SHAHEED BHAGAT SINGH COLLEGE

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI

Session: (2024-2025)

B.COM (HONOURS)
Semester 5

Submitted by:
Name: Anurag Singla
Roll no.: 2022/0188
Section: A (P-1)
Subject: IT Skills & Data Analysis

Submitted To:
Prof. Shveta G. Kuckreja
 Functions and their graphical representation

A function is a relation in which each element of the input is associated with exactly one
element of the output 1 input only has 1 output

1) f(x)=5-5/2x linear function

x y 20

-4 15 15
-3 12.5
-2 10 10
-1 7.5

y axis
5
0 5
1 2.5 0
2 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-5
3 -2.5
4 -5 -10
x axis

cubic function
2) f(x)=x^3-9x
40
x y
30
-4 -28
-3 0 20
-2 10 10
-1 8
Y Axis

0
0 0 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
1 -8 -10
2 -10 -20
3 0 -30
4 28
-40
X Axis

quadratic equation
3) f(x)=x^2-8x 60
x y 50
-4 48
40
-3 33
-2 20 30
Y Axis

-1 9 20
0 0
1 -7 10

2 -12 0
3 -15 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
-10
4 -16
-20
X Axis
 Vertical line test :-

This is a visual way to determine if a curve is a graph or function or not. In this method,
a single vertical line is drawn parallel to the Y axis for any chosen value of X. If the
vertical line you drew intersects the graph more than once for any value of X, then the
graph is not a graph of the function.

4) f(x)=x^2 20
x y 18
-4 16 16
-3 9
14
-2 4
12
-1 1
Y Axis

10
0 0
8
1 1
2 4 6

3 9 4
4 16 2
0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
X Axis

Transformation

Translation

5) Vertical Translation

f(x) x^2 x^2+100 x^2-100

x y1 y2 y3
-4 -64 36 -164
-3 -27 73 -127
-2 -8 92 -108
-1 -1 99 -101
0 0 100 -100
1 1 101 -99
2 8 108 -92
3 27 127 -73
4 64 164 -36
 Vertical Translation
200
150
100
Y Axis 50
0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-50
-100
-150
-200
X Axis

y1 y2 y3

Horizontal Translation

6) f(x) x^2 (x+2)^2 (x-2)^2

x y1 y2 y3
-9 81 49 121
-8 64 36 100
-7 49 25 81
-6 36 16 64
-5 25 9 49
-4 16 4 36
-3 9 1 25
-2 4 0 16
-1 1 1 9
0 0 4 4
1 1 9 1
2 4 16 0
3 9 25 1
4 16 36 4
5 25 49 9
6 36 64 16
7 49 81 25
8 64 100 36
9 81 121 49
 Horizontal Translation
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

y1 y2 y3

Reflection

Vertical Reflection f(x) » [-f(x)]

Horizontal Reflection f(x) » f(-x)
Reflection on a line f(x) » f'(x)

Vertical Reflection

7) Let, f(x)=x^2
x Original Reflection
f(x) [-f(x)]
-3 9 -9
-2 4 -4
-1 1 -1
0 0 0
1 1 -1
2 4 -4

Vertical Reflection
10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-5

-10

Original Reflection
 Horizontal Reflection

8) Let,f(x)=(x-2)^2
x original reflection
x f(x) f(-x)
-3 25 1
-2 16 0
-1 9 1
0 4 4
1 1 9
2 0 16
3 1 25

Horizontal Reflection
30

25

20

15

10

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

original reflection

parallel and perpendicular line

Parallel line

9) y1=x^2 y2=x^2+8

x y1 y2
0 0 8
1 1 9
2 4 12
3 9 17
4 16 24
5 25 33
 Parallel Line
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y1 y2

Perpendicular Line

10) y1=2x-1 y2=(-x/2)-1

x y1 y2
-1 -3 -0.5
0 -1 -1
1 1 -1.5
2 3 -2
3 5 -2.5
4 7 -3
8
perpendicular line

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-2

y1 y2
-4
11) Draw a line parallel to 2x+4 passing through (5,8)

f(x)=2x+4
so, Equation of parallel line passing(5,8) is 8=2(5)+b
then, b=-2
x y y(parallel)
0 4 -2
1 6 0
2 8 2
3 10 4
4 12 6
5 14 8

Parallel line passing through (5,8)

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

-4

y y(parallel)

Exponential and logarithmic Function

Exponential function

12) y1=5^x y2=4^x

x y1 y2
-3 0.008 0.015625
-2 0.04 0.0625
-1 0.2 0.25
0 1 1
1 5 4
2 25 16
3 125 64
 Exponential function
140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

y1 y2

Logarithmic function

13) x log10 log5 log(e) log3 log2

0.4 -0.39794 -0.56932 -0.91629 -0.83404 -1.32193
0.7 -0.154902 -0.22161 -0.35667 -0.32466 -0.51457
1 0 0 0 0 0
2 0.30103 0.430677 0.693147 0.63093 1
3 0.477121 0.682606 1.098612 1 1.584963
4 0.60206 0.861353 1.386294 1.26186 2
5 0.69897 1 1.609438 1.464974 2.321928
6 0.778151 1.113283 1.791759 1.63093 2.584963
10 1 1.430677 2.302585 2.095903 3.321928

Logarithmic Function
4

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
-1

-2

log10 log5 log(e) log3 log2

 Slope of the Curve (graph)

14) Locate two points on the graph, choosing points whose coordinates are integers (0,
−3) and (5,1)

x1 x2 y1 y2
0 5 -3 1

Slope= y2-y1 i.e. 0.8

x2-x1
6

so, f(x)=0.8x 5
x f(x) 4
1 0.8
Y Axis

3
2 1.6
3 2.4 2
4 3.2
1
6 4.8
7 5.6 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
X Axis

15) Let's write the equation 3x + 2y = −4

2y=-4-3x

y=-4/2-3x/2

y=-3/2x-2 Y=mx+b

m=-3/2 b=-2

2
x y
0
-2 1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-1 -0.5 -2
0 -2
1 -3.5 -4
2 -5
3 -6.5 -6
4 -8
-8
5 -9.5
-10

-12
 Correlation

16) R&D Annual

Years XY X² Y²
Exps. (X) Profit (Y)
1995 5 31 155 25 961
1994 11 40 440 121 1600
1993 4 30 120 16 900
1992 5 34 170 25 1156
1991 3 25 75 9 625
1990 2 20 40 4 400
30 180 1000 200 5642

x̄ 5 ȳ 30

b= 2 a= 20

r² = (a∑Y+b∑XY-n*ȳ²)/∑y²-n*ȳ²)

r² = 0.826446
where, r = coefficient of correlation
r= 0.909091

17) Calculation of Inputs Using the Least Square Method

Trucks Age (x) Repair Expense (y) XY X^2

101 5 7 35 25
102 3 7 21 9
103 3 6 18 9
104 1 4 4 1
Total 12 24 78 44

x̄ ∑X/n
3

ȳ ∑Y/n
6

b ∑XY-nxȳ̄/∑X^2-nx^̄2
(slope of the line) 0.75

a ȳ-bx̄
(y-intercept) 3.75
 Ŷ a+bX
3.75+0.75X

18) Year (n = 6) R&D Expenditures (X) Profits (Y) XY X^2

1995 5 31 155 25
1994 11 40 440 121
1993 4 30 120 16
1992 5 34 170 25
1991 3 25 75 9
1990 2 20 40 4
Total 30 180 1000 200

x̄ ∑X/n ȳ ∑Y/n
5 30

b ∑XY-nxȳ̄/∑X^2-nx^̄2
2

a ȳ-bx̄
20

Ŷ a+bX
20+2X

19) Shortcut Method for Standard Error of Estimate

Question Cost accountants often estimate overhead based on the level of production. At the
Standard Knitting Co., they have collected information on overhead expenses and
units produced at different plants, and want to estimate a regression equation to
predict future overhead

Overheads 191 170 272 155 280 173 234

Units 40 42 53 35 56 39 48

Overheads 116 153 178

Units 30 37 40

(a) Develop the regression equation for the costaccounts

(b) Predict overhead when 50 units are produced
(c) Calculate standard error of estimate
 Units (x) Overheads (y) XY X^2 Y^2
40 191 7640 1600 36481
42 170 7140 1764 28900
53 272 14416 2809 73984
35 155 5425 1225 24025
56 280 15680 3136 78400
39 173 6747 1521 29929
48 234 11232 2304 54756
30 116 3480 900 13456
37 153 5661 1369 23409
40 178 7120 1600 31684
420 1922 84541 18228 395024

(a) x̄ 42 (b) Ŷ 244.1319

ȳ 192.2
b 6.491497 (c) Se (√∑Y^2-a∑Y-b∑XY)/(n-2)
a -80.4429 10.23204209
Ŷ -80.443+6.49149*X

20) Regression

X 13 16 14 11 17 9 13
Y 6.2 8.6 7.2 4.5 9 3.5 6.5

X 17 18 12
Y 9.3 9.5 5.7

a) 10.0
X Y
9.0 9 3.5
8.0 11 4.5
12 5.7
7.0 13 6.2
13 6.5
6.0
14 7.2
Y Axis

5.0 16 8.6
17 9
4.0
17 9.3
3.0 18 9.5

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
X Axis
b) Develop the estimation equation that best describes the data.
X Y XY x^2
13 6.2 80.6 169
16 8.6 137.6 256
14 7.2 100.8 196
11 4.5 49.5 121
17 9 153 289
9 3.5 31.5 81
13 6.5 84.5 169
17 9.3 158.1 289
18 9.5 171 324
12 5.7 68.4 144
140 70 1035 2038

X¯ 14
y̅ 7
Y^=-2.8718+0.7051X
b 0.705128
a -2.871795

c) Predict Y for X = 10, 15, 20

X= 10 Y^=-2.8718 + 0.7051(10) 4.179487

X= 15 Y^=-2.8718 + 0.7051(15) 7.70513
X=20 Y^=-2.8718 + 0.7051(20) 11.2308

Multiple Regression

21) Y X1 X2 X1*Y X1*X2 (X1)² (X2)² X2*Y

29 45 16 1305 720 2025 256 464
24 42 14 1008 588 1764 196 336
27 44 15 1188 660 1936 225 405
25 45 13 1125 585 2025 169 325
26 43 13 1118 559 1849 169 338
28 46 14 1288 644 2116 196 392
30 44 16 1320 704 1936 256 480
28 45 16 1260 720 2025 256 448
28 44 15 1232 660 1936 225 420
27 43 15 1161 645 1849 225 405
272 441 147 12005 6485 19461 2173 4013

272=10*a + 441*b1 + 147*b2

12005=441*a + 19461*b1 + 6485*b2
4013=147*a + 6485*b1 + 2173*b2

a= -13.828 b1= 0.564 b2= 1.099

Y^= -13.828 + 0.564*X1 + 1.099*X2