 6 of the Linear

Continuum X

We

turn to the investigation of the ordinal type

of the aggregate
{x} of all real numbers x, such
that x>_o and <.i, in their natural order of pre
cedence, so that, with any two of its elements x

X=

and x

f
,

xx\

Let the notation

[511]

From

for this

if

type be

the elements of the theory of rational

and irrational numbers we know that every funda

mental series {xv } in X has a limiting element XQ in
X, and that also, inversely, every element x of X

134
is

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

a limiting element of coherent fundamental series

X.
Consequently X is a "perfect aggregate"
and 9 is a " perfect type."
But 9 is not sufficiently characterized by that
besides that we must fix our attention on the
in

The aggregate X contains

following property of X.
as part the aggregate R of ordinal type ^ investi
9, and in such a way that, between any
gated in
t\vo elements ;r and x of X, elements of R lie.
We will now show that these properties, taken

together, characterize the ordinal type 9 of the linear

in an exhaustive manner, so that we
continuum

have the theorem

is such that
If an ordered aggregate
(a) it is
"
perfect, and (b) in it is contained an aggregate S
:

= N O and which bears

between any two elements
m Q and m of M elements of S lie, then M 9.
-If S had a lowest or a highest element,
Proof.
these elements, by ($), would bear the same character
we could remove them from S
as elements of M
without S losing thereby the relation to M ex
Thus, we suppose that S is without
pressed in (b).

with the cardinal number S

such a relation to

M that,

lowest or highest element, so that, by

9, it has
For since S is a part of M,
the ordinal type rj.
between any two elements S Q and s l of S other

elements of S must, by (b\

have S

= NO

by
Thus the aggregates S and
lie.

"similar" to one another.

(2)

S oo R.

Besides,

(b)

we

are

OF TRANSFIN1TE NUMBERS

We
that

it

on any " imaging" of R on S, and assert

"
"
in the
imaging of X on
gives a definite

fix

following manner

Let

135

all

elements of

which, at the same time,

belong to the aggregate R correspond as images to

which are, at the same time,

those elements of

elements of S and, in the supposed imaging of

R on S, correspond to the said elements of R.

which does not .belong

But if;r is an element of
to R, x^ may be regarded as a limiting element of
a fundamental series {xv } contained in X, and this
series can be replaced
series

{rKv }

contained

by a coherent fundamental
in

R.

To

this [5 12 ] corre

sponds as image a fundamental series {sKv } in S and

M, which, because of (a), is limited by an element
Let
that does not belong to S (F,
of
/;/
10).

of M (which remains the same, by

;;/
of
and
D
10, if the fundamental series
E, C,
{#} and {rKv } are replaced by others limited by the
same element *Q in X) be the image of .r in X.
Inversely, to every element m of M which does not
occur in S belongs a quite definite element ;r of X
which does not belong to R and of which m Q is the

this

element

image.
In this

manner

bi-univocal

is

set

between X and
to show that it

gives

an

up,

"

correspondence
and we have now

imaging" of these

aggregates.
This is, of course, the case for those elements of
X which belong to R, and for those elements of

TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

136

which belong to S.
Let us compare an element r
of R with an element XQ of X which does not belong
to R
let the corresponding elements of M be s
and m
If r<x^ there is an ascending funda
mental series {rKv }, which is limited by ;r and, from
;

a certain

VQ

on,

r<rK

for

The image of {rKv } in

mental series {s\ v }, which
of
s

M, and we have ( 10)

j
for i/^i/
Thus (
Xy

<

an ascending funda
be limited by an m Q

is

will
s Xv

<m

7) s

for

<^

every

y,

and

r>^r we conclude similarly that ^ >- /;/

Let us consider, finally, two elements x^ and x ^
not belonging to R and the elements m Q and ^/
If

then we show, by
corresponding to them in
an analogous consideration, that, if x^<x ^ then

The proof
finished,

of the similarity of

and we thus have

HALLE, March

1895.

and

is

now

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
FOUNDING OF THE THEORY OF
TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

[207]

(SECOND ARTICLE)

Weil-Ordered Aggregates

AMONG simply ordered aggregates "well-ordered

"
deserve a special place
their ordinal
aggregates
we
call
which
"ordinal
numbers," form the
types,
natural material for an exact definition of the
;

higher transfinite cardinal

definition

which

is

which was given us

numbers or powers,

for the least transfinite cardinal

number Aleph-zero by the system of

numbers v ( 6).

We

call

a simply

"well-ordered"

if its

There

is

in

finite

all

ordered aggregate F
7)
elements /"ascend in a definite
(

succession from a lowest/^ in such a

I.

throughout conformable to that

an element

/*,_

way

which

that

is

lowest in

rank.
If

II.

many
F

of

follows

is

any part of

F and

if

has one or

elements of higher rank than all elements

of F which
then there is an element

immediately

after
37

the

totality

so

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

138

that no elements in rank between

R*

in

f and

occur

it

In particular, to every single element

of F, if
is not the highest, follows in rank as next
higher

another definite element

condition II

if

for

F we
7

this results

from the

put the single element f.

Further, if, for example, an infinite series of con

secutive elements

is

then, by the second condition, putting

the totality {^}, there must exist an element
such that not only

elements
for

F in such a way, however, that there

F elements of [208] higher rank than all

contained in

are also in

e (v \

f>

for all values of

in

F which

i/,

*<">

but that also there

satisfies

is

no element

the two conditions

g>
for all values of v

Thus, for example, the three aggregates

where
v+l
* This

definition of "well-ordered aggregates," apart from the

in vol. xxi of the
wording, is identical with that which was introduced

Math. Ann.,

p.

keitshhre, p. 4).

548 (Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannichfaltig[See Section VII of the Introduction.]

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

139

The two first have no highest

the
third
has the highest element c3 in
element,
the second and third 6 l immediately follows all
are well-ordered.

the elements a v

the third

in

the elements a v and

all

immediately follows

b^.

we

extend the use of the

7, and there used
explained in

In the following

>,

c^

will

signs -<^ and

to express the ordinal relation of

two elements, to

groups of elements, so that the formulae

M< N,
M>N
are the expression for the fact that in a given order
all the elements of the aggregate
have a lower,

respectively, rank than

or higher,

all

elements of

the aggregate N.
.A.

Every part F t of a well-ordered aggregate F

has a lowest element.

then

element /i of F belongs to
also the lowest element of F le
In

If the lowest

Proof.

Fx

it

is

the other case, let F be the totality of all elements

of F which have a lower rank than all elements F x
,

then, for this reason,

no element of

lies

between

F and F r
then

it

Thus, if/ follows (II) next after F,

belongs necessarily to F and here takes the

lowest rank.
B.

both

simply ordered aggregate F is such that

and every one of its parts have a lowest

If a

element, then

[209] Proof.
the condition I

is

a well-ordered aggregate.
F has a lowest element,

Since
is

satisfied.

Let F be a part of

HO THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

such that there are

which follow

to

fied,

C.
is

more elements

one or

F which

the element of

is

obviously/*

elements and

in

Fx

be the totality of
the lowest element of
let

all

these

F 1?

then

follows next

Consequently, the condition II is also satis

and therefore F is a well-ordered aggregate.
.

Every part F of a well-ordered aggregate F

also a well-ordered aggregate.

By theorem A, the aggregate F as well

part F" of F (since it is also a part of F)
7

Proof.

as every
has a lowest element

thus

is

well-ordered.

is

by theorem

the

B,

aggregate
D. Every aggregate G which is similar to a wellordered aggregate F is also a well-ordered aggregate.
If

Proof.

element,

concept

then,
of

similar to

we

an aggregate which has a lowest

as immediately follows from the

similarity
it

G ro

are to have

every
element.

7),

has a lowest
F,

and

aggregate N
Since, now,

has,

since

is

it

well-ordered aggregate, a lowest element, the same

Thus also every part G of G has a
holds of G.
lowest element for in an imaging of G on F, to
;

the

aggregate

image,

corresponds a part

G
But, by theorem A, F
therefore also G has.
part of

CNJ

of

as

has a lowest element, and

Thus, both G and every

have lowest elements.

consequently,
E.

so that

is

By theorem

B,

a well-ordered aggregate.

If in a well-ordered

aggregate G,

in place of

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
elements

its

aggregates are sub

F^ and F^ are the

well-ordered

stituted in such a

way

141

that, if

aggregates which occupy the places

of the elements g and g and g -< g
then also
well-ordered

then the aggregate H, arising by com

bination in this manner of the elements of all the

F. -^ F^

well-ordered.

is

aggregates F^,

and every part H x of H have

lowest elements, and by theorem B this characterizes
H as a well-ordered aggregate. For, if gt is the

Both

Proof.

lowest element of G, the lowest element of F^

at the same time the lowest element of H.
further,

we have

part

of

is
If,

H, its elements
which form, when

belong to definite aggregates F^.

taken together, a part of the well-ordered aggre
gate {F^}, which consists of the elements F^ and
is similar to the aggregate G.
If, say,
F^ is the
lowest element of this part, then the lowest element
of the part of H l contained in F^ is at the same

time the lowest element of H.

13

[210]

The Segments
If

gate
then
of
or,

of

Weil-Ordered Aggregates

/is any element

F which
we

the

well-ordered aggre

from the

the aggregate

precede /a

fully,

of

different

will call

F which
more

is

"

initial

of

element f19

all

segment (Abschnitt) of F,"

"the segment of F which

by the element/."

On

elements

is

defined

the other hand, the aggre-

H2
gate

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

R

of

all

the other elements of F, including /,

"
" remainder of
F,
and, more fully, "the
remainder which is determined by the element f."
The aggregates A and R are, by theorem C of
8 and
12, well-ordered, and we may, by
12,

is

write

(1)

F = (A,

(2)

R = (/, R

(3)

<

R),
),

R.

is the part of R which follows the initial element

and reduces to o if R has, besides f, no other

element.

For example,

F = (a ly

a 2y

.,

in the well-ordered

av

b^

a,

aggregate

b^

.,

q, c 2

<:

8 ),

the segment
(a v a 2 )

and the corresponding remainder

are determined

by the element a 3
av

(#i>

a v>

>

the segment

and the corresponding remainder

(6 V b z

are determined

.,

6^

by the element

c v c 2) c3 )

and the segment

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

143

and the corresponding segment

^3)

2>

by the element c2
If A and A are two segments of F,/" and/"
determining elements, and
.

f </,

(4)

then

and

their

is

a segment of A.

the " greater

"

We

segment

of

call

the

"

less,"

A <A.

(5)

Correspondingly we
it is "less" than F

may

say of every

of

that

itself:

A<F.
[2Il] A.

F and G

two

similar well-ordered aggregates

imaged on one another, then to every
If

are

segment A of F corresponds a similar segment B of

G, and to every segment B of G corresponds a
similar segment A of F, and the elements / and g
of F and G by which the corresponding segments
A and B are determined also correspond to one
in the

another

If

Proof.

imaging.

we have two
and

similar simply ordered

imaged on one another, ;;/ and

aggregates
n are two corresponding elements, and
is the
of
all
elements
of
which
precede m
aggregate

the aggregate of all elements of N which

and N correspond
then in the imaging
precede
of
to one another.
For, to every element

and

is

that precedes

;;/

must correspond, by

7,

an element

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

144
ri of

If we apply
n, and inversely.
theorem to the well-ordered aggregates
we get what is to be proved.

that precedes

this general

F and G

B.

any of

well-ordered aggregate

segments A.
Let us suppose that

F no

its

Proof.

F on

imagine an imaging of

A
A
A

the segment
of F, so that

A
A

of
7

is

not similar to

A, then we will
up.
By theorem

set

corresponds to the segment

Thus

ou A.

also

we would have

(X) F and A < A.

From A would result, in the
same manner, a smaller segment A" of F, such that
A" oo F and
and so on.
Thus we would
<

A A

obtain an infinite series

A>A

>A".

A<")>A<" +1 >.

of segments of F, which continually become smaller

will
and all similar to the aggregate F.

We

the elements of
denote by f,
f(v \
/",
F which determine these segments then we would
have
.

f>f
We

of

would therefore have an

infinite part

which no element takes the lowest rank.

in

possible.

such parts of F are not

Thus the supposition of an imaging F on

But by theorem

of

segments leads to a contradiction, and

consequently the aggregate F is not similar to any
one of

of

its

its

segments.

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
Though by theorem B

is

is

similar to every

145

a well-ordered aggregate

not similar to any of its segments, yet, if F is

infinite, there are always [212] other parts of F to
which F is similar. Thus, for example, the aggregate

its

remainders

important that we can put by the

it is

Consequently,
side of

one of

theorem B the following

well-ordered aggregate F is similar to no

part of any one of its segments A.
Let us suppose that F is a part of a
Proof.
C.

F and F PO F. We imagine an
then, by theorem A, to a
imaging of F on F
A
of
the
well-ordered
aggregate F corre
segment
the
let this
as
image
segment F" of F
sponds
segment be determined by the element f of F
segment

of

The element

element of A, and de
of A of which F is a part.

also an

is

termines a segment

supposition of a part F of a segment A of F

77
such that F oo F leads us consequently to a part F
77
such that F ro A.
The same
of
of a segment
7

The

manner of conclusion gives us a

segment
thus,

we

77

of

get,

such that

become smaller

oo

part

777

segments of
7/
.

Proceeding
B, an

F which

continually

A>A >A

of

proof of theorem

as in the

infinite series of

777

A<">

> A<" +1

>
.

.,

10

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

146

and thus an

infinite series of

these segments

which

elements determining

no lowest element, and this is impossible

Thus there is no part F
12.
by theorem A of
in

is

of a segment

Two

D.

of

different

such that

F oo

segments

F.

and

of a well-

F are not similar to one another.

A <A, then A is a segment of the

ordered aggregate
If

Proof.

well-ordered aggregate A, and thus, by theorem B,

cannot be similar to A.

Two

E.

can

similar well-ordered aggregates

on one another only

be imaged

in

F and G
a

single

manner.

Let us suppose that there are two

Proof.

different

imagings of F on G, and let /"be an element of F to

which in the two imagings different images g and

Let

determined by/, and

be the segment of F that

and B the segments of G

that are determined by

and g.

in
is

both

correspond.

BouB
F.

oo B [213] and

If

in

oo B

and consequently

contrary to

theorem D.

F and G

two well-ordered aggregates,

can have at most one segment

a segment

By theorem A,

which

is

are

of

similar to

it.

segment A of F could have two

in G which were similar to it, B
similar to one another, which is
impossible by theorem D.
G. If A and B are similar segments of two wellProof.

If the

segments B and B
and B would be

OF TRANSFIN1TE NUMBERS
ordered

aggregates

F and
F there

every smaller

for

G,

147

is a similar segment
A <A of
G and for every smaller segment B < B of
G a similar segment A < A of F.
The proof follows from theorem A applied to the
similar aggregates A and B.
H. If A and A are two segments of a well-

segment

B <B

of

ordered aggregate F, B and B are two segments

similar to those of a well-ordered aggregate G, and
A <A, then B <B.
proof follows from the theorems F and G.
segment B of a well-ordered aggregate G
similar to no segment of a well-ordered aggregate

The
I.

is

F,

If a

then both every segment

B >B

of

K.

If

for

aggregate

any segment

there

is

Proof.

according
If

G, and also
a similar

We

can image

to

the

element f^ of
of G.

of

law

itself

itself.

of another

inversely,

segment

F and G

following

well-ordered

of

a similar segment

well-ordered aggregate

every segment
then F ou G.

and

are similar neither to a segment of F nor

The proof follows from theorem G.

for

of F,

on one another

Let

the

lowest

correspond to the lowest element g^

is
any other element of F, it

/>/i

determines a segment

To

of F.

this

segment

belongs by supposition a definite similar segment

B of G, and let the element g of G which determines
the segment B be the image of F.
And if g is any

element

of

segment B

that

follows

of G, to which

ly

it

determines a

by supposition a

similar

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

H8

segment

of

belongs.

determines this segment

Let the element /which

be the image of g.
It

easily follows that the bi-univocal correspondence of

F and
defined in this manner is an
in the

imaging
any two elements
of F, g and g [214] the corresponding elements of
G, A and A the segments determined by/ and /
B and IT those determined by g and g and if, say,

sense of

For if/

7.

and/

are

then

A <A.
By theorem H,

then,

we have

B <B,
and consequently

L.

If

for

every segment

of a

well-ordered

a similar segment B of another

well-ordered aggregate G, but if, on the other hand,

aggregate

there

is

one segment of G for which there is

no similar segment of F, then there exists a definite
there

is

at least

segment B x of

such that BjOuF.

Consider the totality of segments of G for

Proof.
which there are no similar segments in F. Amongst

them there must be

Br
of

a least segment which

This follows from the

12,

the aggregate of

fact that,

all

we

will call

by theorem

the elements determin

the
lowest element
segments
of G determined by that element is the
least of that totality.
By theorem I, every segment
ing

these

segment B x

has a

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
of

which

is

greater than

Bx

is

149

such that no segment

Thus the segments

present
which
to
B
G
similar segments of F
correspond
must all be less than B a and to every segment
B < B x belongs a similar segment A of F, because
Bj is the least segment of G among those to which
no similar segments in F correspond.
Thus, for
similar to

it

F.

in

is

of

A of F there is a similar segment B of

and
for
every segment B of B x there is a similar
B!,
of
A
F.
By theorem K, we thus have
segment

every segment

M.

aggregate G has at least

which there is no similar segment

If the well-ordered

one segment

for

in the well-ordered

F must have
Let B x
Proof.

of

of

aggregate F, then every segment

a segment B similar to it in G.
be the least of all those segments
for which there are no similar segments in F. *

were segments in F for which there were no

corresponding segments in G, amongst these, one,
which we will call A x would be the least.
For
of
A
would
then
exist
a
similar
every segment
x
segment of B x and also for every segment of B x a
If there

segment of
would have

similar

Ar

Thus, by theorem K, we

B oo
t

Ar

[215] But this contradicts the datum that for

no similar segment of F.
Consequently,
there cannot be in F a segment to which a similar
segment in G does not correspond.
there

is

See the above proof of L.

150
N.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

If

F and G

gates, then either

(a)

F and G

(b) there

is

are

any two well-ordered aggre

are similar to one another, or

B 5 of G to which

a definite segment
similar, or

is

there

is

a definite

is

similar

to

which

and each of these three cases excludes the two

others.

(c)

Proof.
the three

The

segment

of

relation of

to

can be any one of

every segment A of F there belongs a

segment B of G, and inversely, to every
segment B of G belongs a similar one A of F
(b) To every segment A of F belongs a similar
(a)

To

similar

segment B of G, but there is at least one segment

of G to which no similar segment in F corresponds
B of G belongs a similar
(c) To every segment
is at least one
there
but
segment of
segment A of F,
F to which no similar segment in G corresponds.
The case that there is both a segment of F to
which no similar segment in G corresponds and a
segment of G to which no similar segment in F
;

corresponds

not

is

theorem M.
By theorem K,

in

possible

the

F
In the second case there

segment B x

of

first

it-

case

is

excluded

by

we have

c\jG.
is,

by theorem L, a

such that

B 1 rvjF;

definite

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
and

in the

of

third case there

is

151

a definite segment

such that

A! oo G.

We cannot have F oo G and F oo B

for then

we would have G oo

simultaneously,

Bj, contrary to

theorem

B and, for the same reason, we cannot have both

F oo G and G oo A r Also it is impossible that
both F oo B x and G ro A x for, by theorem A,
from F oo Bj would follow the existence of a
segment B^ of B x such that A x oo B^. Thus we
would have G oo B j, contrary to theorem B.
O. If a part F of a well-ordered aggregate F is
not similar to any segment of F, it is similar to F
;

itself.

By theorem C of 12, F is a well-ordered

If F were similar neither to a segment
aggregate.
of F nor to F itself, there would be, by theorem N,
But \
a segment F x of F which is similar to F.
is a part of that segment A of F which [2 1
6] is
Proof.

determined by the same element as the segment F\

Thus the aggregate F would have to be
F

of

similar to a part of one of its segments,

and

this

contradicts the. theorem C.

H
The Ordinal Numbers

of

Well-Ordered

Aggregates

has a
every simply ordered aggregate
this
definite ordinal type
type is the general con-

By

7,

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

152

if we abstract from the

cept which results from
nature of its elements while retaining their order of
precedence, so that out of them proceed units

which stand in a definite relation of pre

All aggregates which are
cedence to one another.
similar to one another, and only such, have one and
(Einseri)

the

same

ordinal type.
a well-ordered aggregate

and

If a

(3

are

We
F

call the ordinal

type of

" ordinal number."

its

any two ordinal numbers, one can

stand to the other in one of three possible relations.

For if F and G are two well-ordered aggregates

such that

by theorem

then,

of

clusive cases are possible

F oo G

(a)
(b)

13,

There

is

a definite

There

is

segment Bj of

FcoB
(c)

three mutually ex

such that

such that

i;

a definite segment

of

Goo A r
if

As we easily see, each of

F and G are replaced by

these cases

still

subsists

aggregates respectively
Accordingly, we have to do with
mutually exclusive relations of the types a
= /?; in
In the first case
to one another.

similar to them.

three

and

/3

the second
that a

> /?.

we say that a</3; in the third we say

Thus we have the theorem
:

OF TRANSFINITE NUMHKKS
A.

If a

and

two ordinal numbers, we

are any

ft

have either a = ft or a<ft or a

From

the

follows easily
B.
if

and

/3

and majority

we have

If

<

> ft.

of minority

definition

153

three ordinal numbers

< y,

then a

a,

ft,

y,

and

< y.

Thus the ordinal numbers form, when arranged

order of magnitude, a simply ordered aggregate
appear later that it is a well-ordered aggre

in

will

it

gate.

The

operations of addition and multipli

cation of the ordinal types of any simply ordered

[217]

aggregates, defined in

8,

to the ordinal numbers.

and

are, of course, applicable

If

a=F

and

= G, where

are two well-ordered aggregates, then

a + /8 = (F, G).

0)
The aggregate

of union (F, G)
thus
aggregate too

well-ordered

theorem
C.

/3

is

obviously a
the

we have

The sum

of

two ordinal numbers

is

also an

ordinal number.

In the
ft

sum

ft,

is

called the

"augend" and

the "addend."

Since

is

a segment of (F, G),

a<a +

(2)

On

the other hand,

is

mainder of (F, G), and

13,

we have always

/3.

not a segment but a re

may

thus,

as

we saw

be similar to the aggregate (F, G).

in

If this

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

154

not the case,

is

to a

is,

by theorem

segment

of

13, similar

Thus

of (F, G).

/3<

(3)

Consequently we have
D. The sum of the two
:

ordinal

numbers

is

always

greater than the augend, but greater than or equal

to the addend.
If we have a + /3 = a +
y, we always

have

,#

= y.

In general a + /3 and ft + a are not equal.

On
the other hand, we have, if y is a third ordinal

number,
(a

(4)

That

to say

is

+ j8) + y = a + (j8 + y).

In the addition of ordinal numbers the associa

E.

law always holds.

tive

we

If

aggregate

every element g of the

an aggregate F^ of type a,

substitute

for

/?

of type

12, a well-ordered
by theorem E of
is
H
whose
aggregate
type
completely determined
by the types a and ft and will be called the product

we

get,

a.jS:

F,= a,

(5)

a./3 = H.

(6)

The product

F.

of two ordinal numbers

is

also

an ordinal number.
In the product a

and

/3

./3,

is

called the

"

<c

multiplicand

the " multiplier."

In general a./3and /3.aare not equal.

have

8)

But we

OF TRANSFINITE NT MINERS
(7)

(a

That

is

to say

y=a

ft).

155

(ft. y).

[218] G. In the multiplication of ordinal numbers

the associative law holds.

The
only

law

distributive

is

form

in the following

valid,

in

general

8),

a.(/8 + y) = a./3 + a.y.

(8)

With reference to the magnitude of the product,

the following theorem, as we easily see, holds
H. If the multiplier is greater than I, the product
of two ordinal numbers is always greater than
:

the multiplicand, but greater than or equal to the

we have

multiplier.

If

follows that

= y.
/3

On

the other hand,

a.

(9)

we
1

a./3

= a.y,

then

it

always

evidently have
1

.o = a.

We

have now to consider the operation of sub

If a and ft are two ordinal numbers, and
traction.
a is less than ft, there always exists a definite
ordinal

number which we

satisfies

the equation
a

(10)

For

we

call

if

G=

/3,

will

+ (j8-a) =

has a segment

call

ft

a,

which

such that

B=u

the corresponding remainder S, and have

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

156

and therefore

)8-a = S.

(ii)

The determinateness

of

/3

the fact that the segment

one (theorem

definite

also

a appears clearly from

of G is a completely

of

13),

and consequently

is

uniquely given.
emphasize the following

We

follow from

and (10)

(4), (8),

formulae,

which

(12)
(13)

important to reflect that an infinity of

ordinal numbers can be summed so that their sum
It

is

is

a definite ordinal

number which depends on the

sequence of the summands.

Pv
is

any simply

/^2>

If

infinite series

P^J

of ordinal numbers, and

we have
A,=G,,

(14)

[219] then, by theorem

G = (G

(IS)
also

is

1,

G2

well-ordered

E
.

of
.

.,

G,,

.)

aggregate whose ordinal

number represents the sum

We

12,

of the

numbers

/?.

have, then,

(16)

and,

as

product,

we easily see from

we always have

the

definition

of a

OF TRANSFINITE NL MlUiKS
y.

(17)
If

we

157

put

(18)

then
(19)

We

<*

= (&!, G 2

G,).

have
a v +i>a v

(20)

and, by (10), we can express the numbers

the numbers a v as follows

/3^

by

(21)

The

fti=ai

+i

= a ,+i

av

series
!,

a2

.,

a,,

thus represents any infinite series of ordinal numbers

which satisfy the condition (20) we will call it a
;

"fundamental series" of ordinal numbers ( 10).

Between it and /3 subsists a relation which can be
expressed in the following manner
:

(a)
i

The number

greater than

because the aggregate (G v

G2

a,,
.,

for
I(

every

whose

),

number is a v is a segment of the aggregate

which has the ordinal number /3

ordinal

(3

is

any ordinal number less than

from a certain v onwards, we always have
(6)

For,

If

/3

since

is

/3

<

/3,

there

is

segment B

/3,

then,

of the

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORV

58

The element of
aggregate G which is of type /3
G which determines this segment must belong to
.

one of the parts G^

then

also a

is

consequently

j3

we

will call this part

G2

segment of (G 1}

<a

.,

VQ

But

G,,

),

and

Thus

av

>P

for V^VQ.

Thus

/3 is

the ordinal

number which

follows next

order of magnitude after all the numbers a v

accordingly we will call it the "limit" (Grenze) of
the numbers a v for increasing v and denote it by
in

Lim

av

(22)

so that,

Lim

0(l,

by (16) and (21)

= a1 + (

aI ) +

+ (a v+

a,)

We may

express what precedes in the

theorem
following
1.
To every fundamental series {c^} of ordinal
numbers belongs an ordinal number Lim a v which
[22O]

follows next, in order of magnitude, after all the

numbers a v it is represented by the formula (22).
;

by y we understand any constant ordinal

number, we easily prove, by the aid of the formulae
(12), (13), and (17), the theorems contained in the
If

formulae

(23)

Lim
V

(24)

We have

Lim y

av

= y Lim
.

already mentioned in

av

7 that all simply

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

159

ordered aggregates of given finite cardinal number

This may
v have one and the same ordinal type.
be proved here as follows.
Every simply ordered

aggregate of

finite cardinal

number

is

a well-ordered

one of its parts, must

it, and every
aggregate
and this, by theorem B
have a lowest element,
;

of

for

characterizes

12,

it

as a well-ordered aggregate.

The types

of finite simply ordered aggregates are

But
thus none other than finite ordinal numbers.

two

numbers and /3 cannot belong

For if, say,
number

different ordinal

same

to the

finite

cardinal

j/.

a</3 and G = /3, then, as we know, there exists a

segment B of G such that B = a. Thus the aggre
gate G and its part B would have the same finite
But this, by theorem C of 6,
cardinal number v.
is
the finite ordinal numbers
Thus
impossible.
coincide in their properties with the finite cardinal

numbers.

The

case

is

quite

different with the transfinite

to

one and the same transfinite

ordinal numbers
cardinal

number

numbers

which

system.

We

class
[a]

of

Z(a),"
7.

a belong an infinity of ordinal

form a unitary and connected

will

and

it

call this
is

The next

system the "number-

a part of the class of types

object of our consideration is

the number-class Z(N O ), which we will call "the

second number-class." For in this connexion we

understand by "the first number-class" the totality

of finite ordinal numbers.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

i6o

[221]

The Numbers

Second Number- Class Z(N O )

of the

The second number-class Z(N O )

of ordinal

is the totality
{a}
a of well-ordered aggregates of

types

the cardinal

number N O

6).

The second number-class

w = Lim v.

has a least number

A.

By

Proof.

we understand

co

the

type of the

well-ordered aggregate

F = (/1

(1)

where

runs through

w=F

6)

w=N
d>

is

number

and indeed the

number

less

a segment of

of the second number-class,

least.

For

it

must

than

o>,

But

if

finite ordinal

By

the

o>,

number

and thus

definition

of

Lim
V

obviously have

co

= Lim

is

any ordinal

14) be the type of

>

v.

fore there are no transfinite

are less than

has only segments

A = C/i, /2>
with

numbers and

(7)

(4)

Thus

ordinal

all finite

(3)
(

.),

/,</,+!

(2)

Therefore

and

...,/,,..

a,

v.

o>

fv)y

Thus y = v. There
ordinal numbers which
is

av

the least of them.

given

in

14,

we

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

161

is any number of the second number-class,

number a -M follows it as the next greater
number of the same number-class.

B. If a

the

Let F be a well-ordered aggregate of

Proof.
the type a and of the cardinal number N O
:

(5)

F=

(6)

We

have, where by

Since

is

is

segment of

understood a new element,

(F, g),

we have

a+ > a,
I

(8)

We

also have

= *o (6).
Therefore the number

a+i

belongs to the second

Between a and a+ I there are no

ordinal numbers
for every number
y [222] which
is less than a-f- i
corresponds, as type, to a segment
of (F, g), and such a segment can only be either
F or a segment of F. Therefore y is either equal
number-class.

to or less than

a.

is any fundamental series

a,,,
numbers of the first or second number-class, then
the number Lim a v ( 14) following them next in

C.

If a v a a

>

>

of

order of magnitude belongs to the second numberclass.

Proof.

By

14 there

results

from the fundaii

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

62

Lim

mental series {<} the number

<*

if

we

set

up

another series

= a1
/5i

/3 19

/3 2 ,

^ = 01
G

then, Gj,
2
gates such that
If,

.an

-,

G^,

.,

#,,

.,

where

.,

&+1 = <*+!

a,,

are well-ordered aggre

3,,
then also

G = (G!, G 2
is

.,

y,

.)

a well-ordered aggregate and

Lim

J/

= G.

i/

It

only remains to prove that

Since the numbers

the

first

/3

G <N
V

to

...,$,,... belong

/3 2 ,

or second number-class,

we have

>

and thus

G:<N O N O = NO.

But, in any case,

so the case

G < NO

is

is

a transfinite aggregate,

excluded.

We will call
of

"

two fundamental series {a v } and

numbers of the first or second number-class (

coherent," in signs

if for every
such that

(10)

10)

K)

(9)

and

II

{;},

there are finite numbers X

a\>a

A^Xo,

and ^o

OF TRANSFINTTE NUMBERS

163

and

a^>a

(ll)

The

[223] D.

M^Mo-

,,

limiting

numbers Lim

av

and Lim a

belonging respectively to two fundamental series

and fa ,,} are equal when, and only when,
{a,,}

(Mil {a

,}.

For

Proof.
Lim a v =

Lim

/3 y

sake

the
a

= y.

l/

we

shortness

of

We

will

first

put

suppose

we

= y.

For
were not equal to y, one of these two numbers
would have to be the smaller.
Suppose that /3<y.
From a certain v onwards we would have a v >/3
(
14), and consequently, by (11), from a certain
onwards we would have a M >/3.
But this is

that

{a,}

II

{a

v}

then

assert

that

/3

if /3

IUL

because

impossible

/3=Lim

Thus

<*.

for

all

/x s

we have
If,

a^</8.

we suppose
we must conclude

inversely,

that

a,,<y>

E.
class
i/

= y,

then, because

that, from a certain \

because a v </3, we must

onwards, a\>a vj and,

conclude that, from a certain

That

/3

is

to say, {a,}

If a is

and

+ a = a,
Proof.

i/

||

/m

onwards, a _>a
fj

{(/}.

any number of the second numberany finite ordinal number, we have

and consequently also a

We

i/

= a.

will first of all convince ourselves of

the correctness of the theorem

when a = w.

have

= (/! A
= (fv *
^o
<*>

*X

>.

Vo)>

We

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

64

and consequently

But

if

ct

>

o>,

we have
a

+a=

i/

If

F.
I/O

ft)

H~

w ) + (a

ft)),

"~
ft>)

= + (a

= a.

number, we have

0).

In order to obtain an aggregate of the

we have to substitute for the single

Pioof.

co
type
elements / of the aggregate (fv
i/

a>)

ft)

ordinal

finite

any

is

i/o

(i/o

= a> + (a

aggregates

(^ v g

Vt

^^

/ ...,/...)
We
8,

of the type

i/

thus obtain the aggregate

which

is

obviously similar to the aggregate

Consequently
VQ

The same

By

(24) of

result

14

CO

CO.

obtained more shortly as follows.

is

we

co=Lim

have, since

v
t/

co

= Lim

i/o

i/.

i>

On

the other hand,

and consequently

Lim
V

so that

i/o

i/

= Lim =
j/

j/,

OF TRANSF1NITE NUMBERS

We

[224] G.

165

have always
.

(a

+y

= aa>,

)a)

where a is a number of the second number-class

and VQ a number of the first number-class.
We have
Proof.

Lim

i/

o>.

By

(24) of

we

14

have, consequently,

But

= av +

Now we

have, as

I/Q.

is

easy to

{ay

+v

||

see,
{ai/},

and consequently

Lim
H.

(a

+ v V Lim

If a is

=:=

any number of the second number7

class, then the totality {a } of numbers a of the

first and second number-classes which are less than

a form, in their order of magnitude, a well-ordered

aggregate of type a.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

66

Let F be a well-ordered aggregate such

If
let/j be the lowest element of F.
any ordinal number which is less than a, then,

Proof.

that
a

is

F = a, and

14, there is a definite

by

segment

of

such

that

and inversely every segment

type

A =a

number

number-class.

since

For,

either a finite cardinal

a<a

determines by its
of the first or second

F = NO

number

or

NO
determined by an element/

is

inversely every element/" ]>-/i of

of F.
Iff and/" are
segment

can only be

The segment

>/i

of F, and
a

F determines

A
two elements of
which follow /j in rank, A and A" are the
segments of F determined by them, a and a" are
F

their ordinal types, and, say/* -*^./"", then,

A <A"

and consequently a

< a".

[225]

by
If,

13,

then,

F = (/i, F we obtain, when we make the

element/" of F correspond to the element a of {a },

we

put

),

Thus we have

an imaging of these two aggregates.

But F

=a

and,

I,

by theorem E, a

i=a.

Con

sequently
{a }=a.

Since a = N

the theorems
I.

first

we

also have {a

=N

thus

we have

The aggregate {a} of numbers a of the

and second number-classes which are smaller

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

167

than a number a of the second number-class has

number N O
K. Every number a of the second number-class
either such that (a) it arises out of the next

the cardinal

is

smaller

number a. l by the addition

a

or

()

there

of the

first

= a_i+

of

I,

is a fundamental series
{a v } of numbers
or second number-class such that

a= Lim

av

a= F.

Let

Proof.

If

g which
g\ where A is

has an element

highest in rank, we have F = (A,

the segment of F which is determined by g.
have then the first case, namely,

is

There
which
But

therefore,

exists,

We

next smaller number

that called a v

is

if

totality {a

has no highest element, consider the

of numbers of the first and second

which are

number-classes

theorem H, the aggregate

magnitude,

is

the numbers a

theorem

I,

the form

out from a

a
lt

smaller

than

arranged

in

similar to the aggregate

},

consequently, none

is

By

a.

order of
;

among
By

greatest.

the aggregate {a | can be brought into

If we set
v } of a simply infinite series.
the next following elements a 2 a 3
. .
which is different from the order of
>

in this order,

magnitude,
but

in

will,

in general,

every case,

in

be smaller than a\

the further course

of the

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

68

process, terms will occur which are greater than a\

a\ cannot be greater than all other terms,

because among the numbers {<* } there is no
Let that number a v which has the least
greatest.
for

index of those greater than a\ be a p

Similarly,
a p be that number of the series {(/} which has the
.

let

least

index of those which are greater than a

proceeding

in this

way, we

By

get an! infinite series of

increasing numbers, a fundamental series in fact,

[226]

We

have

<p < PV

1 <
Pz < Pz <
<
<
a/ P <
i
p
3

V<

< a p, < a

and since obviously

always
v <f

pv

>

if

we always have

^
<a

f
.

Pv

Hence we see that every number a v) and conse

quently every number a <a, is exceeded by numbers
a

for sufficiently great values of

v.

But a

is

the

number which,
follows

all

in respect of magnitude, immediately

the numbers a and consequently is also
,

the next greater number with respect to

therefore,

we

put a

= a1
1

=a v+

Pv

a= Lim

av

i,

all

If,

we have

is
evident
theorems B, C,
., K it
that the numbers of the second number-class result

From

the

NUMBERS

OP TRANSFINITE

169

Some numbers,
from smaller numbers in two ways.
which we call " numbers of the first kind (Art}," are
got from a next smaller number a- l by addition of I
according to the formula
a

=a- +
1

The other numbers, which we call "numbers of the

second kind," are such that for any one of them
there is not a next smaller number a_ 1} but they
from

arise

fundamental

series

as

{a^}

limiting

numbers according to the formula

a

= Lim

av

Here a

is

number which

the

of magnitude to
call these

We

follows next in order

all the numbers a v

two ways in which greater numbers
.

the first and the

proceed out of smaller ones
second principle of generation of numbers of the
second number-class."*
*

l6

The Power
to the

of the Second Number- Class is equal

Second Greatest Transfinite Cardinal

Number Aleph-One
Before

we

turn to the more detailed considera

numbers of

tions in the following paragraphs of the

the

second number-class and of the

rule

them, we
*

will

laws

which

answer the question as to the

[Cf. Section

VII of the Introduction.]

70

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

number which

cardinal

Z(N )={a}

of

all

is possessed by the aggregate

these numbers.

[227] A. The totality {a} of all numbers a of

the second number-class forms, when arranged in
order of magnitude, a well-ordered aggregate.
If we denote by A a the totality
Proof.

of

numbers of the second number-class which are

smaller than a given number a arranged in order
,

of magnitude, then
a is a well-ordered aggregate
of type a
of
This results from theorem
u>.
14.

The aggregate

numbers a of the first and second

number-class which was there denoted by {(/}, is
compounded out of {i/} and A a so that
of

{a

= (M, A a

(a

).

Thus

M+A

and since
{a }=a,

{v}=oo,

we have

Aa = a
Let

co.

be any part of {} such that there are

numbers in {a} which are greater than all the
numbers of J. Let, say, a be one of these numbers.

Then

J is also a part of

part that at least the

than

all

number

the numbers of

ordered aggregate, by

such a
A^+i, and indeed

J.

a of
o

Since

12 a

A ao+1 is
A ao+1 is

number a

greater
a well-

of

and therefore also of {a}, must follow next

Thus the condition II of
the numbers of J.

A ao+
to
12

i,

all
is

OF TRANSFIN1TE NUMBERS
the condition I of
the case of {a}
also fulfilled because {a} has the least number

fulfilled in
is

171

Now,
{a}

the

if

to the well-ordered aggregate

A and C of
12, we get the

theorems

numbers of the

totality of different

Every

and second number-classes has a

C.

to.

we apply

following theorems
B.

12

Every

least

numbers of the

totality of different

and second number-classes arranged

first

number.

in their

first

order of

magnitude forms a well-ordered aggregate.

We

will

now show

number-class
is

is

that the power of the second

different from that of the first, which

NO-

D.

The power

of the totality

a of the second number-class

is

a } of all

numbers

not equal to N O

If {oj were equal to N O we could bring

Proof.
the totality {a} into the form of a simply infinite
,

series
Vi, 72>

such

that

would

{y^}

>

VIM

represent

the

totality of

numbers of the second [228] number-class in an

order which is different from the order of magni
tude, and {y,,} would contain, like {a}, no greatest
number.
Starting from y v let y p be the term of the series
which has the least index of those greater than y x
y p the term which has the least index of those
,

and so on.
greater than y p
of
series
increasing numbers,
,

We

get an infinite

172

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

such that

< P2 < Ps

By theorem C

of

<p < PV+I <

S of the

which

greater than

there would be a definite

15,

number

is

second number-class, namely,

all

numbers yp

Consequently

we would have

But {y v } contains all numbers of the

every v.
second number-class, and consequently also the
for

number

thus

which equation
8

> yv

we would

is

have, for a definite

inconsistent

The supposition

{a}

with the relation

= NO consequently

leads

to a contradiction.
E.

Any

totality

\/3}

of different

the second number-class has,

the cardinal

number N O

if it

is

numbers

/3

of

infinite, either

number

or the cardinal

{a}

of the second number-class.

The aggregate {/3},

Proof.
order of magnitude, is, since it

is

{a},

in its

a part of the wellof

13,

by theorem
segment A a which

ordered aggregate
similar either to a

when arranged

is

the totality

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
of

all

less

173

numbers of the same number-class which are

than a

>

or to the totality {a} itself.

proof of theorem A, we have

Thus we have

either {/3}

=a

a>

or {/3}

equal to

either

is

order of magnitude,
As was shown in the

in their

arranged

consequently

{/?}

But a

either a finite cardinal

a>

is

equal to N O (theorem
here excluded
infinite

because

aggregate.

of

is

Thus the

o>

or {a}.

number or
The first case

15).

{/3}

ct

= { a }, and
is

is

supposed to be an
cardinal

number

{/3}

either equal to N O or {a}.

F. The power of the second number-class {a} is
the second greatest transfinite cardinal number
is

Aleph-one.
[229] Proof.

There

is

no cardinal number

For if
greater than N O and less than {a}.
not, there would have to be, by
2, an infinite part
which

is

of {a} such that {/3]=a.

But by the theorem
the
has
either the cardinal
just proved,
part {/3}

{/3}

number NO or the

cardinal

number

a }.

Thus the

number {a} is necessarily the cardinal

number which immediately follows N O in magnitude
we call this new cardinal number N r
In the second number-class Z(N O ) we possess,

cardinal

consequently, the natural representative for the

second greatest transfinite cardinal number Alephone.

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

174

17

The Numbers

convenient to

It is

Form o>% +

of the

make

fcy

1
i/

+^.

ourselves familiar, in the

place, with those numbers of Z(N O ) which are

first

whole algebraic functions of finite degree of o>.

Every such number can be brought and brought
in only one way
into the form
(

= fc^O H~

where

VQ

^u,

^D ^2>
that

>

are finite

*V

ma y

IJL

HI +

and

a/* v

+ VIM

different

from

zero,

but

This rests on the fact

ke zero.

(2)
if

~
ft/*

+ o/v = ft/v,

<i& and j^>o, j/>o.

For,

by

(8) of

14,

we

have

+ W^ ~ ^
and,

by theorem

E
V

Thus,

in

of

+ O)^

I/),

15,
~^

ft/*

"^

I/.

an aggregate of the form

those terms which are followed towards the right

by terms of higher degree in o) may be omitted.
This method may be continued until the form given
all

in (i) is reached.

(3)

We

will also

emphasize that

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
Compare, now, the number

same kind

the

(4)
If

fji

(2)

\fr

+ \^ =
If

[230]

(i)

pQ +

~
(x)

of

+ p\-

Pl~^~

different and, say, /*<X,

and therefore

*//,

/x

x/r

and X are

<

with a number

<f>

175

= X,

i/

VO<PQ> we have by

</><\{s.

and p are

we have by

different, and, say,

(2)

and therefore
finally,

If,

but

is

i/^

different

from

and,

say,

iv </><,,

we

have by (2)

and therefore again

^<v-.
Thus, we see that only

in the case of

identity of the expressions

represented by

The
result

addition of

</>

\fs

complete
can the numbers

equal.
leads to the following
\fs

and

(a) If

(b)

them be

and

If

/x<X, then, as

yu

= X,

then

we have remarked

we have

above,

THE FOUNDING OF THE THE OR Y

76

If

(c)

w>\, we have

In order to carry out the multiplication of and ^,

that, if p is a finite number which is

we remark
different

from zero, we have the formula

(5)

= co%p + ^-V1 +

+ iv.

from the carrying out of the sum

+ +
consisting of p terms
+0. By means
of the repeated application of the theorem G of
15 we get, further, remembering the theorem F
It easily results

of

iS,

(6)

0a>

and consequently

= a/* +1

also

(7)

By the
we have

distributive

Thus the formulae

result

law,

(4), (5),

numbered

and

(8)

Ifp x

(fr)

If PA

= o, we
is

have

equal to zero,

14,

(7) give the following

(a)

of

we have

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
[231]

We

177

arrive at a remarkable resolution of

the numbers

in

Let

the following manner.

(8)

.where

and

KO

*!,..., K T are

different

=
By

from

zero.

(ft/*

*!

finite

+ ft/% +

+ ft/^

T )(ft/*~

%+

the repeated application of this formula

But, now,

AC

is

a finite

so that
(9)

The

x
(ft>

number which

is

ft>V+
if

numbers which are

Then we have

)-

we

get

i)/c,

different

from zero

= W^/cT (ft)^-

factors

o>

-f-i

which occur here are

all

irre-

can be represented in this

number
If /X T = O, then
product-form in only one way.
is of the first kind, in all other cases it is of the
soluble, and a

(f>

second kind.

The apparent

deviation of the formulae of this

paragraph from those which were given

Ann., vol. xxi, p. 585 (or Grundlagen,

in

Math.

p.

41),

is

merely a consequence of the different writing of the

product of two

numbers

we now

put the multi12

78

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

plicand on the left and the multiplicator on the

right, but then we put them in the contrary way.

18

The Power * y a

in the

Domain

Second

of the

Number- Class
be a variable whose domain consists of the

Let

numbers of the

and second number-classes

first

in

Let y and S be two constants belong

cluding zero.
the
to
same
domain, and let
ing

y>i.

c!>0,

We

can then assert the following theorem

A. There is one wholly determined one-valued
:

function /() of the variable

/(o) = <5.

(a)
(6)

such that

and

If

"

are

any two values of

and

f<f,
then

/(f)</(f)-

is

For every value of

[232]

(c)

(d) If

{,} is any fundamental

and if we have

one

we have

series,

then

also,

=Lim

,,

then

[Here obviously

it is

Potenz and not Mdchiigkeit. }

if

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
By

Proof.

and

(a)

8>o

and, because

(V),

and

179

we have

y>

we have

i,

Thus the function /(() is wholly determined for the

domain <w.
Let us now suppose that the theorem
valid for all values of g which are less than a,
where a is any number of the second number-class,
is

then
first

it

is

kind,

also valid for

we have from

so that the conditions

But
a fundamental
for g<^ a.

if

is

For

<.u.
(c)

if

is

of the

and (d) are satisfied

(<$>), (c)
of the second kind and {a,,} is
y

series such that

follows from (b) that also {/(<*)}

and from (d) that f(a) =

series,

Lim
is

av

=a

then

it

a fundamental

Lim f(a v ).

If

we

take another

Lim

= a,

fundamental series

{(/}

such

that

because of (b\ the two funda-

then,

mental series (f(a v )} and {f(a

thus also /(a)

= Lim

f(a

v }.

v )}

The

are coherent, and

value of f(a) is,

consequently, uniquely determined in this case also.

If a is any number less than a, we easily convince
ourselves that /(

and (d) are also

< /( a ).

The

conditions (), (c\

Hence follows

satisfied for ^<"a.

the validity of the theorem for all values of

For
if there were
values
of
for
which it
exceptional
did not hold, then, by theorem

of

16,

one of

i8o

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

we

them, which

would have to be the

least.
the theorem would be valid for
<a,
but not for g<.a, and this would be in contradiction
with what we have proved.
Thus there is for the
whole domain of
one and only one function f(g)
which satisfies the conditions (a) to (d).
will call a

Then

[233] If

we

attribute to the constant 8 the value

and then denote the function f(g) by

we can formulate
B.

If

is

the following theorem

any constant greater than
:

which

belongs to the first or second number-class, there

is a wholly definite function
y of f such that
:

(a)
(b)

y=i;
f <"theny <y";

If

For every value of we have y +1 = yy

(d) If {,} is a fundamental series, then
such a series, and we have, if =Lim

(c)

is

equation

|y*"}
,,

the

y = Lim y".
V

We
C.
in

can also assert the theorem

I

f()

is

the function of

which

is

characterized

theorem A, we have

we pay

14,
(24) of
we easily convince ourselves that the function &y*
satisfies, not only the conditions (a), ($), and (c)

Proof.

If

of theorem A,

attention

to

but also the condition (d) of this

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
On

theorem.

181

account of the uniqueness of the

must therefore be identical with &y*.

D. If a and /3 are any two numbers of the first
or second number-class, including zero, we have

function /(f),

it

We

consider the function

Proof.
to the fact that, by formula (23)
attention
Paying
of
M,

Lim

(a

,)

= a + Lim

we

,,

recognize that
conditions

(p(g)

satisfies the following four

(a)
(b)
(c)
(aT)

Lim

For every value of we have </,(+ i) =

If {^} is a fundamental series such
= we have
,

that

By theorem C we

have,

when we put

<5

= ya

0(a=yVIf

we

put

E.

If a

= /3

and

in this,

/3

are

we have

any two numbers of the

first

or

second number-class, including zero, we have

Let us consider the

remark
and
that, by (24) of

[234] Proof.
y*

function
14,

we

82

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

always have Lim

a,=o Lim

theorem D, assert the following

0) ^(o)=i

then we can, by

v
:

Iff<r, then^(f)<V<f);

(V)

For every value of f we have \fs(+ i ) = VKOy"

(d) If {,} is a fundamental series, then {^(^)| is
also such a series, and we have, if
=Lim,, the
(c)

equation

VKO

Thus, by theorem C,

and y a

if

we

substitute in

it

for

for y,

On the magnitude of y^ in comparison with

can assert the following theorem

we

F.

If

Proof.

y>

i,

we

have, for every value of

= o and

In the cases

We now

immediately evident.
holds for all values of
is

the theorem

show

that,

if it

^ which are smaller than a

also holds for
=a.

given number a> I, it

If a is of the first kind,

we

have, by supposition,

a-i<y*-\
and consequently
-ir

<y

a~

y=r

a
-

Hence
a
y >

Since both a_ a and y

a-i
I

+ a-i(y~i).
are at least equal to

a_!+ I =a, we have

y

=a

i,

and

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
If,

on the other hand, a

of the second kind and

is

= Lim

183

a vy

then, because a v

< a, we

have by supposition
a

av

.fi

"*

Consequently

Lim
that

is

a v <.

to say,

Lim y a

< ya

now, there were values of ^

If,

one of them, by theorem

be the

If this

least.

would have,

for

",

which

for

of

16,

number

is

would have to

denoted by

a,

we

<a,

^y*;

[235]
but

a>y

a
,

which contradicts what we

Thus we have

have

proved

above.

for all values of

19

The Normal Form of the Numbers

Second Number- Class

of the

Let a be any number of the second number-class.

The power

CD*

will be, for sufficiently great values

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

84

By theorem F

greater than a.
always the case for

of

of

18, this is

>a but in general

happen for smaller values of
By theorem B of 16, there must be,
values of

for

one which

is

will also

among

the

which

We

the least.

will

we easily convince ourselves

number of the second kind.

we would

it

have, since

/3 V

denote

that
If,

it

it

by

/3,

and

cannot be a

indeed,

we had

< /3,

(/v <"

a,

and consequently

Lim oA

<: a.

Thus we would have

co^^a,

whereas we have
a>0

Therefore

f3

is

of the

> a.

first

kind.

We

denote

= a +i,
/3

/3-j

and consequently can

by
is
a wholly determined number a
assert that there
of the first or second number-class which satisfies
the two conditions
a

so

that

( I)

From

<. a,

eo%>

the second condition

> a.

we conclude

that

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
does not hold for

values of

all finite

y,

for

Because of

(i),

if

185
it

did

we would have

Lim

= o)a

ft)%

ft)

<. a.

The

number

least finite

for

a
j/

ce>

will
KQ

be denoted by

>a

i.

we have

>O.
[236] There

number

we

a wholly determined
number-class such that

therefore,

is,

KO of the first
o) oAT

(2)
If

*-

which

put a

a> <>K

^a,

a) o(/c

= a we
,

(3)

-f- I

> a.

have

= o)aoK + a

and

0^

(4)

But a can be represented

in the

form

(3)

under the

conditions (4) in only a single way.

For from (3)
and (4) follow inversely the conditions (2) and thence
But only the number a = /3_i
the conditions (i).
satisfies

(2) the

From

the conditions (i), and by the conditions

number /c is uniquely determined.

finite

(i)

theorem F

and
of

(4) follows,
18, that

Thus we can

by paying attention to

< a,

a 0:fia.

assert the following

theorem

A. Every number a of the second number-class

86

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

can be brought, and brought

the form

+a

o/c

ft)

only one way, into

in

where

and a

is always smaller than a, but a

is smaller
than or equal to a.
If a is a number of the second number-class, we

can apply theorem

(5)

to
ft)

it,

and we have

-!*!

+ a",

where

o^ a" <

a
ft>

i,

< KI <

"

<a

ft>,

and

< a o>

In general

equations

we

get a further sequence of analogous

(6)

(7)

^cw Va + a"
"

a
ft)

3/f

+a

iv
.

sequence cannot be infinite, but must

For the numbers a, a a",
break
off.
necessarily
in
decrease
magnitude

But

this

a> a > a > a

/

^^

ff

fr

If a series of decreasing transfinite

infinite,

numbers were
and this

then no term would be the least

16.
Consequently
impossible by theorem B of
we must have, for a certain finite numerical value T,

is

OF TRANSFINITR NUMBERS

187

we now connect

the equations (3), (5),

(6), and (7) with one another, we get the theorem
B. Kvery number a of the second number-class
If

[237]

can

and represented

be

represented,
way, in the form
a

where a

= a)a

/c

c^

+ o/ *! +

aT

-}-a>

> ax > a2 >

while K O

KV

/C T

T+

Ac T

numbers of the

a T are

second number-class, such that

a

only one

in

are

first

or

>a

>. O,

numbers of the

first

number-class which are different from zero.

The form
which

is

of numbers of the second number-class

here shown will be called their " normal

a

form";

exponent

of

"

degree" and a r the

For T = o, degree and exponent
the

called

is

"

a.

are equal to one another.

According as the exponent a T

is

equal to or greater

than zero, a is a number of the first or second kind.

Let us take another number /3 in the normal
form
:

P = ufi

(8)

The

formulae

(9)

o>

(10)

where
both

K,

for

K,

+ UT K = ftf

V+

V + V = T V,
co

K" here

denote

/c),

finite

the comparison of a with

< a",
numbers,
ft

and

serve

for the

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

88

These are
carrying out of their sum and difference.
of
the
formulae
of
and
17.
generalizations
(2)
(3)
For the formation of the product
formulae

come

into consideration

(11)

a\ = a)a KQ \ + aai K l +

(12)

aw =

(13)

aft

a/3,

O<X<o>;

-f co%: T ,

The exponentiation

can be easily carried out

on the basis of the following formulae

a

(14)

the following

= o)a x +

The terms not

/c

0<X<w.

-i

written on

the right have a lower

Hence follows readily that

degree than the first.
the fundamental series {a*} and {co***} are coherent,
so that
a"

(15)
in

Thus,
have

*>*<>",

>0.

18,

we

we can prove

the

consequence of theorem

of

(i 6)

By

ft)

o,

>o,

the help of these formulae

following theorems

^X

a
of the
[238] C. If the first terms co /c
normal forms of the two numbers a and /3 are not
than /3 according as
equal, then a is less or greater
,

a
a)

/c

and
a

is

is

less or greater

than co^X

But

if

we have

or greater than ft>^ +1 X p +i, then

correspondingly less or greater than /3.
less
if a)ap+l K
p+l is

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
If the

D.
/3

of

ft,

But

is

less

than the degree

we have

= /3

If a

degree a of a

189

then

>

if

then

E.

If ft

= co

a /3

But

is

o+/Jox

if ft is

F.

But

If

if

first

where

/3

can be represented,

(ft v

first
is

kind

(^ >o),
a
+a) o + ^X

= o),

(/3 cr

then
<7

= 0)^

then

>o), then

(^ = 0),

and indeed

of the second kind,

we have:

Every number a of the second number-class

G.

form

kind

of the second kind

of the

is
(T ,

+ w^+frX +

of the

is

ft

ft

of the second kind

in

only one way,

in

the product-

= wy *

Vl

T (ft>

and we have

I)K T -I(CO

+ iK_2

T
<V +

i)/f

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

190

whilst K Q> K^
in the normal
.

have the same denotation as

Kr

The

form.

factors

w y +i are

all

irresoluble.

H. Every number a of the second kind which

belongs to the second number-class can be repre
sented, and represented in only one way, in the

form

where y >o and a

which belongs to the
[239]

I.

is

first

Yo
fc)

number

of the

first

kind

or second number-class.

In order that two numbers a and

/3

of

the second number-class should satisfy the relation

it is

necessary and sufficient that they should have

the form
a

where

/x

and

are

= y/x,

/3

= yv,

numbers of the

first

number-class.

K. In order that two numbers a and f} of the

second number-class, which are both of the first
kind, should satisfy the relation

necessary and sufficient that they should have

the form

it is

where

//,

and

are

= y^

p = Y,

numbers of the

first

number-class.

In order to exemplify the extent of the normal

form dealt with and the product-form immediately

connected with

it,

of the

numbers of the second

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

191

number-class, the proofs, which are founded on

them, of the two last theorems, I and K, may here
follow.

From

we

the supposition

of a must be

conclude that the degree a

first

equal to the degree

of

/3

For

/3.

if,

say, a </8

we

would have, by theorem D,

and consequently
which

is

not possible, since, by (2) of

14,

Thus we may put

a

-ha

(aFujUL

/3

= aAi/ + /3

where the degrees of the numbers a and (3 are less

than a and /x and v are infinite numbers which are
different from zero.
Now, by theorem D we have
>

a,

and consequently
a
o>

By theorem D
Thus we have

(M

of

i/)

+ /3 = w-V + v) + a

14

we have consequently

0W.
a,

=
/

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

192

[240] and

if

we

put
<o

we

have,

by

(i i)

+a =7

= y/x,

P = yv.

Let us suppose, on the other hand, that a and /3 are

two numbers which belong to the second numberclass, are of the first kind, and satisfy the condition
aj8

a,

and we suppose that

a>/3.

We

will

imagine both numbers, by theorem G,

their product-form,

where a and

{$

and

let

common

are without a

i) at the left end.

We

in

factor (besides

have then

and

All the numbers which occur here and farther on

are of the

a and

first

kind, because

this-

was supposed of

/3.

The

when we

last equation,

shows that a and

/3

refer to

theorem G,

cannot be both

transfinite,

because, in this case, there would be a common

Neither can they be both
factor at the left end.
finite

then 8 would be transfinite, and, if K is

factor at the left end of S, we would have

for

the finite

OLK

= j8

/f ,

OF TRANSFINITE NUMKKRS

193

and thus
a

=p.

Thus there remains only the

a>a),

But the

finite

number

(3

possibility that

<w.

must be

/3

=i,

would be contained as part

left end of a

because otherwise

it

the

the

finite factor at

We

in

arrive at the result that

/3

=S

consequently

a** pa,

where a

number belonging

is

number-class, which

be

than a

less

of the

is

first

to

the

kind,

second

and must

a <a.

Between a and

/3

the relation
a/3

= /3a

subsists.

[241] Consequently if also a >/3, we conclude in

the same way the existence of a transfinite number
of the

first

kind a" which

a

and so
a",

less

than a and such that

a" ft = /3a".

greater than /?, there

less than a", such that

If also a"

a"

= /3a",

is

is

The

on.

",

.,

is

series of decreasing

must, by theorem

such a number

numbers,
of

16,

a,

x
,

break

194

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

off.

Thus,

index p Q

for a definite finite

we must

have

<

0<"o

ft.

If

= /3,

a ( *V>

we have
a
the theorem

= /8". +1

P = P;

would then be proved, and we would

have

y = ft,
But
then

if

we

put

and have

Thus there

is

also a finite

=&"&,
In general,

and so

on.

^2> ^s>
off.

If

Thus

we put

then

number

&&=$&,

we have analogously

The

p l such that

pt <&.

numbers /^

series of decreasing

a ^ so must

>

by theorem B of

there exists a

finite

number

16,

break

K such that

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
where

,u

and

195

are numerator and denominator of

the continued fraction.

P*

20

[242]

The e-Numbers
The degree

of a

Second Number- Class

of the

number

evident from the normal form

1

= wa KQ + co

ai

Kl

when we pay attention

as

is,

is

immediately

> ax >

to theorem

of

O < KV <
18,

to,

never

greater than a but it is a question whether there

In such a case
are not numbers for which a = a.
;

the normal form of a would reduce to the

and this term would be equal to o> a that

a would be a root of the equation
,

(2)

On

first
is

term,

to say,

the other hand, every root a of this equation

would have the normal form wa

be equal to

its

degree would

itself.

The numbers

of the second number-class

which

are equal to their degree coincide, therefore, with

It is our problem to
the roots of the equation (2).

determine these

roots

in

their totality.

To

dis

tinguish them from all other numbers we will call

them the "e-numbers of the second number-class."

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

96

That there are such e-numbers

following theorem
A. If y is any number of the

results

from

the

or

first

second

number-class which does not satisfy the equation

(2), it determines a fundamental series {y} by means
of the equations

The
is

limit

Lim y =E(y)
V

of this fundamental series

J/

always an e-number.

Since y is not an e-number, we have

Proof.
w >y, that is to say, 7x >y.
Thus, by theorem B
y
yi
of
1 8, we have also o)"
>(o that is to say, y 2 >7i
Y

in the

on.

The

We

denote

series {y,,}

The number

the least of

all

thus a fundamental series.

is

>6D,
e

Similarly

We

have

o>

in

a function of y,

by

an e-number.

= E(i) = Lim

Let

=e

we have a/>&>w
>co

<*v,

where

be any e-number, so that

</

Since

is

the e-numbers.

[243] Proof.

and so

Consequently E(y)

is

is

which

its limit,

E(y) and have

B.

same way follows that y3 >y 2

and

Wl
,

that

general

is

that

to say,

is
r

to say,

> co2 and

,

>

<JD

so on.

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS

197

and consequently
that

Thus

is

to say,

= E(i)

is

the least of

all

e-numbers.

the next greater

any e-number,
e-number, and y is any number which lies between
them
e < y < e">
C.

If e

e"

is

is

then E(y) = e".

From

Proof.

<y<e

//

follows

that

is

to say,

Similarly

we conclude
e

and so

We

on.

< y 2 < e",

have, in general,
e

< y < e",

v

and thus

By theorem

A, E(y)

is

an e-number.

the e-number which follows

E(y) cannot be
must have

nitude,

<?

less

next

in

than

e",

Since e"

is

order of

mag
and thus we

E(y)=".
Since

is

not an e-number, simply because all

from the equation of definition

e-numbers, as follows

198

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

^ = 0^, are of the second kind, e -f- I is certainly less

than e", and thus we have the following theorem
D. If e is any e-number, then E(e + i) is the next
:

greater e-number.
To the least e-number,
greater one:

= E(e

e1

follows, then, the next

+l),

[244] to this the next greater number

generally, we have for the

(j/+ i)th e-number in order of magnitude the formula
of recursion

and so

on.

Quite

= (*-!+

(3)

But that the

I).

infinite series

by no means embraces the totality of e-numbers

results from the following theorem
:

E.

If

e,

...

e",

any

is

infinite

series

of

e-numbers such that

e<e <e".
then

Lim

e (l/)

is

&<&+<.

.,

an e-number, and, in

fact,

the

e-number which follows next

to all the numbers e

in

order of magnitude

(l/)

Proof.
Lim
v

a)

6 <">

= Lim

oo

(|0

= Lim e %
(

OF TRANSFINlfE NUMBERS
That Lini

e(l > is

199

the e-number which follows next

order of magnitude to
from the fact that Lim

in

")

results

number

of the

the numbers

all
e (l/)

the

is

e(

second number-class which follows next

to

magnitude

The

F.

all

the numbers
of

totality

number-class

forms,

order of

e-numbers

when

in

(l/)

of

arranged

the second

order of

in

magnitude, a well-ordered aggregate of the type 2

of the second number-class in its order of magnitude,
and has thus the power Aleph-one.

The totality of e-numbers of the second

number-class, when arranged in their order of magni
16, a well-ordered
tude, forms, by theorem C of
Proof.

aggregate
(4)

*0>

>

e ">

e " + l>

whose law of formation is expressed in the theorems

D and E. Now, if the index a did not successively
take all the numerical values of the second numberclass, there would be a least number a which it did
not reach.
But this would contradict the theorem
D, if a were of the first kind, and theorem E, if a
were of the second kind. Thus a takes all numerical
values of the second number-class.

we denote

If

by

2,

the type of the second number-class

the type of (4)

is

2
[245] But since w + o)

= w2 we
,

have

THE FOUNDING OF THE THEORY

200

and consequently
G.

the

If

first

any number of
or second number-class which is less than e
e is

any e-number and a

is

a<e,
then

the three equations

satisfies

+e=

ae

e,

a6

e,

=e

is the degree of a, we have a

^.a, and
also
of
we
have
because
<
a
a < e.
e,
consequently,
e
=
But the degree of e co is e; thus a has a less

If a

Proof.

degree than

by theorem

Consequently,

e.

19,

a+e

of

and thus

+ e^e.

On

we

the other hand,

19,

ae

= aco =

by formula (13) of

have,
a +e

ct>

= co =
e

e,

and thus

Finally,

paying attention to the formula (16) of

19,

H.

If a

is

= aco = coa
e

co

6.

any number of the second number-class,

the equation
at

has no other roots

greater than

= coa = co =

a.

=t

than the e-numbers which are

OF TRANSFINITE NUMBERS
Proof.

Let

/3

201

be a root of the equation

=
so that

ct=ft.

Then,

in

the

first

from this formula follows

place,

that

On

the other hand,

/?

must be of the second

Thus we have, by theorem F

ae

and consequently
co*o0

[246]

kind,

we would have

since, if not,

By theorem F

of

of

19,

oP.

= /3.
19,

co^>a

we have

/3,

and thus

/3>a
But

/3

/3.

cannot be greater than

/3

consequently

and thus
o/

Therefore

/3

is

HALLE, March

= /3.

an e-number which

1897.

is

greater than

a.

NOTES
IN a sense the most fundamental advance made

in

the theoretical arithmetic of finite and transfinite

numbers

is

the

purely

logical

definition

Whereas Cantor

number-concept.
86, 112 above) defined

(see

the

of

74,

pp.

"cardinal number" and

"ordinal type" as general concepts which

means of our mental activity, that is to

arise

by

say,

as

psychological entities, Gottlob Frege had, in his

Grundlagen der Arithmetik of 1884, defined the
" number
"
(Anzahl) of a class u as the class of all
those classes which are equivalent (in the sense of

&6 above) to u.
Frege remarked that his
" numbers " are the same as what Cantor
(see pp.

PP- 75>

40, 74, 86 above) had called "powers," and that

there was no reason for restricting "numbers" to

be finite.
Although Frege worked out,
volume (1893) of his Grundge seize der

an important part of

arithmetic,

in

the

first

AritJunetik^

with a logical

accuracy previously unknown and for years after

wards almost unknown, his ideas did not become at
all widely known until Bertrand Russell, who had
arrived independently at this logical definition of

"cardinal number," gave prominence to them

in his

NOTES

203

The two chief

Principles of Mathematics of 1903.*
reasons in favour of this definition are that it
avoids,

by a construction

of

"numbers"

out of the

fundamental entities of
there are certain

"numbers"; and

logic, the assumption that

and undefined entities called

new
that

it

allows us to deduce at

once that the class defined

the cardinal

number

not empty, so that

of u "exists" in the sense
is

defined in logic
in fact, since u is equivalent to
the
cardinal
number of u has u at least as a
itself,
:

member.
for

Russell also gave an analogous definition

ordinal types or the more general "relation

numbers. " f
An account of much that has been done

in

the

theory of aggregates since 1897 ma y be gathered

from A. Schoenflies s reports
Die Entwickelung
:

der Lehre von den Punktmannigfaltigkeiten^ Leipzig,

A second edition
1900; part ii, Leipzig, 1908.
of the first part was published at Leipzig and Berlin
in 1913, in collaboration

with H. Hahn, under the

Entwickelung
Mengenlehre und Hirer
These three books will be cited
Anivendungen.

title

der

by their respective dates of publication, and, when

references to relevant contributions not mentioned
these reports are made, full references to the
original place of publication will be given.
in

Pp. 519, 111-116.

Cf. Whitehead, Amer. Journ. of Math., vol.
For a more modern form of the doctrine, see
1902, p. 378.
Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica, vol. ii, Cambiidge.
1912, pp. 4, 13.
t Principles, pp. 262, 321 ; and Principia, vol. ii, pp. 330,
473-510.
xxiv,

NOTES

204

Leaving aside the applications of the theory of

numbers to geometry and the theory of
the
most important advances since 1897
functions,

transfinite

are as follows

(1) The proof given

independently by Ernst
Schroder (1896) and Felix Bernstein (1898) of the
theorem B on p. 91 above, without the supposition

that one of the three relations of magnitude must

hold between any two cardinal numbers (1900, pp.

16-18; 1913, pp. 34-41
1908, pp. 10-12).
;

The

giving of exactly expressed definitions

of arithmetical operations with cardinal numbers
(2)

and of proofs of the laws of arithmetic for them by

A. N. Whitehead (Amer. Journ. of Math., vol.
xxiv,
pp.

1902, pp.

117-120.

Whitehead

367-394).

A
and

Cf.

Russell, Principles,

more modern form

is

Russell

vol.

Principia,

given
ii,

in

pp.

66-186.

on the question as to whether

can
be
any aggregate
brought into the form of
a well-ordered aggregate.
This question Cantor
(3) Investigations

1900, p. 49; 1913, p. 170; and p. 63 above)

(cf.
believed could be answered in the affirmative.

The
was

postulate lying at the bottom of this theorem

brought forward in the most definite manner

by E. Zermelo and E. Schmidt in 1904, and

Zermelo afterwards gave this postulate the form of
an " axiom of selection" (1913, pp. 16, 170-184;
Whitehead and Russell have
1908, pp. 33-36).
dealt with great precision with the subject in their

Prindpia,

vol.

i,

Cambridge,

1910, pp.

500-568.

NOTKS

205

It may be remarked that Cantor, in his

proof of
theorem A on p. 105 above, and in that of theorem
C on pp. 161-162. above,* unconsciously used this
axiom of infinite selection. Also G. H. Hardy

in

1903 (1908, pp.

consciously at

22-23) used

this

axiom, un

a proof that it is possible to

of cardinal number N X in the

first, in

have an aggregate
continuum of real numbers.
But there is another and wholly different question
which crops up in attempts at a proof that any
aggregate can be well ordered.

had

Cesare Burali-Forti

1897 pointed out that the series of all ordinal

numbers, which is easily seen to be well ordered,
in

must have the greatest of all ordinal numbers as its

Yet the type of the above series of ordinal
numbers followed by its type must be a greater

type.

ordinal number, for (3+ i

Forti concluded that we

is

greater than

(3.

Burali-

must deny Cantor s funda

mental theorem in his memoir of 1897.
A different
use of an argument analogous to Burali-Forti s was

made by

Philip E. B. Jourdain in a paper written in

1903 and published

6th

in

1904 (Philosophical Magazine,

The chief interest

61-75).
that it contains a proof which is

series, vol. vii, pp.

of this paper

is

but practically identical with, that

discovered by Cantor in 1895, an d of which some

independent

of,

we have

here to prove that any enumerable aggregate of

an enumerable aggregate of the
elements last referred to. To prove that tfo- Ko^Ko, it is not enough to
prove the above theorem for particular aggregates. And in the general
case we have to pick one element out of each of an infinity of classes.
no element in each class being distinguished from the others.

Indeed,

any enumerable aggregates gives

NOTES

206
trace

is

preserved in the passage on

the remark on the theorem

109 above

p.

and

in

This

proof of Cantor s and Jourdain s consists of

In the first part it is established that
parts.

two

of

90.

p.

every cardinal number is either an Aleph or is greater

than all Alephs.
This part requires the use of
Zermelo s axiom; and Jourdain took the " proof"
of this part of the theorem directly from
Cantor
paper of 1903 referred to above.

the result required, and indeed the result

Hardy

assumed
seems very

plausible.

The second

part of the theorem consists in the

the
that
proof
supposition that a cardinal number
is greater than all Alephs is impossible.
By a slight

modification

of Burali-Forti

modification

it

is

proved

that

argument, in which
there cannot be a

greatest Aleph, the conclusion seems to follow that

no cardinal number can be other than an Aleph.
The contradiction discovered by Burali-Forti is

the best

known

contradiction

to

was

mathematicians

discovered *

but the simplest

by Russell

(Principles,

pp. 364-368, 101-107) from an application to "the

"
cardinal number of all things of Cantor s argument
Russell s
of 1892 referred to on pp. 99-100 above.
If
contradiction can be reduced to the following
is the class of all those terms x such that x is not
:

is a member of
of x^ then, if
while
is not a member of
plain that
not a member of w, it is equally plain that

member

member
*

of w.

The treatment and

if

it is

w
is

is

final solution of

This argument was discovered in 1900 (see Monist, Jan. 1912).

NOTES

207

these paradoxes, which concern the foundations of

the logical
logic and which are closely allied to

has been
"the Epimenides,"
attempted unsuccessfully by very many mathe
maticians,! and successfully by Russell (cf. Principles,

known

puzzle

PP-

5 2

3~5 28

as

Principia, vol.

on

p.

pp. 26-31, 39-90)-

i,

required (see theorem

1
08) in the proof that the two definitions

The theorem

on

121-123

pp.

187-298.

105

On

of infinity coincide.
pp.

p.

is

this

Principia, vol.
of

(4) Investigation

i,

point,

pp.

cf.

Principles,

569-666;

number-classes

in

vol.

ii,

general,

and the .arithmetic of Alephs by Jourdain in 1904

and 1908, and G. Hessenberg in 1906^ (1913,
pp. 131-136; 1908, pp. 13-14).
(5) The definition, by Felix Hausdorff in 19041907, of the product of an infinity of ordinal types
This
and hence of exponentiation by a type.
definition is analogous to Cantor s definition of

exponentiation
above.
(6)

Cf.

cardinal

for

1913,

pp.

Theorems due

to

numbers

on

p.

95

75~8o 1908, pp. 42-45.

J.
Konig (1904) on the
;

Epimenides was a Cretan who said that all Cretans were liars.
if his statement were true he was a liar.
The remark of a
man who says, " I am lying," is even more analogous to Russell s w.
t Thus Schoenflies, in his Reports of 1908 and 1913, devotes an
undue amount of space to his "solution " of the paradoxes here referred
to.
This " solution" really consists in saying that these paradoxes do
not belong to mathematics but to "philosophy." It may be remarked
that Schoenflies seems never to have grasped the meaning and extent of
/ermelo s axiom, which Russell has called the "multiplicative axiom.
Obviously

Just as in the proof that the multiplication of Ny by itself gives

the

more general theorem here considered involves the multiplicative

axiom.
Cf. Jourdain, Mess,

of Math.

(2), vol.

xxxvi,

May

1906, pp. 13-16.

NOTES

208
inequality

of certain

cardinal

numbers

of

independent generalization
with one of Cantor

together
above),

these
s

(see

by Zermelo and Jourdain

in

and the
theorems,

pp.

81-82

1908 (1908,

16-17; 1913, PP. 65-67).

(7) HausdorfPs contributions from 1906 to 1908

pp.

to the theory of
pp.

(8)

The

pp. 40-71)-

investigation

multiply ordered
in

linear ordered aggregates (1913,-

185-205; 1908,

1903, and

infinite

Brouwer

in

of

the

types of
by F. Riess

ordinal

aggregates

1913 (1913, pp. 85-87).

INDEX
Abel, Niels Henrike,

Cantor, Georg, v,

10.

Abelian functions, 10, u.

Absolute infinity, 62, 63.

46, 47,

of,

10,

26, 28,

29, 30, 32, 33 34, 35, 36,

37, 38, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47,
48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55,
56, 57, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64,
68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 76,
81, 82, 202,
77, 79, 80

Actuality of numbers, 67.

Addition of cardinal numbers, So,
91 ff
of ordinal types, 81, 119 ff.
of transfinite numbers, 63, 66,
>53ff., 175 ff., 206.

Adherences, 73.
Aggregate, definition

vi, vii, 3, 9,

13, 18, 22, 24, 25,

204, 205, 206, 208.

Dedekind axiom, 30.

Cardinal number (see also Power),
79 ff., 85 ff., 202.
97 ff.
smallest transfinite, 103 ff.
Cardinal
numbers,
operations

54, 74, 85.

of bindings, 92.
of union, 50, 91.

74,

finite,

Alembeit, Jean Lerond d

Algebraic numbers, 38 ff.
Aquinas, Thomas, 70.

4.

with, 204.

127.

series of transfinite, 109.

Cauchy, Augustin Louis,

Aristotle, 55, 70.

Arithmetic, foundations of, with

Weierstrass, 12.
with Frege and Russell, 202,
203.

2, 3, 4, 6,

8, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 22, 24.

Class of types, 114.

Closed aggregates, 132.
types, 133.

Coherences, 73.

Arzela, 73.
Associative

law with transfinite

numbers, 92, 93, 119, 121,
154- 155.

Coherent series, 129, 130.

Commutative law with transfinite
numbers,
92,
66,
93,
119 ff. 190 ff.
Condensation of singularities,
,

Baire, Rene, 73.

Bendixson, Ivar, 73.

Connected aggregates, 72.

Content of aggregates, 73.

Berkeley, George, 55.

Bernoulli, Daniel, 4.
Bernstein, Felix, 204.

Bois-Reymond, Pauldu, 22,34,51.

Bolzano, Bernard, 13,
22,41, 55,72.
Borel, Emile, 73.
Bouquet, 7.

3,

9, 48, 49.

14,

Content-less, 51.
Continuity of a function,

Continuous

Briot, 7.
Brode"n, 73.

Brou \ver, 208.

motion

I.

discon
tinuous space, 37.
Continuum, 33, 37, 41 ff., 47. 48.

17, 21,

64, 70

ff.,

in

96, 205.

Contradiction, Russell s, 206, 207.

Convergence of series, I, 15, 16,
17, 20 24
Cords, vibrating, probl-m

Burali-Forti, Cesare, 205, 206.

2 9

14

nf, 4.

INDEX

2IO

D Alembert
J.

(see

L. d

vii,

23, 41,

47, 49, 73-

Definition of aggregate, 37.

3,

of

Hardy, G. H., 205, 206.

Harnack, Axel, 51, 73.

Hessenberg, Gerhard, 207.

point-aggregates,

3ff-

3, 7, 8, 9, 17,

Hausdorff, Felix, 207. 208.

Heine, H. E., 3, 26, 69.
Helmholtz, H. von, 42, 70, 81.

Democritus, 70.
De Morgan, Augustus, 41.
Density in itself, 132.
Derivatives

Hankel, Hermann,
49, 70.

Dedekind, Richard,
.

Alembert,

).

Hobbes, Thomas,

55.

37-

Descartes, Rene, 55.

Dirichlet, Peter

Gustav Lejeune,

2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 22, 35.
Discrete aggregates, 51.
Distributive law with transfinite

Imaginaries, 6.
Induction, mathematical, 207.
Infinite, definition of, 41, 61, 62.

Infinitesimals, 64, 81.

Infinity,

numbers, 66, 93, 121, 155.

Enumerability, 32, 38ff.,47, 50

ff.,

62.

proper and improper, 55,

79-

Riemann
Integrability,
ditions of, 8.

con

Integrable aggregates, 51.

Inverse types, 114.

Enumeral, 52, 62.

Irrational numbers, 3, 14
analogy of transfinite

Epicurus, 70.

Epimenides, 207.
Equivalence of aggregates,
75, 86 ff.

40,

10.

Euler, Leonhard, 4, 5, 9,
Everywhere-dense aggregates, 33,

ff.

26

ff.

numbers

with, 77 ff.
Isolated aggregate, 49.
point, 30.

of
transfinite
Exponentiation
numbers, 82, 94 ff., 207.

Jacobi, C. G. J., 10.

Jordan, Camille, 73.
Jourdain, Philip E. B., 4, 6, 20,
32, 52, 205, 206, 207, 208.

Fontenelle, 118.

Killing,

35, 37, 123.

types, 133.

Formalism in mathematics,
Fourier, Jean

70, 81.

Baptiste Joseph,

I,

2, 5, 6, 8, 24.

Freedom

in mathematics, 67

6,

7,

10,

n,

12,

13,

Kummer,
2,

22,

8.

E. E.

69.

Lagrange, J. L., 5, 14.

Leibniz, G. W. von, 55.
Leucippus, 70.

73arbitrary, 4, 6, 34.

theory of real, 2, 8, 9, 73*

Fundamental series, 26, 128

1 1

of a point-aggregate, 32.
Kirchhoff, G.,69.
Konig, Julius, 207.

Kronecker, L., 70, 81.

ff.

Frege, Gottlob, 23, 70, 202.

Function, conception of, I.
Functions, theory of analytic,

W.,

Kind

Limitation, principle of, 60.

Limiting element of an aggregate,
I

ff.

3I

Limit-point, 30.

Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 6, 12, 14.

Generation, principles of, 56, 57.

Limits with transfinite numbers,

77 ff., 131 ff., 58 ff.

Gudermann,

Liouville, J., 40.

Lipschitz, R., 6.

10.

Hahn, H., 203.

Haller, Albrecht von, 62.

Locke,

J., 55.

Lucretius, 70.

INDEX
Mach, Ernst,

69.

Maximum

of a function, 22.
Mittag-LetHer, Gosta, 11.
Mutliplicatibn of cardinal num
bers, 80, 91 ff.
of ordinal types 81. 119 ff, 154.
of transfinite numbers, 63, 64,

21

Riess, F., 208.

Russell, Bertrand, 20, 23, 53, 202,

203, 204, 206, 207.

Schepp, A., 117.

Schmidt, E., 204.
Schoenflies, A., 73, 203, 207.

Schwarz,

66, i;6ff.

8, 12.

Second

Newton, Sir Isaac, 15.

Nominalism, Cantor s, 69, 70.
Number-concept, logical definition

number-class, cardinal
of, 169 ff.
epsilon-numbers of the, 195 ff.
exponentiation in, 178 ff.

number

normal form of numbers

of, 202, 203.

183

number

Ordinal

also

(see

Enumeral), 75, 151 ff.

numbers, finite, 113, 158, 159.
type, 75, 79 ff, noff.
type of aggregate of rational
numbers, 122 ff., 202.
types of multiply ordered aggre
gates, 81, 208.
d, W. F., 73.

Peano, G., 23.

of,

ff.

numbers
Segment of

of,

60

ff.

60, 103,
141 ff.
Selections, 204 ff.
Similarity, 76, 112 ff.
Species of a point-aggregate, 31.
Spinoza, B. 55.
Steiner, J., 40.
Stolz, O., 17, 73Subtraction of transfmite numbers,
series,

66, 155, 156.

Perfect aggregates, 72, 132.

types, 133.

Philosophical revolution brought

about

by Cantor

work,

vi.

Physical conceptions and

mathematics,

modern

4,

32,

36,

50 ff., 52 ff.
Trigonometrical developments,
3, 4, 5. 6, 7,

8,24f.,

2,

31.

I.

Point-aggregates, Cantor
work on, v, vi.
theory of, 3, 20 ff., 30

early

ff.,

73Potential, theory of, 7.

Power, second, 64 ff. 169 ff.
of an aggregate, 32, 37,
52 ff., 60, 62.

Prime numbers, transfmite,

51.

Veronese, G., 117, 118.

Weierstrass, Karl,
40,

64, 66.

Principal element of an aggregate,

13 1
Puiseux, V., 7.
-

Reducible aggregates. 71.

Relation numbers, 203.
Riemann, G. F. B., 3, 7, 8,

Unextended aggregates,
Upper limit, 21.

64,

12, 25, 42.

Teubner, B. G., vii.

Transfmite numbers,

9, 10,

n,

vi, vii, 2, 3, 10,

12, 13, 14,

17, 18, 19,

20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30,
48.

Well-ordered aggregates, 60, 61,

75 ff., 137 ff.
Well-ordering, 204 ff.
Whitehead, A. N., 203, 204.

Zeno, 15.
Zermelo, E., 204, 206, 207, 208.
Zermelo s axiom, 204 ff.

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with departments of knowledge with which the

often
familiar.
He does not yet, perhaps, feel
is
more
student
with
the
familiar
exceedingly specialised aims and
quite
deal

methods of much of the present-day science, and

the need of knowing something of the often more
that were the fathers and grandfathers, so to
views
general
Then there is always
views we hold to-day.
those
of
speak,
a possibility that the masters may suggest to us some new

precise

does

feel

OF THE OPEN COURT COMPANY

and

fruitful

path

that

of investigation

we would otherwise

And

the false and

again, even the errors
untenable hypotheses and so on in the older works stand
out more clearly to the student of to-day, and both prompt

have overlooked.

on modern theories and afford a valuable training

such errors. This

reflection

in sharpness of sight for the detection of

is

perhaps the most valuable aid that history can give to

research.

But we must not neglect the fact that probably because

we have been brought up in surroundings which are almost
wholly due to the conquests made by science and philosophy,
and possibly because we ourselves are so formed physio
logically as to

than

men

be better able to carry out

of past

scientific thinking

some considerations which

generations

were of the greatest importance in the past are comparatively

unimportant at the present time. This is the case with very

many experimental

We

researches.

have become so used

to thinking in terms of certain refinements of apparatus,

and

apparatus is so easily obtainable, that the description of

cruder apparatus is often not only wearisome but really of
no advantage. Of course, this does not apply to the deeply

this

means whereby, for example, Galileo measured

time without the use of those clocks which were only made

interesting

possible by his dynamical results.

When we have once arrived at a scientific proof, the way in

which other people arrived at it loses much of its importance.
We may, and probably do, feel a great interest in such ques
tions,

but the fact that the connections of truths are independ

ent of
to

how people

recognise them is strongly brought home

In a science we are primarily concerned with the

us.

its subject-matter
not with the history of how
discovered
some
of
these
truths.
people
History itself is a
but
in
we
not
are
science,
history
primarily concerned with

truths about

historians

there

is

and how they wrote their histories. But though

no necessary connection between the fact that A

A SELECTION FROM THE PUBLICATIONS

12

some person C found, by the

the
implies B,
knowledge of the fact last
be very often indispensable for us human
beings in rising to the discovery by ourselves of the thing C
The history of a science has a heuristic value
discovered.

B and

implies

the fact that

process D, that
named seems to

This heuristic value

for the student of that science.

is

partly

and suggestions contained in,

works of the masters
and this stimulus and

due

to the stimulus afforded by,

the

original

suggestiveness hardly every finds its way into text books.

Secondly, there are often unworked mines of definite sugges
for new researches in the
tion
by analogy, for example

Thirdly, science
original memoirs of the founders of* science.
often returns in its own progress to older points of view.

Fourthly, historical studies have been shown, by many brilliant

and criticism
works, to afford a valuable basis for criticism
that

is

important for new transformations of science.

Lastly,

students will be relieved and stimulated to find that the great

All mis
discoverers at first made mistakes like themselves.
takes

are

not due

to

stupidity,

and mistakes often

are as

new
important as correctnesses, because they give
the
For this last reason,
considerations.
early manuscripts of
for
worth
Leibniz,
study by beginners in
example, are well
rise

to

the calculus.

In

this

series

of

scientific

classics

the

requirements of

As to the form of
students and teachers are kept in mind.
on
are
these little volumes
good paper, and
printed
they
with margins so wide that notes can be conveniently written
:

upon them by the

students.

They

are

produced

in

such a

go easily into an outside pocket, and are

they
in cloth which is durable, and pleasant to the hand

size that

will

bound
and eye.

The translations are carefully made, thoroughly revised,

Of course, a note to this
and the notation modernised.
effect is added when necessary, because the historical interest
must be kept in view. Any figures are included in the text

OF THE OPEN COURT COMPANY

13

which explain difficult passages or give references

and later important work on the same subject are
added by competent authorities, and it is hoped that by this
Lastly, notes

to earlier

the value of the scientific classics will

Where

be greatly increased.

seems advisable, the places where the pages of the

original publication begin and end are indicated, so that refer
ences to the originals may easily be verified in these editions.
it

The

prices have

been kept as low as

possible, but the

first

consideration has been serviceability and goodness of material.

The series will include memoirs from pure mathematics

and

all

feature

and philosophy; and a special

be the inclusion of quite modern researches.
the authors whose work will be published are
Maxwell,
the natural sciences

will

Among

Helmholtz, Gauss, Volta,

Cauchy,

Dirchlet,

Leibniz,

Descartes,,

Ohm,

Riemann,
Bolzano,

Oersted, KirchhofT, Carnot,

Weierstrass,

Lagrange,

Cantor,

Laplace,

Newton,
Lavoisier,

Mayer, Joule, Neumann, Zeno, Voltaire, Diderot, and

many

others.

The
No.

following volumes have been already published

i. Contributions to the Founding of the

Theory
of Transfinite Numbers.
By GEORG CANTOR.
Translated, and provided with an Introduction and Notes,
by PHILIP E. B. JOURDAIN, M.A. Cloth. 35. 6d. net.

This volume contains a translation of the two very important memoirs

Georg Cantor on transfinite numbers which appeared in 1895 and 1897.
These memoirs are the final and logically purified statement of many of
the most important results of the long series of memoirs begun by Cantor
in 1870.
A very full historical account of this work and the work of others
which led up to it is given in the introduction, and the notes at the end
contain indications of the progress made in the theory of transfinite
numbers since 1897. This book is a companion volume to Dedekind s
Msiays, of which a translation has been issued by the present publishers.
of

No.

Selections from the Scottish Philosophy of

Sense. Edited by G. A. JOHNSTON, M.A.,
Lecturer in Philosophy at Glasgow University.
Cloth.
2.

Common

35. 6d. net.

14

THE OPEN COURT PUBLICATIONS

This volume consists of extracts from the works of the chief representa
Common Sense. The selections have
Reid s Inquiry into the Human Mind
on the Principles of Common Sense, and Essays ; but these have been
supplemented by important or typical passages from Stewart, Beattie, and
Most of the selections are metaphysical or psychological, but
Ferguson.
ethical doctrines have not been neglected.
In the introduction an attempt
has been made to estimate Reid s historical importance in connection with
the Locke-Berkeley-Hume development of thought, and in relation to
Kant s "answer to Hume." The Scottish Philosophy contains much that
is interesting and valuable, but it has not been readily accessible to the.
student, partly because the writings of its representatives are prolix to a
These
degree, and partly because their books are not easily obtainable.
And
facts constitute the sufficient justification of such a volume as this.
at a time when much interest is being taken in New Realism, it may not
be out of place that some attention should be paid to the Natural Realism
tives pf the Scottish Philosophy of
been made, for the most part, from

of the Scottish Philosophy.

THE OPEN COURT COMPANY,

149 Strand, London,

W.C.

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