MINING GEOLOGY
(MEN-MGE-411)
Department of Mining Engineering
Topic: Methods of prospecting-geological, geophysical, geochemical and geo-botanical
By
Stanley Nyama
Presentation outline
1) Introduction
2) Methods of prospecting
i. Geological
ii. Geophysical
iii. Geochemical
iv. Geo-botanical
1. Introduction
Life Cycle of a Mine
Prospecting; looking for or search for minerals in an area. (minerals,
fossils, precious metals, or mineral specimens)
i. Looking for a geological anomaly that indicates the potential
of a valuable mineral deposit.
ii. Preliminary to actual field exploration.
iii. Traditional method: Until the 20th century prospecting involved
roaming likely areas on foot looking for direct indications
of ore mineralization in outcrops, sediments, and
soils. Colours have been a traditional guide to ores. The reds,
browns, and yellows of limonitic material, for example, can indicate
leaching of sulfide-bearing veins and disseminated ore bodies. On
weathered outcrops, greens and blues could indicate
oxidized copper minerals, black could mean
Prospecting
oxidized manganese minerals, and yellows and greens the presence
pickaxes
of silver halides
Note: Follow the required procedure of the land: land rights and consultations where required.
1.2 Introduction cont’d
Morden methods:
With support by newly developed technologies - mechanical, electromagnetic, and electrostatic separation
techniques and by microscopic examination and instrumental mineralogical analysis:
i. New field and laboratory techniques,
ii. Geochemistry and laboratory mineralogy are used for the identification and interpretation of
gossans and weathered outcrops,
iii. Aerial photography and satellite imagery are used in the identification of favourable structural features,
iv. Panning for gold and other heavy minerals in alluvium is still used for collecting geologic information,
v. The digging of pits and trenches to obtain geologic information is now done with bulldozers, backhoes,
and lightweight drilling machinery.
vi. Four-wheel-drive vehicles are a standard means of field access, with helicopters being used in the more
remote areas.
1.2 Introduction cont’d
Presentation outline
1) Introduction
2) Methods of prospecting
i. Geological
ii. Geophysical
iii. Geochemical
iv. Geo-botanical
2. Methods of prospecting
2.1 Geological examinations
This involves
i. Photographic study
ii. Aerial examinations
iii. Outcrop mapping
iv. Trenching
v. Reverse circulation drilling
vi. Core drilling
2.2 Geological examinations Cont’d
Drilling
i. Mineral exploration drilling requires a drill rig to carry out the process, and aims to recover cores of rock from depths of up to
1000m.
ii. Typically drill holes will be of the order of less than 200m (for reconnaissance drilling, though specific targets may be deeper).
iii. The rock core which is collected is placed in prefabricated core boxes.
iv. The drill core comprises cylinders of solid rock with a diameter normally in the range 5-10 cm.
v. A drill rig set up will typically have a surface footprint of less than 10 x 10 metres and a height of 4 metres. Some rigs, which
can acquire greater depths, will occupy a larger area. Associated with the rig are a stable drill platform (wooden boards used to
level the operating area and storage area) fuel stores, drill fluid management systems, equipment stores etc.
vi. All rigs require some sort of lubrication at the drill bit with water being most commonly used. The water is circulated from the
surface to flush the area of the drill bit and carry the pulverised rocks and chips back to the surface.
vii. The rig and associated temporary surface infrastructure are fenced off for the duration of operations to prevent access and protect
public and wildlife from the machinery.
2.2 Geological examinations Cont’d
Drilling
https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/463480/view/mineral-exploration-drilling-kenya
2.2 Geological examinations Cont’d
Drilling
https://www.massenzarigs.com/mineral-exploration-drilling-rigs/
2.2 Geological examinations Cont’d
Trenching
Mineral exploration trenching is carried out by mechanical excavator with a back hoe, with the aim of exposing a section
of mineralised bedrock. Trenches can be over 100 metres long and a few metres wide.
Depth is controlled by the depth of the overburden in the area being worked.
A geologist would require access to the trench in order to log and sample the soil and bedrock profile exposed. Such
activities are governed by Health and Safety regulations.
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Geological-map-of-prospecting-trench-1-showing-several-carbonatite-veins-emplaced-in_fig2_222819821
https://web.facebook.com/AGVMining/posts/trench-logging-and-sampling-kebbi-statemineralexploration-geology-sampling-agvmi/210286147032670/?_rdc=1&_rdr
Presentation outline
1) Introduction
2) Methods of prospecting
i. Geological
ii. Geophysical
iii. Geochemical
iv. Geo-botanical
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys
i. Gravity surveys
ii. Magnetic surveys Geophysical surveys are ground-based physical sensing techniques
iii. Radiometric surveys Seismic surveys that produce a detail image or map of an area. Ground-based surveys
iv. Resistivity surveys may include: Seismic surveys - vibrations from weights or explosives
v. Self‐potential surveys are recorded with geophones to provide information about the
vi. Induced polarization surveys properties of rocks.
vii. VLF (Very Low Frequency
Magnetic, electromagnetic, radiometric and gravity methods can all be carried out rapidly by teams of one or two people as a walk
over survey using hand-held instruments. The measurements are recorded without the need to disturb the ground other than by foot
fall.
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys
Classification of geophysical exploration
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont.d
Classification of geophysical exploration
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont.d
Magnetic survey: magnetic properties of rocks
Investigation on the basis of anomalies in
Earth’s magnetic field resulting from the
magnetic properties of underlying rooks
(magnetic susceptibility and remanent
magnetization)
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont.d
Magnetic susceptibility(k):- is a
measure of the magnetic response
of a material to an external
magnetic field.
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont’d
Magnetic survey application
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont.d
Acquisition of magnetic data
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont.d
Knowledge of interpretation: magnetic response
2.2 Ground geophysical surveys cont’d
Induced Polarisation / Resistivity.
Both these methods require passing an electrical current into the earth through ground electrodes, pushed into the
soils, laid out along a single line traverse. The process is carried out by hand. Electrodes are metallic, thin and up to
30cm long. Little other ground disturbance is required other than foot fall and possibly survey pegs marking out
line positions. However, these methods may use high currents, which can cause a potential risk to livestock.
One example of hand held magnetometer
Two probe resistivity survey equipment
2.3 Ground geophysical surveys cont’d
Seismic Survey
A program for mapping geologic structure by observation of seismic waves , especially by creating seismic waves with
artificial sources and observing the arrival time of the waves reflected from acoustic-impedance contrasts or refracted through
high velocity members
2.3 Ground geophysical surveys cont’d
Seismic Source
2.3 Ground geophysical surveys cont’d
Seismic Survey
Seismic surveys record energy waves reflected from different rock layers in the earth. An input energy source is required. This
may be from a series of controlled explosions creating a single frequency source or from a vibrating source on-board a truck
(Vibroseis) which sweeps a range of frequencies. Long lines of cables with recording devices (geophones) are laid out and a
series of energy bursts are provided either through explosions or vibration.
In the case of explosions, these will be set off in sequence at a series of
surveyed locations. For Vibroseis a truck will drive along a road stopping at
surveyed location marks and vibrate at each location. The energy which is
reflected from the underground rock formations is recorded as ground
movements at the surface by the geophones.
Where water bodies are encountered, the lines of geophones can be anchored
to the bed of the water body. Seismic surveying is more common in petroleum
exploration.
Schematic of seismic reflection survey theory
Presentation outline
1) Introduction
2) Methods of prospecting
i. Geological
ii. Geophysical
iii. Geochemical
iv. Geo-botanical
2.4 Geochemical
Geochemistry Method
i. Geochemical sampling - to identify areas where there appears to be an anomalous amount of the
target mineral, or of minerals which are known to be associated with the target.
ii. Large areas can be covered at an initial stage by a regional sampling programme. This regional
programme would then be followed up by a more localised survey over anomalous areas.
iii. Soil sampling.
Soil sample collected with a hand auger
iv. Samples of a few hundred grams up to 5 – 10kg are collected using hand held auger for the small
samples and spade for the larger ones.
v. The auger method is low impact and the ground can be left with no visible signs of disturbance.
Larger samples are collected from a dug pit.
vi. Surveys are usually carried out either over a rectangular grid which will vary in density
depending on the confidence of the target location, or along a transect. The area covered could
be very large for regional work or down to less than a few km2 for detailed/follow-up surveys.
2.5 Geochemical Survey cont’d
Geochemistry Method
Stream sediment sampling.
i. Samples are collected from 1st and/or 2nd order streams as near to the middle of the
stream as possible. Approximately 50 grams of material is normally taken but larger
samples may be required dependant on method used and target mineral.
ii. Where heavy metal mineralisation is being targeted, samples are collected as close to Sediment sample collection
the bedrock as possible. This may require digging down through the overlying
material. The sediment is wet sieved through mesh screens to the required size and put
in paper sample bags for drying. Sample density is low (1 per Km2 or less) for
regional surveys, increasing in density for reconnaissance and follow-up studies.
iii. A first order stream is a stream which does not have any other streams feeding into it.
When two first order streams come together they form a second order stream.
iv. The term heavy metal is used to loosely define a subset of elements which exhibit
Stream sediment panning
metallic properties.
Presentation outline
1) Introduction
2) Methods of prospecting
i. Geological
ii. Geophysical
iii. Geochemical
iv. Geo-botanical
2.6 Geobotanical Survey
Geo-botanical Method
i. Involve the use of vegetation for identification of the nature and properties of the substrate.
ii. Paradoxically, these methods are among the easiest to execute and yet the most difficult to interpret of all the methods of exploration available at
the present time. In terms of execution, the basic requirement is merely a pair of human eyes; but in the interpretation of the visual (or
photographic) image, some knowledge is required of a number of different disciplines such as biochemistry, botany, chemistry, ecology, geology,
and plant physiology.
iii. Geobotanical indicators are either plant species or characteristic variations in the growth habits of plant species that are restricted in their
distribution to rocks or soils of definite physical or chemical properties. They have been used in locating and mapping ground water, saline
deposits, hydrocarbons, and rock types, as well as ores.
iv. Geobotanical methods of prospecting are based on the visual observation and identification of vegetation or plant cover that may reveal the
presence of a specific type of sub-surface mineralization. In this method, it is presumed that a particular variety of plant species is an indicator of a
sub-surface uranium molecules. In recent years, geobotanical methods have become useful in the identification of uranium- ore deposits
particularly in areas of dense vegetation
2.7 Geobotanical Survey cont’d
Geo-botanical Method
Note:
When preparing for
prospecting, very
important to do
desk study on how
plants behaves in
relation to minerals
being targeted.
2.3 Geochemical Survey cont’d
Geo-botanical Method
Involve the use of vegetation for identification of the nature
and properties of the substrate. Paradoxically, these methods
are among the easiest to execute and yet the most difficult to
interpret of all the methods of exploration available at the
present time. In terms of execution, the basic requirement is
merely a pair of human eyes; but in the interpretation of the
visual (or photographic) image, some knowledge is required of
Sediment sample collection
a number of different disciplines such as biochemistry, botany,
chemistry, ecology, geology, and plant physiology.
Stream sediment panning
2.3 Summary – prospecting
2.3 Summary – prospecting Cont’d
2.3 Technology trends
AI = The theory and
development of computer
systems able to perform
tasks normally requiring
human intelligence, such as
visual perception, speech
recognition, decision-
making, and translation
between languages
The mining industry is
increasingly using
artificial intelligence (AI)
as a tool to optimize
processes, enhance
decision-making, derive
value from data, and
improve safety.
https://www.angloamerican.com/futuresmart/stories/our-industry/technology/trends-in-modern-mining-technology
2.3 Technology trends
1. Drones:
Hovermap product, a system that uses autonomous drones to
investigate underground areas to determine their suitability for
mining operations: The Hovermap drones are also able to
record levels of gases and identify geological features, and can
take photos and record videos of cave systems to aid in the
construction of cave diagrams.
2.3 Technology trends
2.3 Technology trends
3. References
Suggestions for prospecting: https://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-USGSINF672R6_302983_7.pdf
Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/technology/mining/Prospecting-and-exploration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prospecting
common methods of exploration: https://www.economy-ni.gov.uk/publications/mineral-prospecting-common-exploration-methods
https://www.gemsys.ca/mineral-exploration-applications/?_vsrefdom=cpc-google&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIn9_G95SV9gIV2d_tCh2h2A_uEAMYASAAEgLKR_D_BwE
http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/07252017105204Monograph%20on%20Iron%20Ore_3.pdf
https://www.sciencedirect.com/sdfe/pdf/download/eid/1-s2.0-B9780444995155500090/first-page-pdf
https://nitishpriyadarshi.blogspot.com/2010/09/geobotanical-methods-for-prospecting.html
https://www.boliden.com/operations/exploration/methods-of-exploration#:~:text=Our%20exploration%20methods,to%20find%20new%20mineral%20deposits.
https://bernardmarr.com/the-4th-industrial-revolution-how-mining-companies-are-using-ai-machine-learning-and-robots/
https://www.corecut.co.uk/corecut/diamond-drilling/what-is-diamond-drilling/
https://old.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/1971.pdf
https://geologyscience.com/geology/geophysical-methods/
End
