ENGLISH NOTES

GRAMMAR
Word Formation: Building New Words
Word formation is the process of creating new words in a language. It's how our vocabulary
grows and evolves over time. There are several key methods used to form new words:

Types of Word Formation

1. Affixation:
o Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., unhappy, prepaid).
o Suffixes: Added to the end of a word (e.g., careful, happiness).
2. Compounding: Combining two or more words to create a new one (e.g., bedroom,
laptop, blackboard).
3. Conversion: Changing the part of speech of a word without altering its form (e.g., run as
a verb and run as a noun).
4. Clipping: Shortening a word (e.g., phone from telephone, gym from gymnasium).
5. Blending: Combining parts of two or more words (e.g., brunch from breakfast and lunch,
smog from smoke and fog).
6. Acronyms: Forming a word from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., NASA from National
Aeronautics and Space Administration).
7. Backformation: Creating a new word by removing a real or imagined affix from an
existing word (e.g., edit from editor, laze from lazy).

Examples of Word Formation

Process Example
Affixation unhappy, careful, preview
Compounding bedroom, laptop, blackboard
Conversion run (verb), run (noun), email (noun), email (verb)
Clipping phone, gym, ad
Blending brunch, smog, motel
Acronym NASA, LASER, radar
Backformation edit,laze, babysit

Word Formation: Building New Words

Word formation is the process of creating new words in a language. It's how our vocabulary
grows and evolves over time. There are several key methods used to form new words:
Types of Word Formation

1. Affixation:
o Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., unhappy, prepaid).
o Suffixes: Added to the end of a word (e.g., careful, happiness).
2. Compounding: Combining two or more words to create a new one (e.g., bedroom,
laptop, blackboard).
3. Conversion: Changing the part of speech of a word without altering its form (e.g., run as
a verb and run as a noun).
4. Clipping: Shortening a word (e.g., phone from telephone, gym from gymnasium).
5. Blending: Combining parts of two or more words (e.g., brunch from breakfast and lunch,
smog from smoke and fog).
6. Acronyms: Forming a word from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., NASA from National
Aeronautics and Space Administration).
7. Backformation: Creating a new word by removing a real or imagined affix from an
existing word (e.g., edit from editor, laze from lazy).

Examples of Word Formation

Process Example
Affixation unhappy, careful, preview
Compounding bedroom, laptop, blackboard
Conversion run (verb), run (noun), email (noun), email (verb)
Clipping phone, gym, ad
Blending brunch, smog, motel
Acronym NASA, LASER, radar
Backformation edit,laze, babysit

Parts of Speech
Parts of speech are categories of words based on their function in a sentence. Understanding
them is essential for effective communication and grammar.

The Eight Main Parts of Speech

1. Noun: A person, place, thing, or idea.

o Examples: dog, school, happiness, London
2. Pronoun: Replaces a noun.
o Examples: he, she, it, they, we
3. Verb: Shows action or state of being.
o Examples: run, is, become, think
4. Adjective: Describes a noun or pronoun.
o Examples: happy, big, red, beautiful
 5. Adverb: Describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
o Examples: quickly, very, extremely, now
6. Preposition: Shows the relationship between words.
o Examples: in, on, at, with, for
7. Conjunction: Joins words, phrases, or clauses.
o Examples: and, but, or, so, because
8. Interjection: Expresses strong emotion.
o Examples: Wow!, Ouch!, Hey!

Example Sentence

 The (article) quick (adjective) brown (adjective) fox (noun) jumps (verb) over

(preposition) the (article) lazy (adjective) dog (noun)

Tenses: Timing Your Words

Tenses are verb forms that indicate when an action takes place. They are crucial for effective
communication as they help to convey the precise timing of events.

The Three Main Tenses

1. Past Tense: Refers to actions that happened in the past.

o Examples: I walked to the store yesterday.
o Common forms: simple past, past continuous, past perfect, past perfect
continuous.
2. Present Tense: Refers to actions happening now or habitual actions.
o Examples: She is studying now. He plays soccer every weekend.
o Common forms: simple present, present continuous, present perfect, present
perfect continuous.
3. Future Tense: Refers to actions that will happen in the future.
o Examples: They will visit tomorrow. I will be working late tonight.
o Common forms: simple future, future continuous, future perfect, future perfect
continuous

Common Errors in English

English, with its many nuances and exceptions, can be tricky to master. Here are some of the
most common errors:

Grammar Mistakes

 Subject-verb agreement: Ensuring the verb matches the subject in number (singular or
plural).
o Incorrect: They is going to the store.
 o Correct: They are going to the store.
 Tense consistency: Maintaining the same tense throughout a sentence or paragraph
unless there's a clear reason to change.
o Incorrect: I walked to the store, and then I will buy milk.
o Correct: I walked to the store, and then I bought milk.
 Pronoun agreement: Making sure pronouns match the nouns they refer to in gender and
number.
o Incorrect: Everyone should bring their own lunch.
o Correct: Everyone should bring his or her own lunch.
 Preposition errors: Using the correct preposition in different contexts.
o Incorrect: I'm interested in to learn more.
o Correct: I'm interested in learning more.

Common Word Confusions

 There, their, they're:

o There: refers to a place
o Their: possessive form of "they"
o They're: contraction of "they are"
 Your, you're:
o Your: possessive form of "you"
o You're: contraction of "you are"
 Its, it's:
o Its: possessive form of "it"
o It's: contraction of "it is
Common Errors in English
English, with its many nuances and exceptions, can be tricky to master. Here are some of the
most common errors:

Grammar Mistakes

 Subject-verb agreement: Ensuring the verb matches the subject in number (singular or
plural).
o Incorrect: They is going to the store.
o Correct: They are going to the store.
  Tense consistency: Maintaining the same tense throughout a sentence or paragraph
unless there's a clear reason to change.
o Incorrect: I walked to the store, and then I will buy milk.
o Correct: I walked to the store, and then I bought milk.
 Pronoun agreement: Making sure pronouns match the nouns they refer to in gender and
number.
o Incorrect: Everyone should bring their own lunch.
o Correct: Everyone should bring his or her own lunch.
 Preposition errors: Using the correct preposition in different contexts.
o Incorrect: I'm interested in to learn more.
o Correct: I'm interested in learning more.

Common Word Confusions

 There, their, they're:

o There: refers to a place
o Their: possessive form of "they"
o They're: contraction of "they are"
 Your, you're:
o Your: possessive form of "you"
o You're: contraction of "you are"
 Its, it's:
o Its: possessive form of "it"
o It's: contraction of "it is

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct Speech

Direct speech reports the exact words someone said. It's usually enclosed in quotation
marks.Example: She said, "I am tired."

Indirect Speech

Indirect speech reports what someone said without using the exact words.Example: She said that
she was tired.

Changes When Converting to Indirect Speech

When converting direct speech to indirect speech, several changes often occur:

 Tense changes: The verb tense usually moves one step back in time.
o Direct: "I am going to the store."
o Indirect: He said that he was going to the store.
 Pronoun changes: Pronouns might change to reflect the speaker's perspective.
 o Direct: "You are clever."
o Indirect: He said that I was clever.
 Time and place references: Words like "now," "here," "tomorrow," etc., might change
to "then," "there," "the next day," etc.
o Direct: "I will come tomorrow."
o Indirect: He said that he would come the next day.
 Question forms: Questions become statements.
o Direct: "Where are you going?"
o Indirect: He asked where I was going.
 Commands and requests: The verb "said" often changes to "told" or "asked."
o Direct: "Close the door," she said.
o Indirect: She told me to close the door.

Active and Passive Voice

Active Voice

In the active voice, the subject performs the action. This is generally the preferred voice as it is
clearer and more direct.

Example: The cat chased the mouse.Subject: The cat Verb: chased Object: the mouse

Passive Voice

In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. It's often used when the doer of the action is
unknown, unimportant, or when you want to emphasize the receiver of the action.

Example: The mouse was chased by the cat.Subject: The mouse Verb: was chased By-phrase: by
the cat

How to Convert from Active to Passive

To convert from active to passive voice:

1. Make the object of the active sentence the subject of the passive sentence.
2. Use the appropriate form of "be" (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) as the main verb.
3. Use the past participle of the main verb.
4. If desired, add a "by" phrase to indicate the doer of the action.

Example:

 Active: The teacher praised the students.

 Passive: The students were praised by the teacher.
Note: Overusing the passive voice can make your writing dull and less engaging. It's generally
better to use the active voice unless there's a specific reason to use the passive.

TOPIC 2: VOCABULARY
Terms and Expressions in Science and Technology
The world of science and technology is vast and constantly evolving, with new terms and
expressions emerging all the time. Here are some common ones across various fields:

General Scientific Terms

 Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for a phenomenon.

 Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.
 Experiment: A scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or
demonstrate a known fact.
 Data: Collected facts and statistics used as a basis for reasoning or calculation.
 Analysis: Detailed examination of the elements or structure of something.
 Conclusion: A judgment or decision reached after an investigation.

Technology-Related Terms

 Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure for solving a problem.

 Artificial intelligence (AI): Simulation of human intelligence in machines.
 Machine learning: A subset of AI that allows systems to learn and improve from
experience without being explicitly programmed.
 Data mining: Process of discovering patterns in large data sets.
 Cybersecurity: Protecting computer systems and networks from digital attacks.
 Blockchain: A decentralized and secure digital ledger.

Specific Field Examples

 Biology: DNA, RNA, mitosis, meiosis, ecosystem, biodiversity.

 Physics: Force, energy, velocity, acceleration, gravity, quantum mechanics.
 Chemistry: Element, compound, molecule, atom, reaction, solution.
 Computer Science: Software, hardware, coding, programming, database, interface.

Terms and Expressions in Commerce and Industry

The world of commerce and industry is filled with its own unique language. Here are some
common terms and expressions:

General Business Terms

  Market share: The percentage of a market that a company controls.
 Revenue: The income generated from a business's normal activities.
 Profit: The amount of money left over after expenses are deducted from revenue.
 Cost of goods sold (COGS): The direct costs involved in producing a product.
 Overhead: The ongoing expenses of operating a business.
 Supply chain: The network of individuals, organizations, resources, activities,
information, and technology involved in the creation and sale of a product.
 Brand: A name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that identifies one seller's product
or service as distinct from those of other sellers.

Financial Terms

 Budget: A financial plan that allocates resources for specific activities or goals.
 Investment: The act of putting money into something with the expectation of profit.
 Return on investment (ROI): The benefit to an investor resulting from an investment of
money.
 Cash flow: The net amount of cash and cash equivalents being transferred into and out of
a business.
 Debt: Money owed by a person or organization.

Marketing and Sales Terms

 Target market: The specific group of consumers at which a product or service is aimed.
 Branding: The process of creating a strong and positive image for a company or product.
 Customer relationship management (CRM): A strategy for managing and analyzing
customer interactions and data to improve customer satisfaction and loyalty.
 Sales funnel: A visual representation of the customer journey, from awareness to
purchase.
 E-commerce: The buying and selling of goods and services over the internet.

Human Resources Terms

 Recruitment: The process of finding and hiring qualified people to fill job vacancies.
 Training: The process of teaching employees the skills and knowledge they need to
perform their jobs effectively.
 Performance appraisal: The evaluation of an employee's job performance.
 Compensation: The total package of rewards provided to employees in exchange for
their work.
 Benefits: Additional forms of compensation provided to employees beyond their base
salary

Abbreviations in Technical Areas

Technical fields are notorious for their use of abbreviations. This is due to the need for concise
communication and to represent complex terms efficiently.
Common Abbreviations in Technical Fields

Here are some common abbreviations across various technical areas:

Information Technology (IT)

 Hardware: CPU, RAM, ROM, GPU, HDD, SSD

 Software: OS, GUI, CLI, API, SDK, IDE
 Networking: LAN, WAN, WLAN, IP, TCP/IP, DNS, HTTP, HTTPS

Engineering

 General Engineering: CAD, CAM, CNC, PLC, HVAC

 Electrical Engineering: AC, DC, Ohm, Volt, Ampere, Watt, Hz
 Mechanical Engineering: MPa, psi, rpm, HP, BTU

Science

 Physics: m/s, kg, N, J, W

 Chemistry: H2O, CO2, NaCl, pH
 Biology: DNA, RNA, ATP, PCR

Mathematics

 General Math: sin, cos, tan, log, ln

 Statistics: SD, mean, median, mode, p-value

Tips for Using Technical Abbreviations

 Context: Ensure the abbreviation is clear within the context.

 Consistency: Use the same abbreviation throughout a document.
 Definition: If the abbreviation is less common, define it when first used.
 Overuse: Avoid excessive use of abbreviations as it can hinder readability.

Abbreviations in Business Fields

The business world is replete with abbreviations, used to streamline communication and
documentation. Here are some common ones:

General Business Abbreviations

 CEO: Chief Executive Officer

 CFO: Chief Financial Officer
 COO: Chief Operating Officer
 HR: Human Resources
  R&D: Research and Development
 KPI: Key Performance Indicator
 ROI: Return on Investment
 CRM: Customer Relationship Management
 ERP: Enterprise Resource Planning
 SCM: Supply Chain Management

Finance and Accounting

 CPA: Certified Public Accountant

 IPO: Initial Public Offering
 P&L: Profit and Loss
 ROI: Return on Investment
 EBITDA: Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization
 EPS: Earnings Per Share

Marketing and Sales

 B2B: Business-to-Business
 B2C: Business-to-Consumer
 CRM: Customer Relationship Management
 SEO: Search Engine Optimization
 PPC: Pay-Per-Click
 CTA: Call to Action

Other Business Areas

 IT: Information Technology

 QA: Quality Assurance
 QC: Quality Control
 OEM: Original Equipment Manufacturer
 ODM: Original Design Manufacturer

diomatic and Figurative Expressions

Idioms

Idioms are phrases whose meaning cannot be deduced from the individual words. They are often
culturally specific and add color and depth to language.

 Example: "It's raining cats and dogs" doesn't literally mean animals are falling from the
sky; it means it's raining heavily.

Figurative Language
Figurative language uses words or expressions with a non-literal meaning to create vivid images
or comparisons.

 Simile: A comparison using "like" or "as."

o Example: "She is as brave as a lion."
 Metaphor: A direct comparison without using "like" or "as."
o Example: "He is a night owl."
 Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things.
o Example: "The wind whispered through the trees."
 Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis.
o Example: "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse."
 Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds.
o Example: "The cat went meow."

Courtesy: The Language of Kindness

Courtesy is the practice of showing politeness, respect, and consideration for others. It's the
lubricant of social interactions, making our world a more pleasant place.

Key aspects of courtesy:

 Respect: Valuing others and their feelings.

 Consideration: Thinking about the impact of your actions on others.
 Politeness: Using kind words and actions.
 Empathy: Understanding and sharing the feelings of others.

Examples of courtesy:

 Holding a door open for someone.

 Saying "please" and "thank you."
 Listening attentively to others.
 Respecting different opinions.
 Being punctual.

The importance of courtesy:

 Builds relationships: Courtesy strengthens bonds between people.

 Creates a positive atmosphere: A courteous environment is more enjoyable for
everyone.
 Resolves conflicts: Courtesy can help prevent misunderstandings and disagreements.
 Reflects personal character: How you treat others says a lot about you.
TOPIC 3: COMPREHENSION AND
SUMMARY
Reading Efficiently: Maximizing Your Time
Efficient reading involves understanding the text quickly and accurately while retaining
essential information. Here are some strategies to enhance your reading efficiency:

Pre-reading Strategies

 Skimming: Quickly glancing over the text to get an overall idea.

 Scanning: Searching for specific information within the text.
 Activating prior knowledge: Connecting the text to what you already know.

While-reading Strategies

 Chunking: Grouping related information together.

 Summarizing: Condensing the main points.
 Visualizing: Creating mental images of the text.
 Questioning: Asking yourself questions about the text.
 Annotating: Making notes or highlights in the text.

Post-reading Strategies

 Reviewing: Going over the main points.

 Recalling: Testing your memory of the information.
 Applying: Using the information in a new context

Fast Reading: Speed and Comprehension

Fast reading, often referred to as speed reading, is a technique aimed at increasing reading
speed without compromising comprehension. While it might seem counterintuitive, it's possible
to read faster while understanding more.

Key Techniques for Fast Reading

1. Minimize Subvocalization: This is the habit of silently saying words in your head as you
read. Reducing this can significantly increase your speed.
2. Expand Peripheral Vision: Train your eyes to take in more words at once.
3. Chunking: Instead of reading word by word, try to process words in groups or chunks.
4. Skimming and Scanning: Quickly go over the text to get a general idea, then scan for
specific information.
5. Practice Regularly: Consistent practice is key to improving your speed reading skills
Concentration While Reading Efficiently
Concentration is crucial for efficient reading. It allows you to absorb information effectively and
retain it for longer. Here are some strategies to enhance your focus:

Creating a Conducive Reading Environment

 Choose a quiet space: Minimize distractions like noise and interruptions.

 Optimize lighting: Ensure sufficient, comfortable light.
 Declutter your reading area: A tidy space can improve mental clarity.

Mental Preparation

 Mindfulness techniques: Practice meditation or deep breathing to calm your mind.

 Set clear goals: Knowing why you're reading can boost motivation.
 Break down the text: Divide the material into smaller, manageable sections.

Active Reading Techniques

 Summarize aloud: Explaining the content to yourself reinforces understanding.

 Take notes: Jotting down key points helps with retention.
 Question the text: Engage with the material by asking questions.

Overcoming Distractions

 Digital detox: Turn off notifications or use website blockers.

 Time management: Use techniques like the Pomodoro Technique (25 minutes of
focused work followed by short breaks).
 Physical activity: Regular exercise can improve concentration.

Additional Tips

 Read regularly: Consistent practice enhances focus.

 Vary reading materials: Different types of text challenge your brain in different ways.
 Be patient: Improving concentration takes time.

Background Knowledge: The Foundation of Comprehension

Background knowledge refers to the information a person already possesses about a particular
topic. It's essentially the mental framework you use to understand new information.

Why is Background Knowledge Important?

  Enhanced Comprehension: Having prior knowledge makes it easier to connect new
information to existing understanding.
 Increased Retention: Information is better remembered when it can be linked to existing
knowledge.
 Deeper Analysis: Background knowledge allows for critical thinking and analysis of the
text.
 Faster Processing: Familiar concepts can be processed more quickly, improving reading
speed.

Building Background Knowledge

 Read Widely: Explore different subjects and genres.

 Engage in Discussions: Talking about ideas with others expands your knowledge.
 Travel and Explore: Real-world experiences provide valuable context.
 Use Reference Materials: Encyclopedias, documentaries, and online resources can be
helpful.

Vocabulary: The Building Blocks of Language

Vocabulary refers to the words a person knows and understands. It's a crucial component of
effective communication, whether written or spoken.

Types of Vocabulary

 Receptive vocabulary: Words you understand when you hear or read them.
 Productive vocabulary: Words you can use correctly in speaking or writing.

Building Vocabulary

 Read widely: Expose yourself to diverse texts and styles.

 Use a dictionary: Look up unfamiliar words and their definitions.
 Play word games: Crossword puzzles, Scrabble, and other word games can be fun ways
to learn new words.
 Learn word roots and prefixes: Understanding the building blocks of words can help
you decipher new vocabulary.
 Use new words: Practice incorporating new words into your speech and writing

Purposeful Reading: Reading with a Reason

 Purposeful reading involves reading with a clear goal or objective in mind. Instead of
passively consuming information, you actively engage with the text to extract specific
information or achieve a particular outcome
Examples of Purposeful Reading

 Reading for information: Searching for facts or data to support a research paper.
 Reading for enjoyment: Relaxing and escaping through a novel.
 Reading to learn: Acquiring new knowledge or skills from a textbook.
 Reading to persuade: Analyzing arguments to form an opinion.

Tips for Purposeful Reading

 Define your purpose: Clearly articulate what you want to achieve from reading.
 Use appropriate reading strategies: Choose techniques like skimming, scanning, or in-
depth reading based on your goal.
 Take notes: Record key points, questions, or insights.
 Reflect on your reading: Consider how the information relates to your purpose.

Comprehension: Understanding What You Read

Comprehension is the ability to understand and interpret information from text. It involves
processing information, relating it to prior knowledge, and drawing inferences.

Key Factors Affecting Comprehension

 Background knowledge: Prior knowledge of the subject matter.

 Vocabulary: Understanding the words used in the text.
 Text structure: Recognizing how the information is organized.
 Inference: Drawing conclusions based on information provided.
 Visualization: Creating mental images of the text.

Strategies for Improving Comprehension

 Active reading: Engaging with the text by asking questions, summarizing, and taking
notes.
 Summarizing: Condensing the main ideas into your own words.
 Visualization: Creating mental images of the text to aid understanding.
 Questioning: Asking yourself questions about the text.
 Inferencing: Making educated guesses based on information provided.

Note-Taking: Capturing Key Information

Note-taking is the process of recording information from a variety of sources. Effective note-
taking helps in studying, research, and retaining information.

Effective Note-Taking Techniques

 Outlining: Creating a hierarchical structure of information.

  Cornell Method: Dividing a page into sections for notes, cues, and summaries.
 Mind Mapping: Visually representing ideas and connections.
 Charting: Organizing information in columns or rows.
 Summarizing: Condensing main points into brief statements.

Tips for Effective Note-Taking

 Be selective: Focus on key points and avoid copying everything.

 Use abbreviations and symbols: Create a personal shorthand system.
 Review notes regularly: Reinforce learning and identify gaps.
 Organize notes: Use folders or digital tools to keep notes organized.

Summary Writing: Capturing the Essence

Summary writing involves condensing a text into a shorter version while preserving its main
points. It's a skill essential for academic, professional, and personal life.

Key Steps in Summary Writing

1. Read the entire text: Understand the main idea and supporting details.
2. Identify main points: Determine the key arguments or ideas.
3. Organize information: Structure the summary logically.
4. Write in your own words: Avoid plagiarism by using original language.
5. Be concise: Keep the summary brief and to the point.
6. Review and edit: Ensure accuracy and clarity.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

 Including personal opinions: A summary should be objective.

 Copying directly from the text: Use your own words.
 Omitting essential information: Include all main points.
 Making the summary too long: Keep it concise.