PETROLEUM

EXPLORATION
METHODS

A SUMMARY

P. O. OKEKE SITP/2000
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 1
 AREAS COVERED
• WHY EXPLORE ?
• Pre - Exploration Techniques
– Initial Investigations
• Published Geological Literature
• Remote Sensing
– Satellite Imagery
– Aerial Photography
– Ground Follow - up
• Survey involving mapping measuring and studying of the
surface outcrops.
• Aim: Determine the followings
– Organic maturity and thickness of the sediment(s)
• Organic Geochemists
– Potential Source and Reservoir beds
• Geologists & Geophysicists
– Porosity and Permeability of the reservoir
• Petrophysicists
– Environment of deposition and Ages of rocks
• Palaentologists/Palynologists
– Structure of the beds
• Anticlines, Faults, which tend to form hydrocarbon traps
– Geologists and Geophysicists
– Petroleum seepages
• Could indicate a mature source rock at depth
– Geologists

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 2

 – Composition of rocks and changes undergone during
diagenesis
• Petrographers

• N.B. Possible conclusion from Pre-Exploration

Techniques

• Answers to the following three questions regarding

The Nature of the Sediments will be addressed
– Are they potential source and reservoir beds?
– What are their porosity and permeability?
– Where in the succession do they occur?

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 3

 Exploration Proper
• General Geophysical methods
• Seismology
• What is Geophysics ?
• Exploration Methods for oil and gas (Hydrocarbons)
– Magnetic surveys
– Gravity Surveys
3 Seismic Reflection Surveys (Acquisition, Processing
and Interpretation)
3 Well drilling
3 Well Logging
– Palaentology/Palynology
– Petrography
– Geochemistry(Organic)
3 Petrophysics

• NOTE:
– In the Oil and gas business, these Exploration
methods are interactive
• a must for any meaningful and successful result(s)
3 Core of the Exploration Proper.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 4

 WHY EXPLORE?
• Study source, heat, reservoir, cap rock, seal, trap,
ores etc, in order to decide whether or not these are
present in a particular area.

• Problem
– the uncertainty which needs to be probed; hence the
Exploration.

• How done?
– Best evacuation is made using all possible information
based on Surface and Subsurface techniques that are
essentially geological & geophysical.

• N.B. Exploration (Sampling)

– In arid areas (Dry, Little or no rain)
• rock samples are collected to gather the information
required in points (1) - (7) of the Aim(see Page 2)
– Area covered by vegetation
• Small holes/Trenches/Shallow wells are drilled to collect
samples.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 5

 EXPLORATION PROPER
• GENERAL GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
Geophysical Exploration is, actually, an assortment of
methods utilising physical principles to enable the
prospector to ‘see’underground and is based on the fact
that rocks and minerals of different types may display large
differences in certain physical properties, namely:
– Elasticity which determines the speed of seismic
waves
• Seismic Methods
– Density which affects the strength of the earth’s
gravity field
• Gravity Method
– Magnetisation which affects the strength of the earth’s
magnetic field.
• Magnetic Method
– Electrical characteristics
• Electrical & Electro-magnetic Method
– Natural radioactivity levels
• Nuclear Methods

• N.B. : These differences in physical properties have

given rise to the principal methods
(Table 2).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 6

 The Organigram(Fig. 1 )
• Geophysical methods of prospecting can be
classified into 4 groups:

– (a) Static Methods

• Field measurement is stationary i.e. fixed. Therefore, it is
not time dependent.
• For example Gravity, Magnetic & Electrical methods.

– (b) Dynamic Methods

• Field measurement is not fixed and Data are time
dependent.
• For example: Seismic Refraction and Seismic
Reflection.
– Relaxation Methods
• Intermediate between (a) & (b). Here , a field ( or an
energy) is applied to a given body (induced) and
measurement is then taken of the rate at which this field
or energy falls or decays. Measurement of this rate of fall
in voltage is taken.
– Nuclear Methods
• these depend on the nuclear structure of the material or
matter. Radiation methods measure the natural radiation
caused by the decay of radioactive substances
• e.g. Ur, Th, C, Sr, Rb or K.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 7

 SEISMOLOGY
• Deals with the study of earthquakes, and applied in
seismic prospecting. Hence, it involves the
measurement of the velocity of sound waves
through materials conditioned by
– Density of the medium, and
– Elastic properties:
• Young’s modulus
• Rigidity modulus
• Poisson’s ratio, and
• Modulus of incompressibility/Bulk modulus.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 8

 SEISMIC VELOCITIES
• 3 Seismic velocities:
– Average Velocity,
– Interval Velocity, and
– Root - Mean Square Velocity

• Average velocity
– This is the depth(z) of a reflecting surface below a
datum divided by the observed one- way time (t) i.e.
z
Vav =
t
– For more than one layer n

z + z + z ∑z n
Vav = 1 2 3 = 1
t1 + t 2 + t3 n

∑t
1
n

• Interval Velocity
– If two reflectors at depths z1 and z2 give reflection
times (t1 and t2, the interval velocity (Vint) between
them is V = z 2 − z1
t 2 − t1
inT

• Root-Mean square Velocity

V12t1 + V22t 2 + ... + Vn2t n
Vrms =
t1 + t2 + ... + t n
– or
n

∑ Vn2t n
Vrms = 1
n

∑ 1
tn

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 9

• N.B.
– Accurate determination of the seismic velocities is the
foundation in processing and interpreting seismic
data.
– Poor or wrong velocities will surely mislead the
Production Geologists, Production Seismologists,
Reservoir Engineers and Drillers.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 10

 WHAT IS GEOPHYSICS?
• Study of the physical properties of the Earth
• Geophysical Exploration uses measurements of the
physical properties made at or near the Earth’s surface to
investigate the internal structure of the planet
• Analysis of the results of such exploration are used to
show how the internal physical propeties vary both
vertically and laterally.
• In the sub - surface investigation, borehole measurements
only provide information about the immediate vicinity of the
borehole, BUT the geophysical exploration provides a
broad view of the sub-surface geology of the area.
• Geophysical Exploration can be relatively cheap, quick
and can be used to locate the best sites for any later
boreholes.
• Some geophysical exploration methods are used for
entirely scientific purposes, most of them are used
commercially to discover specific resources
(Hydrocarbons, Minerals, Water) or in the investigation of
potential or real engineering problems.
• Most natural geological resources comprise concentrations
of specific minerals or pore fluids. Such concentrations are
usual and exploration seeks the anomalies (unusual
features) in rocks and materials derived from them.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 11

 Principle Methods of Geophysical
Exploration Continued.
• Two broad groups based on the source of energy.
– PASSIVE TECHNIQUES
• Gravity, Magnetic, Electrical and Electromagnetic
• BECAUSE
• They utilise a natural physical property. These methods
generally provide information to greater depths beneath
the surface.
– ACTIVE TECHNIQUES
– Seismic, Electrical or Electromagnetic
– BECAUSE
– Some input of generated energy is needed. These
methods are generally restricted to relatively shallow
depths beneath the surface but are capable of
producing detail and high - resolution evidence of the
sub - surface.

• Again Note:
– Geophysical techniques are often used in
combination. E.g.reconnaissance of continental shelf
araes usually involves simultaneous seismic, gravity
and magnetic surveying.
– Use of several methods helps in removing ambiguities
in the data produced by one exploration technique.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 12

WHAT IS GEOPHYSICAL ANOMALY?

• Local variation in a measured parameter relative to

a background value.
• Reflects the presence in the sub-surface of a
localised zone or region possessing a distinctive
physical property e.g Faults, Folds, Saltdomes,
Unconformities.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 13

 MAGNETIC SURVEYS
AREAS COVERED

• Why done?

• Instrumentation

• How done?

• Magnetic Gradiometers

• Reduction of raw data and magnetic anomalies

• Interpretation

• Applications

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 14

 1 WHY DONE?
• Investigate the sub-surface geology of an area by
detecting magnetic anomalies with the earth’s
magnetic field.
• These magnetic anomalies are caused by the
magnetic properties of the underlying rocks.

• N.B.
– Rock-forming minerals are non-magnetic

– A few rock types contain sufficient amounts of

magnetic minerals. These can impart magnetism in
their host rocks and therefore, produce detectable
magnetic anomalies.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 15

 2 INSTRUMENTATION
• Magnetometer
– Instrument used to measure magnetic fields
• Most useful types in geophysical exploration since
both are sensitive to extremely small variations in
magnetic fields are:
– Flux-gate: Vector magnetometer because it measures
the strength of the magnetic field in a particular
direction, along the axis of the sensor. Therefore,
one must accurately orient the sensor along the
direction of the field component to be measured. For
total field measurements, 3 sensors are employed.
• Robust and can be mounted in an aeroplane or towed
behind it.
• Temperature sensitive, therefore correction is required.
– Proton - precession magnetometer
• Simple, robust and easily portable
• Provides an absolute value for the magnetic field
• The sensor does not have to be accurately oriented,
although it is best to ensure it lies at a substantial angle
to the total field vector.
• Therefore, it is the most commonly used magnetometer
for survey work.
• Can be towed behind ships or aircraft.
– N.B.
• Because this instrument does not give a continuous
record, it suffers from the disadvantage that it may miss
small anomalies.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 16

 3 HOW DONE?
(Magnetic Surveying )
• Carried out from the air, but ground and marine
surveys are also used.
• In a simple land survey, an operator can use a
portable magnetometer to measure the field at the
surface of the earth at selected points that form a
grid over a suspected geological structure. The
advantage of this method is that it yields a detailed
pattern of the magnetic field anomaly over the
structure, because the measurements are made
close to the source of the anomaly.
• Your actual position is determined accurately using
the GLOBAL POSITIONING SATELLITE (GPS).

• N.B.
– Magnetic surveys are not carried during period of
magnetic storms since it is impossible to correct the
data collected for the rapid and unpredicted changes
in the magnetic field at such times.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 17

 [4] MAGNETIC GRADIOMETERS
• A pair of magnetometers is maintained at a fixed
distance vertically from each other.
• The difference in outputs of the two instruments is
recorded
• Results
– If no anomalous body is present
• difference in the output signals will be zero.
– If local sub-surface rocks have any magnetic contrast
• Lower magnetometer will show a stronger signal than the
higher one, and there will be a difference between the
combined output signals.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 18

[5] REDUCTION OF FIELD/RAW DATA
AND MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
• AIM :
– Removal of all causes of magnetic variations from the
raw data (observations) other than (except) those
arising from the sub - surface rocks (the geology).
• How Done?
– Called magnetic Reduction
– Compared to the reduction of gravity data, 3 (few)
corrections are required namely:
• Diurnal Variation correction -
achieved by installing a constantly recording
magnetometer at a fixed base station within the survey
area or using the records of a geomagnetic observatory,
provided it is not too distant from the survey area.
• Geomagnetic correction -
Using International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF)
– Computer aided -
• Topographic Corrections
done only in a situation of some land-based surveys over
highly magnetic terrains (e.g. over lava flows or
mineralised intrusions). Otherwise, correction for the
magnetised topography is not necessary

.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 19
• Magnetic Anomalies
– Resultant of the Magnetic Reduction
• +ve and -ve Anomalies
• [γ- gammas]
Rocks in which the alignment of magnetic poles shows
opposite orientations.
– Can be presented graphically in the form of vertical
profiles or as contour maps. (See Figs. ).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 20

 6 INTERPRETATION
• Ambiguity, unless magnetic measurements can be
combined with other geophysical techniques, then
can interpretation be more precise.

• Again, as in gravity, interpretation of a magnetic

anomaly is a process of developing graphical
models of a hypothetical sub-surface structure
whose magnetic properties are assumed.
Thereafter, calculate the magnetic anomaly that
would be produced. This model is then adjusted
until it fits the measured magnetic data as closely as
possible
– complicated process.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 21

 7 APPLICATIONS

• Large - scale crustal features, although the sources

of major magnetic anomalies are restricted to basic
or ultrabasic intrusions.

• Best use
– locating massive Sulphide deposits and iron ores
(metalliferous ore deposits)

• Not widely used in Hydrocarbon exploration except

as an aid in geological mapping in areas with thick
sedimentary cover for structural features,
ferruginous sandstones, tuffs or lavas.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 22

 GRAVITY SURVEYS
AREAS COVERED

• Highlights

• Gravity Reduction

• Corrections

• Analysis of data

• Interpretation

• Rock densities

• Applications

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 23

 1 HIGHLIGHTS
• The basis for all gravitational studies (gravity
surveys) is Newton’s Law of Gravitation.
Gm1m2
F= Newtons
r2
– Where
• G = Universal gravitational constant (6.67x10-11Nm2Kg-2)
• m1 = mass of Earth
• m2 = outside mass
• r = distance separating m1 and m2
• F = Force between the 2 point masses

• F = mg, where g = acceleration due to gravity

• Insrumentation - Gravimeter
– Modern Instruments
• Lacoste
• Romberg
– Stability is very important

• Geophysical interest in gravity centres particularly

on the measurement and interpretation of the small
variations of ‘g’in terms of the Earth’s shape and
structure.
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 24
• The mean value of gravity at the Earth’s surface is
about 9.80ms-2 but variations caused by sub-
surface density variations are small; hence unit of
gravity is milligal.
– 1 mgal = 103 Gal = 10-3cms-2, eqiuvalent of 10gu
• In gravity surveys, measurements are made of a
number of sites.
• Spacing of stations depends on the purpose.
– Regional reconnaissance surveys - large spacing
(several kilometres)
– Detailed mineral or geotechnical works - close spacing
(only a few metres apart).
• N.B.
– The density of sites should ideally be highest where
the gravity field is changing most rapidly in order to
obtain maximum precision.
– Data/Record made at each site of the location
contains - time, elevation, or water depth and
gravimeter reading.
– Suitable base station gravity readings over period of
time are made in order to determine the drift of the
instrument
– IGSN(International Gravity Standardisation Network) -
A reference point at which absolute gravity
measurements have been determined.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 25

 2 GRAVITY REDUCTIONS
• Why done ?
– Eliminate other factors other than the presence of
density variations (primarily geological).

• What are these corrections ?

– Latitude
– Free - air
– Bouguer/Bouguer plate
– Tidal, and
– Eötvös

• Latitude Correction
– Work out the ∆g value as if the sites were at the same
latitude
∆g = gs - gp
– where gs = Latitude at station (measuring site)
– gp = Latitude at reference point
– N.B.: The correction can be +ve or -ve;
• +ve (gs > gp) - latitude correction is subtracted
• -ve (gs < gp) - latitude correction is added

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 26

• Free - Air correction
– Work out the ∆g value as if the sites were of the same
topographic height
∆gFA = -3.0086 hgu
– where h = height at the observation in meters
– N.B. The correction, also can be +ve or -ve:
• +ve for observation point above the reference station in
order to correct for the decrease in gravity with elevation
• -ve for observation point below the reference station

• Bouguer correction/Bouguer plate correction.

∆gBP = 0.4191ρhgu

– where ρ = density of the rock

– h = height difference in metres
– Work out the ∆g considering the material between the
sites

– N.B.
• the size of the Bouguer plat correction depends on the
density of the rock column below the observation point.
The size is calculated by approximating that layer to be
an infinite horizontal/slab whose thickness is equal to the
elevation of the site above the reference station.
• The correction assumes that the Topography around the
observation site is flat. This is not always so, hence there
is a further correction - Terrain or Topographic correction.
(Standard tables & Time Consuming).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 27

 – Bonguer correction is always +ve because the
correction must have overcompensated for any
valleys and hills.

• Tidal correction
– For higher precision gravity survey.
– Consider the gravitational effects of the sun and the
moon (both cause solid earth tides)
– These tidal effects are predictable and can therefore
be allowed for.

• Eötvös Correction
– Applied to gravity measurements taken on moving
vehicles, such as a ship or an aircraft.
– Depending on the direction of travel, motion will
generate a centripetal acceleration that either
reinforces or opposes gravity.
– The correction required is :
• Eötvös Correction = 75.03V sin αCos λ+ 0.04154V 2 gu
where
V = velocity in knots
α = the heading, and
γ= latitude of the observation.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 28

 [4] ANALYSIS OF DATA
• Once the latitude, elevation, tidal and if necessary,
Eötvös corrections have been applied, the final
corrected gravity difference between the
observational site(s) and the reference point (p) can
be calculated using the relationship:
• gs -gp corrected = ∆gcorrected
=∆g - ∆gL - ∆gFA - ∆gBA - ∆gT
(ignoring Tidal and Eötvös corrections)
Where
∆g = Field station/ site raw reading (instrument reading
∆gL = Latitude correction
∆gFA = Free - Air correction
∆gBA = Bouguer correction
∆gFA = Terrain or Topographic correction
– Result
– Gravity Anomalies which are due to density variations
in the sub- surface.
• N.B. A gravity anomaly may be +ve or -ve according
to which of the two values is the greater.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 29

 Steps involved in determining gravity
anomalies for an observational site in a region
(1) ‘g’is measured at the site (gs)
(2) The theoretical value of ‘g’is given by the IGF for a
site at the same latitude as the IGF sea-level
surface (here assumed to be true sea-level) and is
calculated (value, gp)
(3) The gravity differences (∆g = gs - gp)
(4) Apply the necessary corrections (Bouguer, Terrain,
Free - Air, etc) to ∆g in order to give a corrected
value (∆Bg)
• N.B.
– Latitude correction is not necessary because gp is the
same latitude as gs.
– This final value (∆Bg) is the gravity difference
(anomaly) and is represented by
∆Bg = ∆g + 3.086h - 1.118h + ∆gTgu
where
h = height of the site in metres above or below sea-
level(+ve if above, -ve if below)
– Bouguer anomaly should not be confused with the
Bouguer correction.
– A Free - air anomaly (∆Fg can be calculated by
applying on the Free - Air correction using the
following relationship:
∆Fg = ∆g + 3.086h

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 30

Which Anomaly do you apply?
• Depends on the nature of the work/study
– Bouguer Anomaly
• Best in investigating density variation below the
continents
• In marine surveys for shallow water areas
• Used best for comparing gravity anomalies in onshore
and offshore areas so that the data can be combined into
gravity contour maps.
• Not good in deep water surveys since the resultant
bougher correction does not reflect the geology.
– Free - Air anomaly
• Best suited for deep-water survey interpretations.

• GRAVITY MAPS
– Gravity Anomalies are usually displayed either as
profiles or as isogal maps.
– Such maps reveal areas of positive anomalies
(‘Highs’) and area of negative anamalies (‘Lows’).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 31

 INTERPRETATION
• Simply a process of
– Developing graphical models of a hypothetical
subsurface structure using assumed density contrast.
• (softwares are available)
– Calculating the gravity anomaly that would suit the
model
– Hence, the final model is usually one of a number of
possible models.

• N.B.
– Most interpretations are based on simplified model of
a causative body e.g. an orebody as a sphere,
geomatric shapes including hypothetical faults.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 32

 ROCK DENSITIES
• Gravity Anomalies result from the difference in
density or density contrast between a body of rock
and its surroundings
∆ρ = ρ1 − ρ2
– where
• ∆ρ = density contrast
• ρ1 = density of rock body
• ρ2 = density of the surrounding rock
• The sign of ∆ρ determines the sign of gravity
Anomaly. Hence, a knowledge of rock density is
useful in the applications of the Bouguer correction
and for the interpretation of the gravity data
• Main cause of density variation in sedimentary rocks
is porosity
• Sedimentary rocks became denser with depth due
to compaction, and with age, due to cementation.
• In igneous and metamorphic rocks, the main control
of density is composition (table ).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 33

 7 - APPLICATIONS
• Large and medium scale investigations of
geological structures in both sedimentary basins
and igneous/metamorphic terrains. E.g.
– Large +ve gravity Anomalies
– and Large -ve gravity Anomalies
• island arcs, oceanic trenches, sub-direction of oceanic
plates intrusion of gravity masses etc. which occur at
convergent plate margins.
• Definition of the configuration of sedimentary basin
and the sites of basement. Such data can provide
evidence about the mechanism of basin formation.

• N.B.
– Although not widely used for hydrocarbon exploration,
gravity surveys can be used for detecting such
hydrocarbon traps like salt domes, and reefs which
commonly give pronounced negative anomalies.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 34

 SEISMIC SURVEYS
• Introduction

• Reflection not Refraction Method

• Acquisition - 1st Phase

• Processing - 2nd phase

• Interpretation - 3rd Phase

• Applications

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 35

 [I] INTRODUCTION
• By far the most expensive and most important
geophysical method (Table 1) Reason - Most
reliable (Oil and gas business)
• Involves echo - sounding on the various
sedimentary rocks in the basin. Noise is made.
• Reflections & Refractions at interfaces (Fig ) -
Principles of seismic survey
• Times after the initial shock and their strengths are
measured digitally.
• If the velocity of travel is→known, then the depths to
the various horizons can be calculated.
• This repeated along a survey line, a 2-D picture(
Cross - section) is possible (Fig ).
• With variable velocities, depth conversions can be
achieved during interpretation.
• 2-D 3-D 4-D.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 36

 Advantage of 3-D Over 2-D
Seismic
• Many geological features in the sub-surface that are
of interest in hydrocarbon exploration are 3-D in
nature
– Salt Diapirs, Folds, Faults, Unconformities and Deltaic
Sands.
• Misties are identified and corrected for
• Much denser sampling of the sub-surface than is
required for 2-d surveys. Hence a more detailed
image of the sub surface, hence a more reliable
interpretation is ensured.
• 2-D now obsolete;
– An improvement in Interpretation
• Overtaken by 3-D
– Which has better coverage and resolution of the 3-D
data.
• 4-D or Time Lapse 3-D Seismic.
– For enhanced reservoir monitoring (Economic life of a
declining filled)
– uses a series of repeated 3-D surveys over a field
– One of the oil field managemnet tools.
– By passed and undrained oil can be inferred.
–
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 37
REFLECTION AND NOT REFRACTION
METHOD
• Only reflected arrivals are needed for the petroleum
exploration for the obvious reason of great depth
and required density (Compaction) - Higher degree
of penetration

• Shallow arrivals (refractors) are eliminated through

processing.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 38

 ACQUISITION
1st Phase
• Seismic Reflection data are acquired through a crew
or party and the operations one needs to be familiar
with are the following:
• Seismic Energy Sources
– Land surveys - Dynamite, Vibrator, Air gun Thomper,
Gas gun (swamp)
– Marine - Airgun, Gas exploder, Vapor choc
• Detection equipment (Geophone and Hydrophone)
+ Recording equipment
• Field shooting parameters
• Seismic Situation map
• Line Numbering & Programmed lines
• Shot points and Omissions
• Levelling
• Drilling crew and Shooters
• Computation of Statics (Weathering corrections)
• Noise and Evaluation of first breaks
• N.B. :

Now
– Old Analogue recording replaced Digital recording
by

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 39

 What is the main advantage of the 3-D Seismic
Acquisition ?
• To image the sub-surface as a continuous Volume
in 3 dimensions.

What are the problems in seismic Interpretation?

• 3 Main Pitfalls :
– Dificulties due to processing
– Problems caused by local velocity
anomalies (by saltdomes and reefs since evaporites
travel faster but reefs may be seismically slower or
faster than surrounding sediments depending on their
porosity)
– Difficuties due to rapid changes in geometry (rock
geometry may not be of simple near horizontal
layers).

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 40

 PROCESSING
2nd phase
• Major Objectives 2 viz :
– Extract the signal or enhance the signal - to -noise
ratio, and
– Provide objective analysis of the data in order to help
the interpreter answer the “what, where and how
much”questions.

• 4 major processes involved

– Data Reduction
– Geometric Corrections
– Data Enhancement, and
– Additional Processing
– (see Table).

• Desired answers from processing

(See later)

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 41

 INTERPRETATION
3rd Phase
• Now a computer based operation in a Work station

• Turns seismic sections into geological ones

• Interactive 3-D or 2-D interpretation softwares

(Halliburton Landmark Seisworks and Schlumberger
Charisma), CPS - 3.

• Major objective of interpretation - Production of a

structural map of a chosen reservoir. From such a
map next stage in the Oil and Gas business -
Exploitation/Production starts.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 42

 APPLICATIONS
• Mapping structures (sub-surface) - faults, Anticlines,
unconformities, salt domes, reefs, horizons.

• Seismic Stratigraphy or Seismic Sequence

analysis. (deduction of the history of a Sed. Basin)

• Determination of reliable velocity of travel from the

Twt. Calculation of the depth to horizon, later
therefrom. Production of Depth map.

• Cross-section (2-D picture) of the sub-surface.

• Structural Analysis - search for structural traps

containing hydrocarbons.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 43

 WELL DRILLING & WELL
LOGGING
• Well Drilling - (Fig - Anatomy of a drilling rig)

• Well Logging
• 2 methods of extracting information from a well
(i) Mudlog/Direct methods -
• drilling rate
• information obtained
– porosity, permeability, presence and nature of
Hydrocarbons and Formation water resistivity.
• Formation Samples
– cores, cuttings, sidewall samples, core slices, Mud
samples, Fluid samples
(ii) Wireline logs/Indirect methods; for examples
• Lithology Logs - Locating Reservoir - GR, SP, ML, CAL
• Porosity Logs - Measuring Porosity - Sonic, Neutron,
Density
• Resistivity Logs - Detecting Hydrocarbon - Resistivity
Logs

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 44

 DATA PROCESSING
(SUMMARY)
• Why?

• How?

• Details on processes

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 45

 WHY ?
• Seismic records inevitably contain not only the
geniune signal from the rocks but also unwanted
background ‘noise’due to many extraneous events.
During processing, many unwanted effects (events)
can be filtered out.
– This remains the primary objective of seismic data
processing.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 46

 HOW ?
• 4 main steps are involved in processing the raw
seismic data before the production of a final
seismic section namely:
– Conversion of field magnetic tape data into a state
suitable for processing (I.e Analogue to digital
conversion).
N.B. This may already have been done in the field.
– Analysis of the data to select the optimum processing
parameters. A seismic trace has to be corrected to
allow for time differences caused by the different
heights or depth of the source and detectors and
velocity irregularities near the surface due to variation
in weathering profile (STATIC CORRECTIONS).
– Processing to remove multiple reflectors and
enhance primary reflectors. Involves a number of
discrete steps including Editing, CDP gather, Muting,
NMO or dynamic correction, Stacking, Filtering,
Migration
– Conversion of data from digital to Analogue form and
printout of graphic display showing all the stacked
traces as a distance/two - way travel time plot i.e.
production of Final seismic section.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 47

 DETAILS ON PROCESSES
• Editing - deletion of noisy traces

• Correct amplitudes for energy loss at long travel

times

• CDP gather - selection of traces which have an

identical source - receiver midpoint

• Muting - remove direct wave noise

• NMO or Dynamic correction - correct each trace for

the time-delay appropriate to its source -receiver
offset

• Stacking - sum together all the traces in the CDP

gather to produce a single trace with a higher
signal/noise ratio.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 48

• Filtering and inverse filtering - includes
– Digital filtering - take care of differering frequencies
relative to noise frequency (frequency filtering).
– Inverse filtering or Deconvolution which takes care of
the suppression of multiples
– Velocity filtering which removes coherent noise
events, especially groundroll and diffractions

• Migration - corrects for reflections that return from

dipping interfaces and positions the structure
properly.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 49

 SUMMARY OF DESIRED ANSWERS
FROM PROCESSING
• Sub-surface structure e.g. faults, synclines and
anticlines are properly positioned
• Sub-surface rock layers (horizons) are properly
defined
• Signal - to - Noise ratio is enhanced.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 50

 SEISMIC INSTRUMENTS
• 2 Major Componets
– Seismograph - Instrument that records the arrival of
seismic waves from a distant source. Essentially it
comprises a receiver and a recorder.
– Seismometer - Geophone or hydrophone - A sensor
which detects and amplifies the ground vibration (also
filters same).

• N.B.
– Seismogram(Monitor record) - a visible record of the
amplified ground motion. It represents the conversion
of the signal from a seismometer into a time record

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 3 IMPORTANT AREAS VITAL IN SEISMIC
INTERPRETATION
• Reflection continuity
• Problems/Pitfalls
• Differences between Seismic and Geological
sections
• REFLECTION CONTINUITY
– Seismic reflection profiles are interpreted by looking
for this.
– On hard copy, reflectors are marked out using brightly
coloured pencils (now done with appropriate computer
softwares using a mouse)
– No continuity can be caused by:
• no reflecting interfaces
• Target too deep for sufficient seismic energy to reach
• A very complex structure.

• PROBLEMS/PITFALLS
• 3 main pitfalls in Seismic interpretation.
– Difficulties due to processing
– Problems caused by local velocity anomalies e.g. salt
domes and reefs
– Difficulties due to rapid changes in rock geometry.

PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 52

[3] DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEISMIC
AND GEOLOGICAL SECTIONS
S/N Parameter Seismic section Geological Remarks
Sections

1 Units of the Time (A) Depth(B) Convert (A)

vertical to (B) but
scale this is not
(plots) usually
practical

2 Reflection Reflection are Bedding plane Note the

generated not by difference
individual beds,
but by interfaces
between rocks of
different types or
where the rock
properties change.
The interfaces
may be Fault
planes or any
other boundary
between rock
types

3 Reflection Vertically below

Reflection point Note the
point the observation
not below the difference
point observation
(Time – series
arrives at
normal
incidence)
PETROLEUM EXPLORATION METHODS 53