CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Exploration
Exploration can be technologically defined with
regard to the searching and discovery of new mineral
deposits, as well as the activities and evaluations
necessary before an intelligent decision can be made
establishing size, initial flow sheet and annual output of
new extractive operations. The purpose of mineral
exploration is the discovery and acquisition of new
mineral deposit amenable to economic extractive
operations now or in the future while the prime objective
is to find and acquire maximum number of such mineral
deposits at a minimum cost and within a minimum time.
This objective can be achieved through various
prospecting methods which include geological,
geochemical, aerial, glacial, float tracing, panning,
geo-biochemical and geo-botanical methods of
prospecting.
Prospect
A prospect is a restricted volume of ground that is
considered to have the possibility of directly hosting an
ore body and is usually a named geographical location.
The prospect could be outcropping mineralization, an old
mine, an area selected on the basis of some geological
idea, or perhaps some anomalous feature of the
environment (usually a geophysical or geochemical
measurement) that can be interpreted as having a close
spatial link with ore. Prospects are the basic units with
which explorationists work. The explorationist’s job is to
generate new prospects and then to explore them in order
to locate and define any ore body that might lie within
them.

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Some Ways of Generating New Exploration Ideas
New ideas may come “out of the blue”, but more
often are the result of certain well-recognized situations
that the explorationist is able to combine fruitfully with
knowledge that they already have. It pays the exploration
geologist to be alert for these situations so as to take
advantage of the opportunities that they offer. Here are
some of them:
Scenario1: New knowledge of the geology or
geophysics of an area becomes available from new
mapping (either your own or Geological Survey maps).
Combined with your own understanding of
mineralization, the new mapping indicates the possibility
of different styles of mineralization being present or
different places to look at.

Scenario 2: Elsewhere in a district that you are

exploring, a discovery is made which can be used as a
new and more relevant model for mineralization than the
one that you have been using.
Scenario 3: A visit to other mining camps, may be even
on the other side of the world, provides new insight into
your exploration property. The formal description of an
ore body in the literature is no substitute for seeing it for
yourself – particularly if there is an opportunity to see
the discovery outcrop.
Scenario 4: Newly developed exploration technologies
and/or methodologies make it possible to explore
effectively in an area where earlier prospecting methods
were unsuccessful.

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Scenario 5: Political changes make available for
exploration and mining a part of the world that
previously had not been subject to modern methods of
exploration.

A Check-List of Negative Assumptions

Sooner or later in most exploration programmes on an
area, an impasse is reached in the ability to generate new
exploration ideas. At this point, it is always easy to think
of many good reasons why the effort should be
abandoned. However, before this decision is made, it is
worthwhile to critically check through a list of the
beliefs that are held about the area. On examination,
these beliefs might turn out to be mere assumptions, and
the assumptions might be wrong. To assist in this
process, here is a check-list of five negative assumptions
commonly made by explorationist about the
prospectivity of an area.
• The area is not prospective because it is underlain by
rock type X.
Comment: How do you know? The geological map you
are using might be wrong or insufficiently detailed. In
any case, if rock type X is not prospective for your target
commodity, perhaps it is prospective for some other
commodity.
• The area has already been exhaustively explored.
Comment: An area or prospect can almost never be
exhaustively tested. Earlier explorers gave up because
they ran out of ideas, time or money. The best any
explorationist can ever hope to do is to exhaustively test
some idea or model that they have about mineralization
using the best tools at their disposal at that time.
Generate a new model, develop a new tool or simply

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find new access to risk capital, and the area may turn out
to be under-explored.

Brief Overview of Some of the Prospecting Methods

Geo-botanical methods
Geo-botanical method of prospecting involves
the use of vegetation for identification of the nature and
properties of the substrate. These method are among the
easiest to execute and yet the most difficult to interpret
of all the methods of exploration available at the present
time in terms of execution. The basic requirement is
merely a pair of human eye, but in the interpretation of
the visual (or photographic) image, some knowledge is
required at a number of different disciplines such as
biochemistry, botany, chemistry, ecology, geology and
plant physiology.
In geo-botanical methods of prospecting the
interpretation of the significance of the vegetation cover
is carried out in a number of ways. This includes
studying the nature and distribution of plant
communities, studying the nature and distribution of
indicator plants, observation of morphological changes
in vegetation (e.g. colour changes).
Aerial method
The development of more sophisticated
aircraft, new techniques in remote sensing and the birth
of the space age have introduced new
and exciting dimensions to prospecting. The
development of artificial satellites during the past
decades has opened up limitless possibilities in aerial
mapping. Technological progress has also provided

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greatly improved techniques for remote sensing of
natural resources by use of detectors sensitive to almost
the whole of the electromagnetic spectrum from gamma
radiation at the one extreme to radar at the other.
Generally there are two methods of aerial photography,
these are:
1. Passive method: In this method, the reflected
sunrays by the object on the earth
surface/emissions are registered by the aircraft,
2. Active method: The aero plane or helicopter
satellite sends out some signal to the earth
surface and the reflection of the signal are then
measured.
Geo-biochemical method
This prospecting approach is based on the
knowledge that plants absorb necessary elements
(nutrients) and unnecessary elements and compounds
mainly by their primary and secondary root systems in a
soil that contains or perhaps does not contain all the
nutrients that a plant used for its proper growth.
Although it is worthy of note that the quantity of an
elements in a plant may not be representative of the
quantity present in the subsurface because the
concentration may be derived from pollution e.g. exhaust
emissions from gasoline motor are the cause of higher
concentration of lead in vegetation growing close to
highways. Other classes of metal pollution can come
from fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides, coal or wood as
industrial pollution, etc.
Geological methods
The geological methods regarding prospecting of
mineral resources are concerned with the special
geological / structural mapping of the area. The basis of

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this however is hinged on the aerial photograph which is
followed by ground surveys. During the field mapping
rock samples are collected for thin and polish sections
investigation. In addition grain size analysis is carried
out.
From the above results, model about the deposit
can be hypothesized. The nature and form, as well as the
size of the deposit coupled with the mineral distribution
can be inferred. All these will serve the basis of choosing
a prospection area as well as specific prospecting
method.
Geophysical method
This prospecting method utilizes the physical
properties of rocks and ores or simply uses physics to
investigate the earth. Such properties are electrical,
magnetic, gravity, seismic wave, radiometric and thermal
properties.
This principle when targeted at localized region
of the upper crust of the earth for economic purpose
constitute exploration and this can be applied in
petroleum exploration, ore mineral exploration,
groundwater, civil Engineering investigations and
archeological investigations.
Float tracing
This is also known as float mapping. It is the skill
of tracing mineralized boulders or rock fragment which
is extremely valuable in areas of poor exposures or in
mountainous areas. In mountainous areas the rock
fragments move down slope under gravity and the
lithology hosting the mineralization can be matched with
a probable source in a nearby cliff and a float mapping
and sampling is often combined with stream sediment
sampling especially where mineralized boulders are

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disturbed during cultivation. Burrowing animals may
also be of help. Moles or rabbits, and termites in tropical
areas, often bring small fragments to the surface.
In glaciated areas boulders may be moved up to
tens of kilometers and distinct boulders trains can be
mapped, such trains have been followed back to
deposits, notably in central Canada, Ireland and the
Scandinavia. In Finland, the technique proved so
successful that the government offered monetary reward
for finding mineralized boulders. Dogs are also trained
to sniff out the sulfide boulders as their sense of smell is
more acute than that of the exploration geologists. Below
is a table showing some of the various prospecting
method and the Raw materials they can be applied to;
Table 1: Various prospecting methods
Method An Al Be Cu Cr Fe Sn U Caf2 Salt Petro
Pb/Zn

Magnetic - + - (+) + ++ - - - -

Radiometry (+) 0 + 0 - - (+) ++ + (+)

Seismic (+) - - - - - (+) - - (+)

Geoelectric (+) 0 0 + 0 (+) (+) (+) + (+)

Gravimetry O (+) - (+) (+) (+) 0 - - ++

Geochemical - + - ++ + - + + + 0

Key: without success; 0 = rarely applied; (+) = for

indirect proof; + = applied always, ++ = Applied always
with success
Table 2: Periodic table showing cost-effective methods of elemental
analysis at levels encountered in background exploration samples.

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Pre Text Assessment Questions (1)
1. Define the term “exploration”
2. State the various prospecting methods.
3. How would you interpret vegetation cover as regard
to Geo-botanical methods of prospecting?
4. Compare and contrast Passive and Active method
of Aerial method of prospecting.
5. Suggest the most appropriate successful
prospecting technique for Fe, U, petroleum, Salt,
copper, and silver.
6/ Discuss the various prospecting methods.

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 CHAPTER TWO
GEOPHYSICAL METHOD
Geophysical techniques have been used in
mineral prospecting for the past 300 years, beginning in
Sweden around 1640 with the use of magnetic
compasses in exploring for iron ore. Resistivity
measurements followed in the 1800’s in the search for
base metals, and by the early 1900’s, the Schlumberger
brothers were successfully using self potential (SP) and
resistivity for this purpose. By 1912 Conrad
Schlumberger had patented the induced polarization (IP)
method, and had used the technique for finding
economic sulfide deposits. The use of applied
geophysics for mineral and hydrocarbon exploration as
we know it today, probably began in the 1950’s, with the
advent of sensitive magnetometers, gravity meters,
battery-powered electronic equipment, and the
application of information theory and computer
processing to seismic data acquisition.
Exploration Geophysicists use measurements of
physical quantities made at or above the ground surface
or more rarely, in boreholes to draw conclusion about

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concealed geology. For a geophysical technique to be
useful in mineral exploration there must be contrasts in
the physical properties of the rocks concerned that are
related directly or indirectly, to the presence of
economically significant minerals, and this contrast in
the physical properties of the explored rocks or mineral
is often referred to as geophysical anomalies.
Geophysical anomalies defined as differences from a
constant or slowly varying background may then be
recorded.
Geophysical methods could be classified into the
natural (ambient) fields and the artificial fields. The later
depend on input of artificial energy into the ground
examples include induced polarization, resistivity,
seismic, etc. While the natural methods of geophysical
method of exploration include the following:
i. Gravity method,
ii. Magnetic method, and
iii. Electromagnetic methods.
These methods principally search for local perturbations
in the naturally occurring field that may be caused by
concealed geological features of economic interest.
Geophysical surveying method
There are wide ranges of these methods. For each
there is an “operative” physical properties to which the
method is sensitive to. Below is a table showing some of
the methods and the physical properties in which they
are sensitive to during geo-physical exploration
operation in the field.
Magnetic Survey
The aim of magnetic survey as earlier discussed
is to investigate subsurface geology on the basis of
anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field resulting from the

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 magnetic properties of the underlying rocks. Although
most rock-forming mineral are effectively non-magnetic,
certain rock types contain sufficient magnetic minerals to
produce significant magnetic anomalies.

Table 3: Geophysical surveying method and their observed

measurement

Method Measured Parameters Operative Physical Prop

Seismic Travel times of reflected/refracted Density and elastic modu

seismic wave determines the propagation
of seismic waves.

Gravity Spatial variation in the strength of Density

the gravitational field of the earth

Magnetic Spatial variations in strength of Magnetic susceptibility

Geomagnetic field remanence
i. Induce Polarisation voltage or frequency Electric capacitance
polarization dependent ground resistance
(IP)

Electrical

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 Earth resistance
ii.Resistivity Electro chemical effects
electronic (metallic) and
(fluid)conductors

iii. Self Potential Electrical potentials Conductivity

Electromagnetic Response to electromagnetic

radiation
Radiometric Radioactivity of rocks

Basic Concepts
Within the vicinity of a bar magnet a magnetic
flux is developed which flows from one end of the
magnet to the other. This flux can be mapped from the
direction assumed by a small compass needle suspended
within it. The points within the magnet where the flux
converges are known as the poles of the magnet. Figure
1 shows the diagrammatic magnetic flux that surrounds a
bar magnet.

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Fig. 1 Magnetic flux that surrounds a bar magnet.

Magnetic Surveying Instruments

There are a variety of magnetic surveying
instruments such as fluxgate magnetometer, proton
magnetometer, optically pumped magnetometer;
magnetic gradiometers, etc. The proton magnetometer
will be discussed, while you consult other textbooks for
fluxgate magnetometer, optically pumped magnetometer,
and magnetic gradiometer.
Proton Magnetometer
This is the most commonly used magnetometer
in both surveying and observatory work. The sensing

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device of the proton magnetometer is a container filled
with a liquid rich in hydrogen atoms, such as kerosene or
water surrounded by a coil (Fig. 2a). The hydrogen
nuclei (protons) act as small dipoles and normally align
parallel to the natural geomagnetic field is (Figure 2b).
A current is passed through the coil to generate a
magnetic field Bp 50-100 times larger than the
geomagnetic field and in a different direction causing the
protons to realign in this new direction (Figure 2c). The
current to the coil is then switched off so that the
polarizing field is rapidly removed. The protons return to
their original alignment with Be with a Period of about
0.5ms, taking some 1-3s to achieve their original
alignment with Be.
Be
(a)
West Bp
East

(b) (c)

Bp

Be
(d)

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Fig.2 (a-d) Principle of proton magnetometer
Be = Natural Geomagnetic field
Bp = Artificial magnetic field
The frequency of this precision is given by

Where,
gyromagnetic ratio of the proton (an
accurately known constant).
Consequently, measurement of f(about 2 KHz)
provides a very accurate measurement of the strength of
the total geomagnetic field. f is determined by the
measurement of the alternating voltage of the same
frequency induced to flow in the coil by the protons.
Magnetic Data Interpretation
Interpretation of magnetic anomalies is similar in
its procedures and limitation to gravity interpretation as
both techniques utilize natural potential fields based on
inverse square laws of attraction. There are several
differences however, which increase the complexity of
magnetic interpretation.

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Fig 3 Gravity (g) and magnetic (B) anomalies over the same two
- dimensional body
Whereas the gravity anomaly of a causative body
is entirely positive or negative, depending on whether
the body is more or less dense than its surrounding, the
magnetic anomaly of a finite body invariably contains
positive and negative elements arising from the dipolar
nature of magnetism.
Considering the gravity attraction of a spherical
non-rotating homogenous earth of mass and radius (R).
Whereas density is a scalar, intensity of magnetization is
a vector and the direction of magnetization in a body
closely controls the shape of its magnetic anomaly. Thus
bodies of identical shape can given rise to very different
magnetic anomalies. For the above reasons magnetic
anomalies are often much less closely related to the
shape of the causative body than gravity anomalies.
Intensity of magnetization of a rock is largely depended
upon the amount, size, shape and distribution of its

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contained ferromagnetic minerals. Also magnetic
anomalies are independent of the distance units
employed for example; the same magnetic anomaly is
produced by say a 3m cube as a 3km cube with the same
magnetic properties. The same is not true for gravity.
Application of Magnetic Surveying
Magnetic surveys are used extensively in the
search for metalliferous mineral deposits; a task
accomplished rapidly and economically by airborne
methods of magnetic surveys is capable of locating
massive sulfide deposits.

Fig. 4 Vertical field ground magnetic anomaly profile over a

massive sulfide ore body.

Basic interpretation involves defining domains with

similar magnetic background and structure, defining
linearly extensive discordant features that are likely to be
faults, and defining trend lines within the different
domains. A quick early pass may be worth doing to
identify discrete high intensity magnetic features, both
highs and lows, and any swarms of magnetic dykes. It is
not uncommon for late plugs and dykes to have remnant
magnetism associated with reversal of polarity. At about
this stage, more subtle features can then be the focus of
investigation, generally using existing geology maps to
help define the origin of the magnetic features, and any
interesting departures from expected structure and
geology.
Most magnetic texture is the result of differences in the
abundance of magnetite.

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Thus a magnetic interpretation will be closely related to
geology defined by other parameters, but can be
markedly different in some aspects. Pyrrhotite can be an
important magnetic source in some units such as black
(carbonaceous) slates and higher grade metamorphic
rocks. Serpentinized ultramafic rocks are strongly
magnetic due to the presence of fine magnetite, but
metamorphosed ultramafic may have only a low
magnetic susceptibility. Oxidized granites have strong
magnetic intensity, whereas more reduced variants are
magnetically quiet. Units of intermediate calc alkaline
volcanic origin can be markedly magnetic, and similarly
sediments derived from them. Contact intrusive aureoles
may be magnetic, particularly around oxidized granites.
Gravity Surveying
Investigations here are carried out based on
variations in the earth’s gravitational field arising from
differences of densities between subsurface rocks. An
underlying concept is the idea of a causative body, which
is a rock unit of different density from its surroundings.
A causative body represents a subsurface zone of
anomalous mass and causes a localized perturbation in
the gravitational field known as gravity anomaly.
Gravity surveys measure lateral changes in the density of
subsurface rocks. The instrument used, called a
gravimeter, is in effect an extremely sensitive weighing
machine. By weighing a standard mass at a series of
surface stations, the gravimeter detects minute changes
in gravity caused by crustal density differences. Maps of
gravity variation can hence be used to map subsurface
distribution of rocks and structures, including the
anomalous density distributions that might be associated
with concealed ore.

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 To provide usable data, raw gravity measurements need
to be corrected. The first correction (for short-term drift
in the instrument) is provided by regular reading of
a base station in much the same manner as a magnetic
survey. The second correction compensates for the broad
scale variations in the earth’s gravitational field, this
correction is only significant in regional surveys. The
third correction, much the most important one, corrects
for differences in gravity caused by variation in the
elevation of the survey station above a datum, usually
sea level. To make this correction, stations need to be
levelled with great precision – in the case of a very broad
regional survey to at least one metre; in the case of a
detailed survey aimed at direct ore location, to
correspondingly greater accuracies, down to centimeter
scale. The costs involved in the very accurate surveying
necessary for altitude correction has, until recently,
generally restricted the use of gravity surveys in mineral
exploration to low-density, broad-scale, regional
coverage. However, differential GPS (DGPS) surveying
now allows rapid and relatively cheap leveling of
stations and has made detailed gravity surveys
comparable in cost to that of ground-magnetic
surveys.
Basic Theory
The basis of the gravity survey method is
Newton’s law of gravitation, which states that the force
of attraction F between two masses m1 and m2 whose
dimensions are small with respect to the distance r
between them is given by

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 Where G = gravitational constant (6.67 x 10-11
m kg S-2)
3 -1

Considering, the gravity attraction of a spherical

non-rotating homogenous earth of mass M and radius R
on a small mass m on its surface.

Where g = gravitational acceleration.

Force is related to mass by acceleration and the term g=

But because the earth is ellipsoidal in shape, has

irregular surface relief and has internal mass distribution.
Gravitational field is most usefully defined in terms of
gravitational potential U.

It is also note worthy to know that

g is a vector quantity, and

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U is a scalar quantity and that the first derivative of U
gives g.
Gravity Survey Instrument
Modern instrument capable of rapid gravity
measurement are known as gravity meters or
gravimeters. Gravimeters are basically spring balances
carrying a constant mass. Variations in the weight of the
mass caused by variations in gravity cause the length of
the spring to vary and give a measure of the change in
gravity.
Fig. 5 Principle of stable gravimeter operation
Gravity Data Interpretation
Geophysical interpretations are notoriously
ambiguous but the gravity method does provide at least
in theory, a unique and unambiguous answer to one
exploration question. If an anomaly is fully defined over
the ground surface, the total gravitational flux is
proportional to the total excess mass of the source body.
Any error or uncertainties mostly emanate from the
background (i.e. country rocks) and not the method
itself.
The peaks of gravity anomalies are generally
located directly above the causative bodies. Full
quantitative interpretations are usually made by entering
a geological model into a computer program that
calculates the corresponding gravity field, and then
modifying the model until there is an acceptable degree
of fit between the observed calculated fields. This
process is known as forward modeling. The reliability of
any interpretation, no matter how sophisticated the
technique, depends of course on the validity of the input
assumptions.
Radiometric Method

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 Natural radioactive decay produces alpha
particles (consisting of two neutrons and two protons
bound together), beta particles (high energy electrons),
and gamma rays (very high frequency electromagnetic
waves). Alpha and beta radiations are screened out by
one or two centimeters of solid rock and even a little
transported soil may conceal the alpha and beta effects of
mineralization. Gamma rays are more useful in
exploration but even they have ranges of only one or two
meters in solid matter.
These surveys measure the natural radiation
emitted by rocks at surface. The data are collected and
presented in a similar way to magnetic data. Radiometric
measurements are often carried out from a low-flying
aircraft at the same time as air magnetic surveys.
Radiometric measurements can also be taken with
land-based instruments that can be used at ground
stations or lowered down drill holes. The instrument
used is called a spectrometer.
The most abundant naturally occurring radioactive
element in the crust is the potassium isotope 40K, largely
incorporated into the crystal structure of the rock
forming mineral orthoclase. Of lesser importance as a
source of radiation is thorium (found in monazite, an
accessory mineral of some granite and pegmatite
bodies). The radioactive mineral normally sought by
explorers – uranium – is seldom abundant, but at low
concentrations can characterize particular rocks such as
highly fractionated granites or some black shale
sequences. Spectrometers provide selectable channels so
that radiation derived from these different sources can be
distinguished. Since most natural radiation comes from
potassium, maps of total radiation count provide a very

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effective way of mapping the distribution of alkali
igneous rock and of sediments (such as arkose) derived
from these rocks. Monazite weathers from bedrock to
form a resistant heavy detrital mineral that often
accumulates in watercourses or strand lines.
For this reason, these features often stand out on the
thorium channel of radiometric maps. Maps presenting
ratios of radiometric measurements made in different
channels, such as U/Th and K/U can be very useful for
discriminating different rock types. Different granite
suites may have distinctive radiometric ratios.
Radiometric images have no depth penetration and
depend on signals from surface materials, so they can be
particularly useful in adding value to regolith maps.

Among other instruments used is the Geiger

counter which is only sensitive to alpha particles and is
now obsolete. Gamma ray energies can be measured in
spectrometers allowing different sources of radiation to
be identified. Terrestrial radiation may come from the
decay of 40k, which makes up about 0.01% of naturally
occurring potassium, or from thorium or uranium.
Radiation arises not only from decay of these elements
but also from unstable daughter isotopes of lighter
elements formed during decay and usually themselves
unstable and producing further offspring. This normally
causes a background of scattered radiation as shown in
figure 6.

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Fig.. 6. Typical gamma ray spectrum recorded at ground level.
Correction must then be made for the effects of
scattered radiation in respect of the one sought after.
The unpopularity of nuclear power has made the
importance of radiometric method decline accordingly. It
is however used in locating alteration zones in acid and
intermediate intrusions.
Resistivity Method
Resistivity methods employ an artificial course of
current which is introduced in the ground through point
electrodes or long line contacts. The procedure involves
measuring a potential difference between two electrodes
resulting from an applied current through two other
electrodes outside but in line with the potential
electrodes. The electrodes array may be equally spaced
(Wenner array) or the space between the potential
electrodes at the centre is half the distance between
current electrodes (Schlumberger). The spacing of the
electrodes control depth of penetration. The resistivity of
rock formation is governed by porosity resistivity of the
component minerals, texture of the rock, quality and
concentration of dissolved salts and temperature.
Data interpretation is by partial curve matching,
after it has been generated with the aid of an instrument
called Terrameter. The apparent resistivity measured is

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plotted against electrode spacing. Though, a much more
reliable method of data interpretation has replaced the
obsolete curve matching technique. This is the
sophisticated computer program which now allows the
results obtained from multiple Wenner traverses at
different electrode separation along single lines to be
inverted to cross sections approximating the actual
subsurface distribution of resistivity.

Fig.7 (a-e) Resistivity method

Seismic Method
Seismic method dominate oil industry geophysics
but are comparatively little used in mineral exploration
partly because of their high cost but more especially
because most ore bodies in igneous and metamorphic
rocks lack coherent layering.
It is however applied in the search for offshore
placers such as heavy minerals e.g. sand and gravels. It
is also useful in the search for ores occurring in
sedimentary rocks that have been only gently folded or

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faulted. However, reflection work on shore is slow and
expensive because detectors (geophones) have to be
positioned individually by hand and also because of the
variability of near surface weathered layers, their results
require sophisticated processing and even then are
usually less easy to interpret than marine data.
Refraction methods use simpler equipments and
need less processing than reflection method but can
succeed only if the subsurface is regularly layered and
velocity increases with depth at each interface.
Electromagnetic (EM) Surveys
Electromagnetic surveys aim to measure the
conductivity of rocks, either by making use of naturally
occurring electromagnetic fields in the crust, or by
applying an external electromagnetic field (the primary
field) and inducing a current to flow in conductive rocks
below. Passing an alternating current through a wire or
coil, which is either laid out along the ground or
mounted in an aircraft flying overhead, provides the
primary field. The current induced in conductive rocks
produces a secondary field. Interference effects between
the primary and secondary fields provide a means of
locating the conductive rock body.
Since many massive metal sulphide ore bodies
are significantly conductive, EM techniques are mostly
used as direct ore-targeting tools in the search for this
type of
deposit. EM systems work best for ore bodies within
0–200 m of the surface. Although, theoretically, larger
primary fields and more widely spaced electrodes can
give much deeper penetration, the problems of
interpreting the results of EM surveys go up
exponentially with increasing depth of penetration.

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 Ground based EM techniques are relatively
expensive procedures that are applicable to defining drill
targets for specific mineralization styles within
established prospects or highly prospective belts. EM
systems are available which can be used down drill holes
to measure the effects of currents flowing between the
hole and the ground surface or between adjacent holes.
Airborne systems have been used both for direct ore
location and for regional geological mapping purposes.
Problems in interpreting EM surveys arise
because many host rocks to mineralization can give a
similar geophysical response to the mineralization itself.
Water-filled fault lines, graphitic shale and
magnetite-rich zones all can give spurious conductivity
anomalies. Deep weathering or salty groundwater can
make EM surveys either unworkable or at least very
difficult to interpret. For this reason, EM surveys have
had most success in locating ore in those parts of the
world where
fresh, unoxidized rocks occur close to the surface.
Hybrid Electrical and Magnetic Surveys
These techniques put an electric current (the
primary current) directly into the ground via a pair of
buried electrodes in much the same manner as for a
conventional electrical survey. However, rather than
measuring the return voltage with another set of ground
electrodes, a magnetometer is employed to measure the
magnetic fields that are induced by the primary and
secondary currents. This creates much faster and cheaper
survey logistics than conventional EM or IP, since the
return signal can be measured at a distance. The
variations in the induced magnetic fields can be
measured and analysed in both space and time. The

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technique is capable of producing magnetic, resistivity
and chargeability data in one survey operation. The
techniques are also capable of measuring return signals
in areas where conductive surface overburden
prevents ground-contact surveys from obtaining
meaningful information.
Placing the primary current electrodes along the
strike of any postulated mineralization channels the
current along the conductive body and so increases the
magnetic signal.
Geological Concern versus Geophysical thinking
Geophysical techniques are routinely used in an
exploration program to help the project geologist
delineate areas favorable for the type of target being
pursued. Geophysical techniques can look beneath
alluvial cover. They can be used to directly detect some
minerals, indirectly detect others, and to map geological
and structural features in exploration programs.
Direct detection includes using induced
polarization (IP) to find disseminated sulfides, magnetics
to delineate magnetite hosting rocks, and gravity and
electrical techniques for massive sulfides. Examples of
indirect detection of targets include using IP to detect
pyrite in association with sphalerite and gold (both
non-responders to IP geophysical techniques), and
copper and molybdenum in porphyry systems.
Magnetics are routinely used to search for hydrothermal
alteration in association with porphyry systems, and can
be used to map buried stream channels (magnetite sands)
that might host placer gold.
In Mineral exploration geological curiosity must
be reconciled with geophysical expectation. Often, one
of the most difficult tasks in putting together an

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Nature favours the brave
 exploration program is getting geologists and
geophysicists to speak the same language - that is, to
understand each other in order to effectively use
geophysics to help solve the problem at hand. The
following table is an effort to list some of the more
common topics that might be encountered in such a
discussion as shown in page 42.
Table 4: Geologist Concern against Geophysicist Thinking

Geologist’s Geophysicist Thinks in Applicable Geophysical

Concern: terms of: Method:
Permeability Resistivity Resistivity
Porosity Density Seismic, Gravity
Foliation, Anisotropy Resistivity, Seismics,
bedding bedding CSAMT, IP, CR
Faults and Abrupt changes in Resistivity, Seismics,
fractures resistivity and density Gravity, Magnetics,
CSAMT, TEM, FEM
Metallic luster minerals Exploration
0.2 to 5% minerals Resistivity,
Disseminated Weak conductor IP, CR, SP,
Low resistivity Magnetic,
Moderate to strong IP Seismic
Greater than 10% Resistivity, CSAMT, TEM,
Massive mineralization FEM, Magnetics,
Strong conductor Seismics, SP
Very low resistivity IP, CR
Moderate to weak IP
Alteration High or low resistivity Resistivity, IP, CR (clays),
depending upon alteration Magnetics,
type. CSAMT, TEM,FEM
Weak magnetic. Radiometrics, SP
Moderate to weak IP
Silication Large resistivity contrasts Resistivity, CSAMT,
(dike-like) Potassium Seismics
Features Radiometrics
Low resistivity Resistivity,
Hydrothermal Weak magnetic, Magnetic,
alteration Potassium Radiometrics,
Radiometrics,
Seismics, IP, CR

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 Low over high resistivity Resistivity, CSAMT
Weathering TEM, FEM, Seismics
Weak magnetic Magnetics, (IP), CR,
Radiometrics
Buried stream Subtle resistivity changes Resistivity, NanoTEM,
channels Magnetics, Seismics
Magnetic sands (TEM, CSAMT)
Density changes

Leaking dams Resistivity changes Resistivity, CSAMT, SP

and ponds Streaming potentials NanoTEM, FEM

Self Assessment Questions

1. In tabular form, state the geophysical method in

relations to following:
a) Measured parameters
b) Operative physical properties
c) Causes of anomalies
2. State the similarity between the interpretation of
magnetic anomalies and gravity interpretation.
3. Identify the scalar quantity from the following:
density, intensity of magnetization, gravitational
acceleration, and gravitational potential.
4. Seismic method of exploration has little
application on solid mineral exploration. Put up a
justifiable argument to explain this assertion.
5. Enumerate geophysical methods, stating the areas
of its applications.

CHAPTER THREE

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 GEOCHEMICAL METHODS
Geochemistry is concerned with the physical-
chemical principle that influence and /or control the
fractionation, migration, deposition and distribution of
the chemical elements (and their isotopes) in the various
rock classes that comprise the earth’s crust. More
specifically applied geochemistry is concerned with
prospecting for natural resources (metals and non
metals) including fossil fuel (petroleum and natural gas)
and sources of nuclear fuel. The exploration geochemist
uses the principles and concepts of both geology and
chemistry to locate mineral deposits within large areas.
In addition the extension of geochemistry and into floral
and faunal (biogeochemistry) and into gaseous or
atmospheric analysis further aids the exploration
geochemist in his search.
Sample Collection and Preparation
Sample should be collected in non metallic
containers to avoid contamination. Polythene paper bags
are best suited for sampling soils and stream sediments
because the bags retain their strength if the samples are
wet. Thick gauge plastic or cloth is preferred for rock
sample. All samples should be clearly labeled by pens
containing non metallic ink.
Most sample preparation is carried out in the
field, particularly when it involves the collection of soils
and stream sediments. The aim of the sample preparation
is to reduce the bulk of the samples and prepare them for
shipment.
Population and Sampling
Sampling is a scientific, selective process applied
to a large mass or group in order to reduce its bulk for
interpretative purposes. This is achieved by identifying a

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component part (sample) which reflects the
characteristics of the parent population within acceptable
limits of accuracy, precision and cost effectiveness. It is
fundamental in sampling that samples are represented, at
all times, of the population. If they are not the results are
incorrect.
Types of Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques could be classified as follows:
i. Channels sampling
ii. Chip Sampling
iii. Grab Sampling
iv. Laterite Sampling
Channels Sampling
In mineral exploration a channel is cut in an
outcrop, usually the same diameter as the core being
collected, to maintain the volume variance relationships.
It is cut using a hammer and a chisel or a circular saw,
across the strike of mineralization. As the material is cut,
it is allowed to fall to the floor on to a plastic sheet or
sample tray from which it is collected and bagged.
Samples are normally 0.5-5kg in weight, mostly 1-2kg
are rarely taken over 2m or so in length.
Chip Sampling
Chip samplings are obtained by collecting rock
particles chipped from a surface, either along a line or
over an area. In an established mine, rock chips from
blast holes are sampled using scoops, channels, or pipes
pushed into the heap. Chip sampling is used also as an
inexpensive reconnaissance tool to see if mineralization
is of sufficient interest to warrant the more expensive
channel sampling.
Grab Sampling

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 In this case the samples of mineralized rock are
not taken in place, as are channel and chip samples, but
consist of already broken material. Representative
handfuls or shovelfuls of broken rock are picked at
random at some convenient location and these form the
sample.
Laterite Sampling
In complex weathering profiles that have
developed over a long period of time, metals derived
from underlying primary mineralization can concentrate
in some horizons and be depleted in others. In the
weathering process that produces laterite terrains, a layer
characterized by iron accumulation forms at or near the
surface: this zone is often one of enrichment in metal. In
other weathering environments Calcium Carbonate
deposition (calcrete) may preferentially accumulate trace
amounts of metal such as gold or uranium. Depending on
the geologist’s understanding of
metal distribution through the Laterite profile, ge
ochemical sampling programmes may need to focus on
different layers of the weathering profile. Where
a subsequent cycle of erosion has affected old regolith
profiles , the layer of iron enrichment can be stripped
away, exposing the underlying leached and
metal-depleted zone at surface. Surface sampling of this
zone would give no indication of underlying
mineralization. The stripped ferruginous gravels (called
lag gravels) are resistant rocks and might accumulate
down-slope. If they can be recognized and mapped, and
their provenance established, ferruginous lag can provide
a
very useful sampling medium. The
key to devising an effective geochemical sampling

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programme in laterite terrain is good quality regolith
mapping combined with an understanding of the
movement and deposition of
trace metals through the profile.
Drying
Soils and stream sediments are generally dried
either in the sun, in low temperature ovens, or freeze
dried, the temperature should be below 650c so that
volatile element such as mercury are not lost.
Sieving
Drying is generally followed by gentle disaggregation
and sieving to obtain the desired size fraction. Care
should be taken to avoid the use of metallic materials
and to avoid carryover from highly mineralized to
background samples.
Crushing
Since preparation of rocks and vegetation is
usually carried out in the laboratory care should be taken
in the selection of crushing material. For example, in a
rock geochemical program a company searching for
volcanic associated massive sulfides found manganese
which became misleading until further investigations
reveals it came from pieces of steel breaking off from the
jaw crusher. Crushing equipments should be thoroughly
clean between samples to avoid contamination.
Objectives of size reduction
The aims of size reduction inter alia:
i. Reduction of large lumps into small pieces
ii. Production of solids of desired size ranges or
specific surfaces for direct metallurgical
treatment e.g. powdered coal for boilers.

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 iii. Breaking apart valuable minerals from intimately
associated gangue material i.e. liberation of
valuables from gangue.
iv. Convenience in handling and transportation
v. Preparation of feed material for different ore
processing methods e.g. granular material for
gravity method and fine particles for froth
flotation.
Settling
Factors Affecting the Settling Particles
i. Specific gravity of particles: if two particles have
the same size but different specific gravities, the
particles having higher specific gravity will fall
faster.
ii. Shape of particles: Spherical grains will fall
faster than the long, narrow grains and the latter
will fall faster than the flat grain.
iii. Size of particles: If the particles have the same
specific gravity, larger particles will fall faster.
iv. Viscosity of fluids with increasing viscosity of
the fluid, the rate of fall becomes slower, or the
resistance to fall increases.
Analytical Methods
Most analysis is aimed at the determination of the
elemental concentrations in a sample and usually traces
metals. At present it is impossible to analyze all elements
simultaneously at the required levels, so some
compromises have to be made . In exploration for base
metals it is usual to analyze for the elements sought, e.g.
copper in the case of a copper deposit, and as many
useful elements as possible at a limited extra cost. The
major methods are as shown in Table 5.
Geochemical Methods in Mineral Exploration

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Geo-botanical Methods
Geo-botanical methods of prospecting involve
the use of vegetation for identification of the nature and
properties of the substrate. These methods are among the
easiest to execute and yet the most difficult to interprets
of all the method of exploration available at the present
time.
This method was applied in the Zambian copper
belt where a small mauve copper flower Becium homblei
which requires a soil copper content of 5 — 160ppm cu
to thrive, was used as indicator plant.
Unfortunately recent research has demonstrated
that most indicator plants will flourish under other
conditions and are not very reliable.
A more reliable indicator of metal is soil is the
stunting of plants or yellowing (chlorosis).
Stream Sediment
The most widely used reconnaissance technique
in residual areas undergoing active weathering is stream
sediment sampling. The aim of this survey is to obtain a
sample that is representative of the catchment area of the
stream sampled. The active sediment in the bed of a river
forms as a result of the passage of elements in solution
and in particulate form past the sampling point.
The simplicity of the method allows the rapid evaluation
of areas at relatively low cost. Interpretation of stream
sediments data is carried out by comparing the elemental
concentrations of catchments, as there is only a poorly
defined relationship between the chemistry of the stream
sediment and the chemistry of the catchments from
which it is derived. In stream sediment sampling the
whole stream sediment or a particular grain size or

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Nature favours the brave
mineralogical fraction of the sediment, such as a heavy
mineral concentrate, can be collected.

Figure 8: Stream sediment tools (stainless sieve and collection pan)

Soil sampling
This involves taking of near surface soil samples.
The major problem is to decide which layer of the soil to
sample, as the differences between the layers are often
greater than that between sites. The type of soil reflects
the surface processes but in general the most effective
samples are from a zone at around 30cm depth formed
by downward movement of clays, organic material, and

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Nature favours the brave
iron oxides. This technique relies on the fact that metals
derived from the weathering of sub cropping ore often
form a wide, near surface dispersion halo around or
adjacent to, the deposit. With the ability of chemical
analysis to detect very low element abundance, a
regularly spaced sampling grid can thus locate the
surface “footprint” of the ore body. Significant
anomalies may be of the target metal or of elements that
are known to be associated with the style of
mineralization sought.
As a relatively expensive technique, soil
sampling is typically employed in the detailed
exploration of prospective mineral belts or established
prospects, where it is used to define specific targets for
follow-up drill testing.
Not all soils are in situ residual accumulations of
weathered bedrock. They may,for example, have been
transported for some distance laterally from their source
by the action of gravity, wind or rain. The soils may be
part of a landscape with a long history of evolution. That
history might have involved variable water tables and
cycles of chemical enrichment and depletion. To
adequately interpret the results of a soil survey it is
therefore essential to have an understanding of the
regolith9 of which they are a part. Regoliths can have
long and complex evolutionary histories and need to be
geologically mapped and interpreted prior to planning a
soil geochemistry survey, in order to define those areas
suitable for this type of sampling.
In gold exploration, very low concentrations of
the metal in soil samples can be determined by
employing the Bulk Leach Extractable Gold – or BLEG
– assay

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technique. In this method, a large sample (2–5 kg) of silt
sized material is digested
for several days in a sodium cyanide solution to extract
all contained gold. The solution is then assayed for gold.
Because all the gold from a large sample size is
extracted, it is possible to obtain an assay for the original
sample at the parts per trillion level (ppt).
Hydro Geochemistry
Hydro geochemistry uses water as a sampling
medium. Although water is the most widely available
material for geochemistry, its use is restricted to very
specific circumstances. The reason for this is that not all
elements show equal dissolution rates, indeed many are
very low and have been difficult to measure until
recently, being highly depended on the weather and
easily contaminated by human activity. Hydro
geochemistry is useful in the exploration of arid areas
with poor outcrop. In this terrain water wells are often
drilled for irrigation and these tap deep aquifers that can
be used to explore in the subsurface. This approach has
been used in uranium exploration although it has not
been very successful as the uranium concentration is
dependent on the age of the groundwater, the amount of
evaporation, and its source, which are extremely difficult
to determine.
Bio-geochemistry
Plants require most trace elements for their
survival and take these through their roots, transpiring
many residues from their leaves and concentrating most
trace elements in their recent growth. Unfortunately for
the geochemist the rate of uptake and concentration of
element is highly dependent on the species and the
season. In general sampling is conducted on one part of

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Nature favours the brave
the plant, usually first and second year leaves or twigs.
The variation in concentration with season is so severe
that sampling must be restricted in time. In general
around 500g of sample are collected and ashed prior to
analysis. The main advantage of biogeochemistry is that
tree roots often tap relatively deep water tables which in
glacial areas can be below the transported material and
representative of bedrock.
Rock Geochemistry
This method is used in detail surveying where
there is good outcrop or where there is drill core. On a
regional basis this method has been applied in the
delineation of mineralized felsic plutons, e.g. Copper and
tungsten. Tin mineralization is associated with highly
evolved and altered intrusive and these are easily
delineated using rock geochemistry. Care need to be
taken in the collection of rock samples. In general 1kg
samples are sufficient for base metal exploration while
precious metal requires 5kg samples. Rock geochemistry
depends on multi-element interpretation and computer
based interpretation with careful subdivision of samples
on the basis of lithology.
Table 5: Summary of the main methods used in exploration
Geochemistry
Method Multi element Precision Comments
Sample
Colorimetry No Poor Good for field use
and they search
for W, Mo
Atomic No Good Cheap and precise
absorption
spectrophotomet
ry
v-ray Yes Good Good for
fluorescence refractory
elements

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 ICP-ES Yes Good Good for
transition metals
ICP-MS Yes Good Good for heavy
metals. High
resolution
instruments very
low detection
limits.
The differences between methods shown are cost,
the detection limits of analysis, speed of analysis and the
need to take materials into solution. In developed
countries with sophisticated laboratories and steady
power supply uses ICP-ES, ICP-MS, or XRF while
developing countries uses more of AAS.
Heavy Mineral Concentrate (HMC) Sampling
Panning stream sediments to extract any heavy
mineral component is an ancient, but still very relevant
and effective, geochemical prospecting technique. This
method is explained in detail in chapter 3. The heavy
mineral concentrate (HMC) can be examined at the
collection site to identify and quantify its mineral content
(e.g. number of grains of gold). If required, the
concentrate can then be collected into a Kraft paper
sample envelope for subsequent assay. Positive results
from on-site examination can be immediately followed
up with upstream sampling until the source of the
anomaly is located.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
EXPLORATION GRID
Exploration Grid
This is the systematic division of an area into
grid for the purpose of proving reserves and the stock
piles of raw materials as basis of evaluating the deposits
and for the planning of the plant. The grid system
involves definite distance throughout the area of
investigation. Below are the various types of exploration
grid.

(a) (b)
Square grid

Rectangular grid
(c)

Rhomboid
Grid
Fig. 9 (a-c) Types of exploration grid.
Drilling Methods
In areas where soil cover is thin, the location and
testing of bedrock mineralization is made relatively

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straightforward by the examination and sampling of
outcrops. However in location of thick cover such testing
may involve a deep sampling program by pitting,
trenching or drilling. Pitting, to a depths of up to 30m,
and also trenching forms the simplest and least
expensive method of deep sampling. For safety purpose
all pits and trenches are filled in when exploration work
is completed. Drilling penetrates to greater depth but is
more expensive and requires specialized equipments and
expertise.
Drilling
Drilling in the context of geological exploration
could be described as an operation that involve the
introduction of hole into rock mass or geological strata
using mechanical instrument for the purpose of
extracting or obtain the sub-surface material which may
be loose or compact for examination and identification.
This process is perhaps carried out in the following
methods:
i. Auger drilling method
ii. Rotary drilling method
iii. Percussion drilling method
Percussion-Rotary drilling method
Choosing the Right Technique
Selecting the right technique or combination of
techniques is always a trade-off between speed, cost,
required sample quality, sample volume; logistics and
environmental considerations. Augering and RAB
drilling provide relatively low levels of geological
knowledge but are quick and cheap and so are useful
principally as geochemical reconnaissance tools for
collecting samples below areas of shallow overburden
Large rotary percussion rigs can quickly drill a

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large-diameter hole (100–200 mm) with good sample
volume and at reasonable cost. They are powerful
machines capable of penetrating much deeper and
through harder rock than the RAB rig. However, in
normal rotary percussion drilling, the long sample return
from drill bit to the surface along the outside of the rods
may produce contamination from the walls of the hole.
This problem can be especially acute when dealing with
the low and often erratic concentrations typical of gold
mineralization. The sample recovery system used in the
RC drill rig is designed to overcome the contamination
problem and for this reason RC rigs are nowadays
specified in most rotary percussion drilling programmes.
Diamond drilling provides the premier sample for both
geology and geochemistry.
A diamond impregnated cutting bit produces a
solid cylinder of rock .The rock sample can be obtained
from any depth that is capable of being mined. Diamond
drill core permits sophisticated geological and structural
observations to be made, and can also yield a
large-volume of uncontaminated sample with high
recovery suitable for geochemical assay. Drill core can
be oriented permitting structures to be measured.
Diamond drilling is also the most expensive technique.
As a general rule, for the cost of 1 m of diamond drilling,
up to 4 m of RC or 20 m of RAB can be drilled.
From almost all points of view, the larger the
core diameter the better. Large diameter holes provide
better core recovery and deviate less. Lithology and
structure
are much easier to recognize in the larger core sizes and
a larger volume sample is better for geochemical assay
and ore reserve calculations. However, as the cost of

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Nature favours the brave
diamond drilling is roughly in proportion to the core
size, a compromise on hole size is usually necessary.
The specific requirements of an exploration programme
play a large part in the choice of drilling technique. For
example, if the area is geologically complex, or the
exposure is poor, and there are no clearly defined targets
(or perhaps too many targets), it may be imperative to
increase the level of geological knowledge by diamond
drilling. In this case, the geological knowledge gained
from the diamond drill core
can be used to help prioritize surface geochemical
anomalies or develop conceptual targets. On the other
hand, if discrete and clearly defined surface geochemical
anomalies are to be tested to see if they are the
expression of blind but shallow ore bodies, it may be
sufficient to simply test them with a large number of RC
or even RAB drill holes.
Auger drilling
Augers are hand held or truck mounted drills
which have rods with spiral flights to bring soft material
to the surface. They are used particularly to sample
placer deposit. It is commonly used in depths of less than
30m while hole-diameters are from 5 to 15cm in the
larger units.

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An Auger
Rotary drilling
Rotary drilling is a non-coring method and is
used for drilling through soft to medium hard rocks such
as limestone, chalk or mudstone. A typical rotary bit is
the tricone or roller rock bit that is tipped with tungsten
carbide insets. Rock chips are flushed to the surface by
the drilling fluid for examination and advances of up to
100m per hour are possible. This type of drilling is

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Nature favours the brave
typically used in the oil industry and water borehole
industry.

Fig. 10: Rotary drilling

Percussion drilling
In percussion drilling, a hammer unit driven by
compressed air impacts a series of short rapid blows to
the drill rods or bit. The drills vary in size from small
hand held units (as used in road repair work) to large
truck-mounted rigs. They are divided into down-the-hole
hammer drills and Top hammer drills.
Rotary-Percussion drilling
Rotary-percussive method of drilling combined
the effect of impact with aid of hammer, with rotary
action. In rotary percussion drilling, a variety of blade or

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roller bits mounted on the end of a rotating string of rods
cut and break the rock. A percussion or hammer action
in conjunction with a chisel bit can be used to penetrate
hard material. High-pressure air pumped to the face of
the bit down the centre of the rods serves to lubricate the
cutting surfaces and to remove the broken rock (cuttings)
by blowing it to the surface. The cuttings consist of
broken, disoriented rock fragments ranging in
size from silt (“rock flour”) to chips up to 3 cm diameter.
In standard rotary percussion drilling, the broken
rock reaches the surface along the narrow space between
the drill rods and the side of the hole. In a mineral
exploration programme all the cuttings emerging from
the hole at surface are collected in a large container
called a cyclone. Small rotary percussion drills using
standard recovery of broken rock to the surface are
usually known as rotary air blast or RAB drills. Some
models of very lightweight, power-driven percussion
drills are available, which are capable of being hand held
and can be ideal for operation in very remote or hard to
access sites.
Reverse circulation (RC) drilling is a type of
rotary percussion drilling in which broken rock from the
cutting face passes to the surface inside separate tube
within
the drill stem (the system is properly called dual-tube
reverse circulation).
Diamond Drilling
The sample is cut from the target by a diamond –
armoured or impregnated bit. This produces a cylinder of
rock that is recovered from the inner tube or core barrel.
The bit and core barrel are connected to the surface by a
continuous length (string) of steel or aluminum alloy

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rods, which allow the bit plus core barrel to be lowered
into the hole.

Fig. 11 Diamond drilling.

Types of Drilling Bits
Drill bits are classified as either impregnated or
surface-set. The former consists of fine grained synthetic
or industrial grade diamonds within metallic cement
while the later have individual diamond, sized by their
number per carat.

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Fig. 12 : Different types of drilling bits.
In general impregnated bits are suitable for tough
compact rocks such as cherts, while surface – set
varieties with large individual diamonds are used for
softer rocks such as limestone.
Diamond bits will penetrate any rock in time but because
of their high cost and the need to maximize core advance
and core recovery with minimum bit wear, the choice of
bit requires considerable experience and judgment.
Apart from diamond drill other types of drill bits
include tungsten carbide, and hard alloy amongst others.

Geological Logging of Borehole Cores

Effective core recovery is essential. If recovery is
less than 85-90% the value of the core is doubtful as
mineralized and altered rock zones are frequently most
friable and the first to be ground away and lost during
drilling.
The core is not then representative of the rock
drilled; it is not a true sample and probably misleading.
Core drilling

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 Often initial rapid core logging is done at the
drills site. This information is used to decide whether the
hole is to be either continued or abandoned. Wetted core
is more easily examined, using either a hard lens or a
binocular microscope. Most organizations have a
standard procedure for core logging and a standard
terminology to describe geological features. Field data
loggers are now used to gather company standardized
digital data which are down loaded to the central
database upon return to the field base or office, where a
more detailed examination takes place. At this stage
structural features such as fracture spacing and
orientation are a lithological description (colour, texture,
mineralogy, rock alteration and rock name) are done.

CHAPTER FIVE
Geological Prospecting
Geological Mapping
One of the key elements during exploration of a
prospect is the preparation of a geological map. The
process of geological mapping is similar to that of
general mapping, but is more focused. Its scale and
quality will vary with the importance of the program and

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the finance available. Initial investigation of a prospect
may only require sketch mapping on an aerial
photograph, whereas detailed investigation prior to
drilling may necessitate mapping every exposure.

Why Make a Map?

A geological map is a graphical presentation of
geological observations and interpretations on a
horizontal plane. A geological section is identical in
nature to a map except that data are recorded and
interpreted on a vertical rather than a horizontal surface.
Maps and sections are essential tools in visualizing
spatial, three dimensional, geological relationships. They
allow theories on ore deposit controls to be applied and
lead (hopefully) to predictions being made on the
location, size, shape and grade of potential ore bodies.
They are the essential tool to aid in developing
3-dimentional concepts about geology and
mineralisation at all scales.
Making, or otherwise acquiring, a geological
map is invariably the first step in any mineral
exploration programme, and it remains an important
control document for all subsequent stages of
exploration and mining, including drilling, geochemistry,
geophysics, geostatistics and mine planning. In an
operating mine, geological mapping records the limits to
visible ore in mine openings, and provides the essential
data and ideas to enable projection of assay information
beyond the sample points. Making a geological map is
thus a fundamental skill for any exploration or mine
geologist.
Pitting, Trenching and Panning
Pitting

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 This is the digging of pits to the depth of 3-4m
and up to 6m depending on whether human labour is
used or a mechanical excavator. In wet, soft ground any
pit deeper than 1m is dangerous and boarding must be
used. Digger excavates rapidly and pits 3-4m deep can
be dug, logged, sampled and refilled within an hour. In
tropical regions, thick lateritic soil forms ideal condition
for pitting provided the soil is dry
Pitting and Trenching
Pitting is usually employed to test shallow,
extensive, flat-lying bodies of mineralization. An ideal
example of this would be a buried heavy mineral placer.
The main advantage of pitting over a pattern-drill
programme on the same deposit is that pits are capable
of providing a very large volume sample. Large sample
sizes are necessary to overcome problems of variable
grade distribution, which are a characteristic feature of
such deposits. Trenches are usually employed to expose
steep dipping bedrock buried below shallow overburden,
and are normally dug across the strike of the rocks or
mineral zone being tested. Trenches are an excellent
adjunct to RAB or RC drilling programmes, where the
structural data from trench mapping are needed to
complement the lithological information obtained from
the drill cuttings. In some cases, it may be possible to
completely strip shallow unconsolidated overburden to
expose large areas of bedrock. This is done by
bulldozing and/or by sluicing with high-pressure water
hoses. The bedrock can then be mapped and sampled in
great detail. Since the process is environmentally
destructive, and rehabilitation would be expensive,
extensive stripping would normally only be attempted
when a prospective mineralized zone had been defined,

53
Nature favours the brave
and special sampling/geological problems were present
that needed this kind of 100% exposure for their
resolution.
Pits and trenches can be dug by bulldozer, by
excavator, by back-hoe or even by hand. Excavators and
back-hoes are generally much quicker, cheaper and
environmentally less damaging than bulldozers, and
because of this are nowadays usually the preferred
options for costeaning. A large excavator can match a
bulldozer in its power to dig rock. Back-hoes are
relatively light machines suitable for digging small pits
or narrow trenches. Back-hoe trenches are difficult or
impossible to enter and back-hoes are really more of a
geochemical sampling tool than a geological tool.
When digging a trench, an excavator that can dig
a trench of at least 1inch width and that is capable of
penetrating a minimum of I m into recognizable bedrock
should be used. It is very hard to observe details of
geology on the walls of trenches that are smaller than
this. Continuous trenching machines which can rapidly
cut a narrow (around 20 cm) trench to 1–2 m depth in
soft material, have also been used in exploration (and
grade-control sampling in the soft weathered material of
some open cuts) for providing a continuous geochemical
sample. These trenches are generally of little use for
anything other than basic lithological mapping.
Hand-dug pits and trenches are a valid option in places
where power excavation equipment cannot be brought to
a remote site, and abundant cheap labour is available. In
remote and rugged tropical areas, contour trails/trenches
have been successfully employed in order to locate the
source of anomalous float boulders or stream sediment
geochemical anomalies. These trenches are long

54
Nature favours the brave
continuous notches, or incised tracks, cut along the
contours of steep slopes. They can expose narrow strips
of weathered bedrock along their inside edge. The
exposed bedrock can be geologically mapped and
channel sampled. The trails provide convenient access to
the property and they are readily surveyed using a tape
and compass.
Contour trenches cause less environmental
damage than trenches that run across the slope since in
high rainfall areas the latter tend to become drainage
channels that focus erosion.
Safety and Logistics in Trenching
When digging a trench, attention to the following points
will make subsequent mapping and sampling much safer
and more convenient:
• Cut back both sides of the top of the trench for one
bucket width and to a depth of 50–100 cm as shown in
Fig.13. This prevents loose unconsolidated surface
material from falling into the trench (and on to the head
of any geologist below!).
• Stack all topsoil and any loose surface material from
the trench on one side of the opening; stack all bedrock
material to the other side. This facilitates making
a quick assessment of the trench material from the
bedrock spoil heaps and will permit a bulk sample to be
taken if required. When re-filling the trench (a normal
environmental requirement) the spoil should be replaced
in reverse order so that the topsoil is preserved on top.
• If the trench is deep (i.e. cannot be easily climbed into
or out of) and more than 50 m long, provide an access
ramp at its midpoint.
• Most trench wall collapses take place in the first few
hours after digging or else after heavy rain. With deep

55
Nature favours the brave
trenches, it is therefore advisable to leave them for at
least 24 h before entering and not to enter them
immediately after rain.
• In any case, never enter a deep trench unless
accompanied by another person who should remain
outside the trench and be ready to provide assistance if
necessary.
• Before entering any trench, but particularly an old one,
walk it out along the surface to check for incipient wall
cave-ins. If in any doubt, do not enter! There is generally
plenty of information to be obtained from the spoil heaps
along the trench edge; the walls of old trenches are often
covered in grunge anyway and
certainly not worth risking one’s life for.

56
Nature favours the brave
Figure 13 : The ideal profile of an excavator trench

57
Nature favours the brave
Panning
Panning refers to the process whereby a sample
of alluvial or colluvial material is agitated in water in
order to separate minerals by their specific gravity.
This is usually done through the use of a pan or
bowl shaped container to separate grains on the basis of
density differences. Panning in water usually separates
discrete mineral with a density of greater than 3. Beside
precious metals, panning will detect secondary ore
minerals fragments enriched in metals and insoluble
minerals such as cassiterite, zircon, cinnabar, baryte and
most gemstones including diamond. The samples
collected are usually analyzed or the numbers of heavy
mineral grains are counted.

Fig.14 : Stages of Panning a concentrate from Sediment.

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Nature favours the brave
Panning dishes range from 30 to 40 cm diameter. The
best ones for the purposes of mineral exploration are the
30 cm pans made from dark green plastic as these are
light, easily portable and allow both gold grains and the
generally darker colors of other heavy minerals to be
easily observed. Modern designs come with ridges
(called riffles) moulded along one side of the dish to help
trap the heavy concentrate. Skill in producing a panned
concentrate sample is a very useful one for an
explorationist to acquire. Here is a brief description of
how it is done:
1. To a large extent, success in panning a heavy mineral
concentrate comes in the initial step of collecting the
best possible initial sample from the stream bed. The aim
is to make use of the natural power of flowing water to
separate heavy minerals and concentrate them at
particular places in its bed. A 2–10 kg sample
(depending on the size of the dish) of gravel and silt is
collected from a natural trap in the stream bed – you may
have to dig to get this sample and use the point of your
hammer to prize out material trapped in cracks and
crevices of bedrock. Traps are the upstream side of
natural rock bars across the stream bed, material from
the bottom of small pot holes in rocky stream beds or,
generally, the bottom portion of any gravel layer against
the stream bedrock. Exclude from the sample any
organic material or any stones more than 2–3 cm across.
Include any clay or silt that might come with the sample
and bind the gravel/sand together – this will be removed
in the subsequent washing process.
2. The sample is agitated with water in the panning dish
using alternating side-to side shaking and swirling
motions. In the initial stages you may have to gently

59
Nature favours the brave
agitate the sample with your fingers to wash off clay and
fine silt and free up the visible grains of rock and
mineral. If done thoroughly the agitation ensures that the
heavier mineral grains within the sample settle to the
bottom of the dish. As the process proceeds, larger
stones, coarse gravel and the less heavy fraction of the
wash dirt from the top of the sample is progressively
discarded. After a number of cycles of alternate agitation
and discarding, the sample is reduced to a small amount
of heavy mineral concentrate accompanied by some
residual sand in the bottom of the dish. A gentle swirling
motion using clean water is then employed to gradually
winnow this remaining fraction until only the heavy
minerals are left as a V-shaped “tail” running around the
base of the pan. The heaviest minerals will lie at the
point of the vee. This sample can be examined with a
hand lens to see how many colours of gold or other
heavy mineral are present number of cycles of alternate
agitation and discarding, the sample is reduced to a small
amount of heavy mineral concentrate accompanied by
some residual sand in the bottom of the dish. A gentle
swirling motion using clean water is then employed to
gradually winnow this remaining fraction until only the
heavy minerals are left as a V-shaped “tail” running
around the base of the pan. The heaviest minerals will lie
at the point of the vee. This sample can be examined
with a hand lens to see how many colours of gold or
other heavy mineral are present.

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Nature favours the brave
 CHAPTER SIX
MINERAL EVALUATION AND TONNAGE
CALCULATIONS
Mineral Valuation
This is a function that must be considered by a
company before investment is done. These factors
include technical issues such as determination of ore
reserves, selection of appropriate mining and processing
method as well as financial, social, environmental and
reclamation aspects of a project. Similarly business
issues like project ownership structure, permitting,
marketing, and government relations and their
interactions are all part of mineral valuation.
In a nutshell the following factors must be
considered in the valuation of a mineral:
i. Mine life and production rate
ii. Quality of mineralization
iii. Location of mineralization
iv. Market conditions
v. Economic climate
vi. Political stability of Host country
vii. Sustainable development, health and safety
factors
viii. Government controls and
ix. Trade union policy.
Mineralization has value if a saleable product can
be produced from it “Value” is a financial concept and is
related to the several factors discussed above rather than
just grade and tonnage. The main factors which enhance
the value of mineral are an increase in tonnage, grade,
mineral recovery, product sales price, and political

61
Nature favours the brave
stability together with decrease in cost of mining, ore
beneficiation, and transport to market, capital, and taxes.

Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve

During exploration and initial evaluation of a
base metal, industrial mineral, or coal deposit, the
principal emphasis is placed upon its geology and the
estimation of the quality and quantity of the resources
present. Data are collected from several sampling
program as described above, including trenching, pitting,
diamond drilling etc. the object of this sampling is to
provide mineral inventory once the mining Engineers
and financial analysts have established that the mineral
can be mined at a profit, or in the case of industrial
mineral can be marketed at a profit, it can then be
referred to as an ore reserve. We can then define ore
resource and reserve as:
Mineral Resource
Mineral resources could be defined as a concentration or
occurrence of material of economic interest in or on the
earth crust in such form and quantity that there are
reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction.
Mineral resources are subdivided based on increasing
geological confidence into the following:
i. Inferred mineral occurrence
ii. Indicated mineral occurrence
iii. Measured or proven ore reserve
Inferred mineral Occurrence
This is the type of mineral resource that is based
on assumption especially with comparisons with deposits
of similar type. This assumption emanates from
knowledge of the geologic character of the deposits and

62
Nature favours the brave
in most case few or no samples or measurements are
taken.
Indicated Mineral Occurrence
Here specific measurements and samples are
taken from reasonable distance on geologic evidence
with reasonable projections. The size available for
inspection, sampling and measurements are too widely
apart or inappropriately spaced on geologic evidence.
Measured or proven ore reserve
This is the one for which detailed sampling
through trenching, working, drill hole etc are carried out
on outcrop. The size for inspection sampling and
measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic
character is so well defined that the size, shape and
mineral content are well established.
Division of Exploration Area into Blocks
For geometric convenience and accurate
estimation and evaluation mineral occurrence during
exploration area are grids into blocks. Area may be
estimated by breaking it into small regular figures and
calculating the total area by geometry. Volume is
calculated by measuring the area and multiplying it by
thickness (depth) of the mineral bed.
Area of Influence of Borehole in Estimating Ore
Reserves
Drills are usually unpredictable wanderers.
However, wandering also depends upon the pressure on
the drilling bit and its rate of revolution, so that two drill
holes in similar geological situations may take different
paths. Hole with a lengths of 1000m have been found to
be several 100m off course. Since drill holes are used for
sampling at depth, if the orientation of the hole is not
known the location of the sample is similarly unknown

63
Nature favours the brave
and geological projection based on these samples will be
in error. Drilling is an expensive and a time consuming
part of mineral exploration. The objective is to drill a
precise number of holes, within budget, safely and
provide the exact number of intersections needed to
demonstrate the grade and tonnage (dimension) of the
mineralization at an appropriate level of accuracy and
precision.
The main problem however, is that in the
calculation of mineral resources the zone of influence of
each sample is not known until a minimum amount of
work is completed. If two adjacent samples (taking a
drill hole as a sample) cannot be correlated at an
acceptable confidence level, then neither has an
acceptable zone of influence in the intervening space and
further sampling is necessary. Conversely where adjacent
samples show appropriate correlation no further
sampling is required.
Tonnage Calculation
The calculation of ore tonnage requires that the
volume of mineralized zone and the tonnage conversion
factor are known. The volume is calculated by
measuring the area and multiplying it by the thickness
(depth). The area may be estimated by breaking it into
small regular figures and calculating the total area by
geometry for very irregular or curved area, they are more
easily plan metered. The tonnage conversion factor
provides the mechanism for the conversion from volume
of ore to the weight of ore. This factor is depended upon
specific gravity of the ore and the specific gravity is the
function of the mineral composition of the ore. In metric
system the tonnage is given by the volume multiply by

64
Nature favours the brave
the specific gravity and is normally expressed in
kgm3/tonne.
Take a hypothetical sample which has been
assumed to cut at regular interval and the veins assumed
to exceed a minimum mining depth of 0.91m.

15m

1.0 1.5 1.0 1.0

1.0

5.0 7.0 10.0 8.0 7.0

7.0
15m
1.0 1.5 1.0
1.0 1.0

8.5 9.0 8.0 6.0 5.0

Fig. 13, Drilling through a silver deposit (Specific gravity; 10.6).

Figure 13 represent the thickness of the deposit in the
drilled hole.
The lower figure is the average grade:
Length width thickness TF (tonnage factor)
15 15 1 10.6

65
Nature favours the brave
Tonnage = 15 x 15 x 1 x 10.6 = 2385
Weight of mineral in each block (T-G)
TG = Tonnage x Average grade (A.V)
TG – 2385 x 5.0 = 11925

To find average grade =

or
Thickness Average T.G
T.G
- -
-

- -
-

- -
-
_ _
_
X Z
Y

Average =
The cut-off grade is also determined by solving
the equation which products a zero net value e.g., Given
that a smelter offers N20000 per ton of ore, what will be

66
Nature favours the brave
the cut-off grade for the mining company if it cost
N2.40k k/m3 to mine and N1.20k/m3 to concentrate in
the mines?
Y = cut off grade
Total cost = 2.40k/m3 + 1.20k/m3 = N3.60
Y = N20000k = 5555m3
N3.60k
(i.e. the area you can mine to get N20,000
worth of mineral.)

To convert to kg

1000kg – 1 Tons

= 5555 = 5.55kg
1000
Calculation by Polygon
This is often used on drill-hole data. Polygons may
be constructed on plans, cross sections or longitudinal
sections. The method makes the assumption that the area
of influence of each drill zone extends half the distance
of each adjacent drill hole with appropriate modification
or known geologic factors such as fault, contact or
mineralization units. Once the polygon are constructed
and ranked as to the class of ores, they are planimetered
to determine the area or the area is determined
geometrically be breaking each polygon into series of
triangles. The procedure for polygon construction is:
1. Connecting lines for the drill holes.

67
Nature favours the brave
2. Construct perpendicular bisect lines between adjacent
drill holes.

3. Find the polygon by completing the line

4. The thickness of the above cut-off grade
mineralization is applied to the entire polygon to
establish the volume estimate.
By these the average grade of mineralization
encountered by the sample point within the polygon is
considered to accurately represent the grade of the entire
volume of material within the polygon.
Computation by Triangles
This method is the modification of the polygon
method. In this method a series of triangles is
constructed with the drill holes at the apexes. This
method has the advantage in that the three points are
considered in the calculation of the thickness and grade
parameters for each triangular reserve block.
Another advantage is that areas are easily
calculated by geometry or by co-ordinates using a
computer or programmable calculators. The thickness
and grade of each drill hole is determined.

68
Nature favours the brave
 Fig. 15: Determination of the Drill hole and thickness
Drill hole Thickness %cu
D1 50 0.93
D2 75 0.77
D3 60 0.82
D4 100 1.05
D5 75 0.72
D6 60 0.49
D7 105 1.63
D8 80 0.91
D9 70 0.86
D10 75 0.74

: Average grade of area T1 = D1, D4, D5

Drill hole Thickness %cu %cu x thickness

D1 50 0.93 46.5
D4 100 1.05 105

69
Nature favours the brave
 D5 75 0.72 54
225 205.5

Average grade for Area T1 =

Similarly this process is done for each triangle and then

the figures are assembled together to find the grade
parameters for the whole block.
Self Assessment Questions:
1. Explain pitting, trenching, panning
2. List the factors to be considered in the valuation
of mineral.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ali J. W & Hill.I. A. (1991) Reflection Seismics for
Shallow Geological Investigations. A case study
from central England J. Geol. Soc. London, 148,
218 – 222
Allen M. E. T. & Nichol I. (1984) Heavy – Mineral
concentrates from rocks in exploration for
massive sulphide deposits. J. Geochem. Explor.,
21, 149 – 165
Australasian Joint Ore Reservers committee (2003).
The JORC code http://www.jorc.org/main.php
Baele S. M. (1987) Silver ore Reserve Estimation,
Trinity Heap Leach, Pershing county,

70
Nature favours the brave
 Nevada-Unpublished Report, MD 87-3, US
Borax
Bell T. & Whateley M. K. G. (1994) Evaluation of
Grade estimation techniques in Whateley M. K.
G and Harvey P. K. (eds), Mineral Resource
Evaluation II, methods and case Histories, Spec.
Publ. 79, Geol. Soc. London
British Standard 812 (1975) Method of Sampling and
Testing of Mineral Aggregates, sands and fillers.
British Standard Institution, London,
Brooks R. R. (1983) Biological Methods of Prospecting
for minerals. Wiley, New York
Charles. T. M, Whateley K. G. & Evans A M (2006).
Introduction to Mineral Exploration 127 – 138,
155 – 178, 199 – 243.
David. M. (1988) Handbook of Applied Advanced
Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation.
Development in Geomathmatics, 6. Elsevier
Amsterdam.
Dunn C. E. (2001) Biogeochemical methods in the
Canadian Sheild and cordillera. In Mcclinaghan
M. B, Bobrowsky P. T. Hali G. E. M. & Cook S.,
(eds) Drift Exploration in Glacial Terrian,
151-164 spec. publc. 185 geological society
London.
Evans A. M. (1993) Ore Geology and industrial
minerals – an introduction. Blackwell Scientific
publications, Oxford.
Govett G. J. S. (1981) Rock Geochemistry in mineral
exploration. Handbook of exploration
Geochemistry, vol. 3. Elsevier Amsterdam.
Whateley M. K. G. & Harvey P. K. (eds) (1994)
Mineral Resource Evaluation II: methods and

71
Nature favours the brave
 case histories spec. publ. 79 Geological Society,
London.
The Journal of the Alaska Miners Association, Inc. 501
West Northern Lights Blvd., Suite203,
Anchorage, Alaska 99503.

Appendix

Tables of conversion factors

Length
Symbo
Name of unit Definition Relation to SI units
l

72
Nature favours the brave
 ≡ 1×10−10
ångström Å ≡ 0.1 nm
m
≈ Distance
astronomical
AU from Earth ≈ 149597871464 m [1]
unit
to Sun
= ⅓ in (see
barleycorn note above
≈ 8.46×10−3 m
(H) about
rounding)
≈
≡ Bohr
bohr, atomic 5.2917720859×10−11
a radius of
unit of length 0 ± 3.6×10−20
hydrogen
m [2]
cable length
≡ 608 ft ≈ 185.3184 m
(Imperial)
cable length
(International ≡ 1/10 nmi ≡ 185.2 m
)
cable length
≡ 720 ft = 219.456 m
(U.S.)
chain
≡ 66 ft(US)
(Gunter's; ch ≈ 20.11684 m
≡ 4 rods [3]
Surveyor's)
≡ Distance
from
cubit (H) fingers to ≈ 0.5 m
elbow ≈ 18
in
≡ 45 in [4]
ell (H) ell (In England = 1.143 m
usually)

73
Nature favours the brave
fathom fm ≡ 6 ft [4] = 1.8288 m
≡ 1×10−15 ≡ 1×10−15
fermi fm
m[4] m
Finger ≡ 7/8 in = 0.022225 m
finger (cloth) ≡ 4½ in = 0.1143 m
foot (Benoît) ft
≈ 0.304799735 m
(H) (Ben)
foot
(Clarke's; ft (Cla) ≈ 0.3047972654 m
Cape) (H)
foot (Indian)
ft Ind ≈ 0.304799514 m
(H)
foot ≡ 1/3 yd ≡
(International ft 0.3048 m ≡ ≡ 0.3048 m
) 12 inches
foot (Sear's) ft
≈ 0.30479947 m
(H) (Sear)
1200
foot (U.S. ≡ ⁄3937 m
ft (US) [5] ≈ 0.304800610 m
Survey)
french;
F ≡ 1⁄3 mm = 0.3 ×10−3 m
charriere
≡ 10 chains
furlong fur = 660 ft = = 201.168 m
220 yd [4]
hand ≡ 4 in [4] ≡ 0.1016 m
inch
≡ 1/36 yd ≡
(International In ≡ 0.0254 m
1/12 ft
)
≡ 3 US
league (land) Lea Statute = 4828.032 m
[3]
miles

74
Nature favours the brave
 ≡
≡ 24
light-day 2.59020683712×1013
light-hours
m
≡ 60
≡ 1.0792528488×1012
light-hour light-minut
m
es
≡ 60
≡ 1.798754748×1010
light-minute light-secon
m
ds
≡ Distance
light travels
light-second in one ≡ 299792458 m
second in
vacuum
≡ Distance
=
light travels
9.4607304725808×10
light-year Ly in vacuum
15
in 365.25
m
days [6]
Line Ln ≡ 1/12 in [7] = 0.002116 m
link ≡ 1/100 ch
[4]
(Gunter's; Lnk ≡ 0.66 ft = 0.201168 m
Surveyor's) ≡ 7.92in
link
(Ramsden's; Lnk ≡ 1 ft [4] = 0.3048 m
Engineer's)
≡ Distance
light travels
metre (SI in 1⁄299792458
m ≡1m
base unit) of a second
in
vacuum.[8]

75
Nature favours the brave
 ≈ 1⁄10000000 of
the distance
from
equator to
pole.
= 1.27×10−4
Mickey ≡ 1⁄200 in
m
≡ 1×10−6
micron µ
m
≡ 1×10−3 ≡ 2.54×10−5
mil; thou mil
in m
mil (Sweden
mil ≡ 10 km = 10000 m
and Norway)
mile
(geographical ≡ 6082 ft = 1853.7936 m
) (H)
mile ≡ 80 chains
(international mi ≡ 5280 ft ≡ ≡ 1609.344 m
) 1760 yd
mile (tactical
≡ 6000 ft ≡ 1828.8 m
or data)
mile
(telegraph) Mi ≡ 6087 ft = 1855.3176 m
(H)
≡ 5280 US
mile (U.S. Survey feet
Mi ≈ 1609.347219 m
Survey) ≡ (5280 ×
1200
⁄3937) m
nail (cloth) ≡ 2¼ in [4] = 0.057 15 m
≡ 1×10−9 ≡ 1×10−9
Nanometer Nm
m m

76
Nature favours the brave
nautical
NL; nl ≡ 3 nmi [4] = 5556 m
league
NM
nautical mile (Adm);
= 6080 ft = 1853.184 m
(Admiralty) nmi
(Adm)
nautical mile
NM;
(international ≡ 1852 m [9] ≡ 1852 m
nmi
)
nautical mile
≡ 1853.248
(US pre ≡ 1853.248 m
m
1954)
Pace ≡ 2.5 ft [4] = 0.762 m
palm ≡ 3 in [4] = 0.0762 m
Distance of
star with
parallax
shift of one
≈ 3.085 677 82×1016 ±
parsec Pc arc second
6×106 m [10]
from a base
of one
astronomica
l unit
Dependent on point
pica ≡ 12 points
measures.
point
≡ 1/72.272
(American, Pt ≈ 0.000 351 450 m
in
English) [11][12]
≡ 1/12 × ≈ 0.000 375 97 m;
point (Didot;
1/72 of pied
European) Pt
[12][13] du roi; After 1878:
≈ 0.000 375 939 85 m

77
Nature favours the brave
 After 1878:
≡ 5/133 cm
point
(PostScript) Pt ≡ 1/72 in = 0.000 352 7 m
[11]

point (TeX)
[11] Pt ≡ 1/72.27 in = 0.000 351 4598 m
Quarter ≡ ¼ yd = 0.2286 m
rod; pole;
Rd ≡ 16½ ft = 5.0292 m
perch (H)
rope (H) Rope ≡ 20 ft [4] = 6.096 m
span (H) ≡ 9 in [4] = 0.2286 m
spat [14] ≡ 1×1012 m
stick (H) ≡ 2 in = 0.0508 m
stigma;
bicron Pm ≡ 1×10−12 m
(picometre)
twip Twp ≡ 1/1440 in = 1.7638×10−5 m
x unit;
Xu ≈ 1.0021×10−13 m [4]
Siegbahn
yard ≡ 0.9144 m
[5]
(International Yd ≡ 3 ft ≡ ≡ 0.9144 m
) 36 in

Area
Relation to
Name of unit Symbol Definition
SI units
≡ 1 ch ×
≡ 4 046.856
acre (international) ac 10 ch =
4224 m2
4840 sq yd

78
Nature favours the brave
 ≡ 10 sq ch
= 4840 sq
≈ 4 046.873
acre (U. S. survey) ac yd, also 2 [15]
m
43560 sq
ft.
are a ≡ 100 m2 = 100 m2
barn b ≡ 10−28 m2 = 10−28 m2
≈ 1.618
Barony ≡ 4000 ac
742×107 m2
≡ 1 in × = 7.741
Board bd
1 ft 92×10 m2
−3

≡ (1 ft2)
boiler horsepower
bhp (1 bhp) / ≈ 12.958 174
equivalent direct
EDR (240 m2
radiation
BTUIT/h)
≈ 5.067
circular inch circ in ≡ π/4 sq in
075×10 m2
−4

circular mil; circular ≈ 5.067

circ mil ≡ π/4 mil2
thou 075×10−10 m2
= 1.486 448
Cord ≡ 192 bd
64 m2
dunam ≡ 1 000 m2 = 1 000 m2
≡ 121 sq
guntha ≈ 101.17 m2
yd
≡ 10 000
hectare ha ≡ 10 000 m2
m2
≈ 120 ac
hide ≈ 5×105 m2
(variable)
= 1 011.714
Rood ro ≡ ¼ ac
1056 m2

79
Nature favours the brave
 = 2.589 988
≡ 1 mi ×
Section 110 336×106
1 mi
m2
shed ≡ 10−52 m2 = 10−52 m2
≡ 10 ft × = 9.290 304
square (roofing)
10 ft m2
≡ 66 ft ×
square chain ≡ 404.685
sq ch 66 ft =
(international) 642 24 m2
1/10 ac
≡
66 ft(US)
square chain (U.S. ≈ 404.687 3
sq ch ×
Survey) m2
66 ft(US)
= 1/10 ac
≡ 1 ft × ≡ 9.290
square foot sq ft
1 ft 304×10 m2
−2

≈ 9.290 341
square foot (U.S. ≡ 1 ft (US)
sq ft 161 327
Survey) × 1 ft (US)
49×10−2 m2
≡
≡ 1 in × 1
square inch sq in 6.4516×10−4
in
m2
≡ 1 km ×
square kilometre km2 = 106 m2
1 km
≡ 1 lnk × 1
square link = 4.046 856
lnk ≡
(Gunter's)(International sq lnk 4224×10−2
0.66 ft × 2
) m
0.66 ft
≡ 1 lnk × 1
square link ≈ 4.046
sq lnk lnk ≡
(Gunter's)(US Survey) 872×10 m2
−2
0.66 ft(US)

80
Nature favours the brave
 ×
0.66 ft(US)
≡ 1 lnk × 1 =
square link (Ramsden's) sq lnk lnk ≡ 1 ft × 0.09290304
1 ft m2
≡ 1 m×1
square metre (SI unit) m2 = 1 m2
m
=
≡ 1 mil × 1
square mil; square thou sq mil 6.4516×10−10
mil
m2
= 2.589 988
≡ 1 mi ×
square mile sq mi 110 336×106
1 mi
m2
≡ 1 mi
square mile (U.S. ≈ 2.589 998
sq mi (US) ×
Survey) 47×106 m2
1 mi (US)
≡ 1 rd × 1 = 25.292 852
square rod/pole/perch sq rd
rd 64 m2
square yard ≡ 1 yd × 1 ≡ 0.836 127
sq yd
(International) yd 36 m2
stremma ≡ 1 000 m2 = 1 000 m2
≡ 36 sq mi ≈ 9.323
township
(US) 994×107 m2
yardland ≈ 30 ac ≈ 1.2×105 m2

Mass
Relation to SI
Name of unit Symbol Definition
units
≈ 1.660 538
atomic mass
u; AMU 73×10−27 ±
unit, unified
1.3×10−36 kg

81
Nature favours the brave
atomic unit of ≈ 9.109 382
mass, electron me 15×10−31 ±
−39 [18]
rest mass 45×10 kg
bag (coffee) ≡ 60 kg = 60 kg
bag (Portland = 42.637 682
≡ 94 lb av
cement) 78 kg
= 20 411.656
Barge ≡ 22½ sh tn
65 kg
≈ 205.196 548
carat kt ≡ 3 1/6 gr
333 mg
carat (metric) ct ≡ 200 mg = 200 mg
= 3.628 738 96
clove ≡ 8 lb av
kg
crith ≈ 89.9349 mg
≈ 1.660 902
dalton Da 10×10−27 ±
−36
1.3×10 kg
dram
(apothecary; dr t ≡ 60 gr = 3.887 9346 g
troy)
dram = 1.771 845
dr av ≡ 27 11/32 gr
(avoirdupois) 195 3125 g
≡ 1 eV
= 1.7826×10−36
electronvolt eV (energy unit) /
kg
c2
gamma Γ ≡ 1 μg = 1 μg
grain Gr ≡ 1/7000 lb av ≡ 64.798 91 mg
grave was the
original name
grave G ≡ 1 kg
of the
kilogram

82
Nature favours the brave
hundredweight long cwt = 50.802 345
≡ 112 lb av
(long) or cwt 44 kg
hundredweight = 45.359 237
sh cwt ≡ 100 lb av
(short); cental kg
≡ 1 gee × 1 g
hyl (CGS unit) = 9.806 65 g
× 1 s2/m
≡ 1 gee × 1 kg
hyl (MKS unit) = 9.806 65 kg
× 1 s2/m
≡ mass of the
prototype near
≡ 1 kg (SI base
kilogram Kg Paris (≈ mass
unit)[8]
of 1L of
water)
= 453.592 37
kip kip ≡ 1000 lb av
kg
= 248.827 8144
mark ≡ 8 oz t
g
= 3.239 9455
mite ≡ 1/20 gr
mg
mite (metric) ≡ 1/20 g = 50 mg
ounce
= 31.103 4768
(apothecary; oz t ≡ 1/12 lb t
g
troy)
ounce = 28.349 523
oz av ≡ 1/16 lb
(avoirdupois) 125 g
ounce (U.S. food
nutrition oz ≡ 28 g[16] = 28 g
labeling)
= 1.555 173 84
pennyweight dwt; pwt ≡ 1/20 oz t
g
point ≡ 1/100 ct = 2 mg

83
Nature favours the brave
 ≡ 0.453 592
pound ≡ 0.453 592 37
lb av 37 kg = 7000
(avoirdupois) kg
grains
pound (metric) ≡ 500 g = 500 g
= 0.373 241
pound (troy) lb t ≡ 5 760 grains
7216 kg
≡ 1/4 long cwt
quarter = 12.700 586
= 2 st = 28 lb
(Imperial) 36 kg
av
quarter = 226.796 185
≡ ¼ short tn
(informal) kg
quarter, long = 254.011 7272
≡ ¼ long tn
(informal) kg
quintal (metric) q ≡ 100 kg = 100 kg
scruple
s ap ≡ 20 gr = 1.295 9782 g
(apothecary)
sheet ≡ 1/700 lb av = 647.9891 mg
≡ 1 gee × 1 lb ≈ 14.593 903
slug; geepound slug
av × 1 s2/ft kg
= 6.350 293 18
stone st ≡ 14 lb av
kg
≡ 1 mg × 1
ton, assay (long) AT long tn ÷ 1 oz ≈ 32.666 667 g
t
≡ 1 mg × 1 sh
ton, assay (short) AT ≈ 29.166 667 g
tn ÷ 1 oz t
long tn = 1 016.046
ton, long ≡ 2 240 lb
or ton 9088 kg
= 907.184 74
ton, short sh tn ≡ 2 000 lb
kg
tonne (mts unit) t ≡ 1 000 kg = 1 000 kg

84
Nature favours the brave
 = 114.305 277
≡ 252 lb = 18
wey 24 kg (variants
st
exist)

Index
A
Aerial 1
Aerial method 5
Air borne system 37
Aircraft 36
Anomalies 13
Archeological investigation 8
Auger drilling 58,61

B
Borehole 84

85
Nature favours the brave
 C
Carbonaceous 24
Chip sampling 44
Compass needle 16
Core drilling 67

D
Data interpretation 29
Deposition 42
Detectors 6
Diamond drilling 60,65
Drilling bit 66
Drying 46

E
Electromagnetic survey 13, 35
Evaluation 1
Exploration 1,2
Explorationist 2
Exploration Grid 57
F
Ferromagnetic 19
Ferromagnetic material 22
Float tracing 1

G
Gama-ray 30
Geo-biochemical 1,6
Geo-botanical 1
Geochemical 1
Geochemistry 42
Geological 1
Geological map 71

86
Nature favours the brave
Geological method 7
Geophysical 38
Geophysical method 7
Glacial 1
Grab 44
Grab sampling 44
Gravimeter 28
Gravity 8
Gravimetry 9
Gravity survey 25
Gravimeter 25,28

H
Heavy mineral concentration 56
Hybrid Electrical 37
Hydrocarbon 9

I
Indicated mineral occurrence 76
Induced polarization 9
Inferred mineral occurrence 75
Investigation 5

L
Laterite sampling 44,45
Lithological description 74

M
Magnetic 1,8
Magnetite 24
Magnetometer 17
Magnetic compass 4
Magnetic Data interpretation 5,20

87
Nature favours the brave
Magnetic flux 6
Magnetic gradiometer 7,17
Magnetic Survey 8 ,16
Map 71
Mapping 9
Metamorphic rock 35
Migration 10
Mineral deposit 11
Mineral exploration 39
Mineral Reserves 69
Mineralization 13
Mineral resources 14
Mineral valuation 15
Mining 16
Mountainous 17
Morphological changes 18

N
Non magnetic 16
O
Out cropping 2
P
Panning 1,72
Percussion drilling 58 , 62
Photographic 5
Placer Gold 39
Porphyry system 38
Population 43
Prospect 1
Prospecting method 1,4
Prospectivity 2
Proton 14

88
Nature favours the brave
Proton magnetometer 18
Pyrrhotite 21,24

R
Radiometric 5
Radiometric method 28, 30
Refraction method 35
Resistivity method 33
Reverse circulation 70
Rock forming minerals 13
Rock Geo-chemistry 57
Rotary drilling 58 ,62

S
Sampling 43
Sample collection 43
Schlumberger 33
Sediment tools 52
Seismic method 35
Seismic wave 5
Self potential 9
Serpentine ultramatic rock 22
Sieving 46
Stream sediment 50, 51
Survey 5
Soil sampling 51,53

T
Terrameter 33
Tonnage calculation 94
Trench 84

89
Nature favours the brave
Wenner Array 33

90
Nature favours the brave