I.

Introduction and Main Objectives of Mineral Exploration

Mineral exploration constitutes the discipline of geological science which studies the genesis of
mineral resources and the measures for estimation of economic deposits, i. e. those recoverable
under present conditions. It summarizes both theoretical and practical knowledge in geological
and other fields (tectonics, stratigraphy, mineralogy, paleontology, geomorphology, geophysics,
geodesy, economics, mining, etc.) and utilizes this for a rational, scientifically substantiated search
for mineral deposits and their qualitative and quantitative assessment. The task of exploration ends
with the collection of those data and the development and exploitation of deposits lies in the fields
of mining engineering and mining geology.

The overall objective of mineral exploration is to discover useful mineral deposits and appraise
their suitability for further evaluation. Economic deposits are then explored, the quality of the ore
is determined by sampling and the reserves are calculated by means of surface, underground and
drilling works.

For a company, mineral exploration is carried out in order:

a) To find new ore deposits to replace deposits presently being mined.

b) To increase a company’s ore reserves (assets) in real terms.
c) Find new deposits in answer to a perceived change in commodity markets.

Whatever the objective, exploration is ultimately a business venture undertaken by exploration

companies in order to maximize profits for the benefit of the shareholders.

For a government, exploration generates national revenue through available tax instruments such
as income tax, reconnaissance and exploration licenses’ fees, etc. However, in some cases, it may
not be a centre of profit monetarily, but a national need. (e.g. exploration of uranium for nuclear
capability).

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II. Principles of Mineral Exploration

EXPLORATION

Starts with commodity e.g. Au, Cu, Ni, Cr

Mineral occurrence model

Selection of targets

Target Ranking

In exploration, it all boils down to a single question: Is there a target? And if so where? As
exploration proceeds, the geographical area under consideration becomes smaller, and, the
information base may decrease or increase slightly.

 Mineral exploration is conducted where:

i) There are large areas of high mineral potential.
ii) Mineral land rights can be obtained under terms that are reasonable and with long-term
certainty of title.
iii) Political and tax regimes are perceived to be relatively favorable and stable.
 Mineral exploration involves a range of activities:
i) Study of historical, technical and mineral related data.
ii) Systematic regional geological, geophysical and geochemical surveys in selected areas
by mining companies or other agencies (private and public).
iii) Acquisition of mineral properties by application to governments for exploration
licenses or exploration concessions.
iv) Increasingly detailed levels of mapping and surveying, overburden and rock trenching,
sampling of rock/mineral exposures, various types of drilling (percussion, reverse
circulation, diamond drill), stripping, bulk sampling, underground development and
test milling.
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 A mineral prospect evolves:
i) Successful exploration from a mineral occurrence (raw mineralized outcrop)
ii) Mineral prospect (indication of economic minerals supported by assays, widths,
lengths)
iii) Mineral inventory (with three-dimensional exploration through drilling to indicate
‘possible’ tonnage/grade)
iv) Mineable ore reserve (with completion of a positive feasibility study and mine
development to provide a ‘proven’ tonnage and grade).

 Exploration Models
 Descriptive and genetic models of ore deposits
 The traditional (descriptive and genetic) deposit models are the oldest models
commonly used in exploration. Descriptive model focuses on description of specific
geological features that characterize an ore deposit, whereas, genetic model emphasizes
genetic theories of an ore deposit. Appropriate geological, geochemical and
geophysical parameters that characterize targeted deposit types are integrated to build
“exploration models”. In practice, locations are sought that display anomalous indicator
parameters within the ordinary geological background. These locations are called
“anomalies”, or “prospects”. Exploration projects commonly expose many anomalies
that have to be ranked for prospectivity and investigated in more detail. Experience
shows that most anomalies are found to be of no economic interest. Exploration teams
strive for early rejection of barren prospects (negatives) in order to avoid useless
expenses. Reliable identification of good prospects is essential, whereas both false
negatives and false positives must be avoided.
 The development of GIS-based prospectivity analysis (Bonham-Carter, 1994;
Carranza, 2008), which statistically interrogates extensive spatial datasets to identify
statistical relationships between known mineral deposits and certain geological
features, has the potential to aid mineral exploration. However, a major downside of
this analysis is the common over-emphasis of local-scale properties of known deposits
— leading to a failure to predict locations of genetically identical deposits that differ

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 in incidental details (e.g. host rock), and/or the prediction of a large number of ‘false
positives’ not spatially related to mineralization.

III. Exploration Methods

1. Geological method

Geological concepts and methods are the indispensable base for any exploration project. Geology
is both the starting point and the unifying frame for merging and analyzing data resulting from a
wide variety of methods. Today, standard practice in mineral exploration is to analyze data in two
dimensions using GIS (maps and cross-sections in Geographic Information Systems) and to
identify targets by empirical means. Increasingly, three dimensional and four-dimensional (three-
dimensional plus time) modelling is employed by explorers for integrating multiple datasets, such
as geology, geophysics, geochemistry and drillhole data, including concepts such as past fluid
flow. This approach emulates the “petroleum systems” method in the oil and gas industry. Three-
dimensional numerical models of coupled fluid flow and deformation, for example, assist in
orogenic-gold exploration. Resulting models can be visualized and tested. Based on these tools,
predictive capabilities are considerably advanced.

Fundamental strategies of mineral exploration include:

- exploring large areas systematically, either searching for all possibly occurring metals and
minerals (“grass roots exploration”) or, more commonly, for only a few attractive
resources;
- selecting specific regions for their geological resemblance to known metallogenic
provinces or districts;
- investigating districts hosting known mineralization and mines (brownfields exploration),
motivated by improved geological understanding that suggests the presence of
undiscovered ore;
- exploration for specific raw materials (e.g. marble of high whiteness) is guided by the
search for locations with geological properties that resemble commercially viable deposits.

Several spectacular exploration successes of the last decades illustrate different strategies:

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i) Olympic Dam, Australia: A large Neoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary basin in South
Australia was selected for its resemblance to base metal-rich basins in Africa and North
America. The presence of satellite-image lineaments and copper-depleted basaltic rocks
similar to the Keweenawan rift in Michigan was felt to be especially encouraging. The
reward was the discovery of the giant Cu-Au-U deposit near Olympic Dam.

ii) Mt Isa, Australia: This is one of the largest base metal deposits of the world. Geological
research motivated exploration along strike of the major structure that controls ore at Mt
Isa. This resulted in the discovery of several deposits and the development of new mines
such as Hilton, George Fisher and Valhalla, recalling the motto “if you wish to hunt
elephants, go to elephant country”.

iii) Skaergaard, Greenland: The benefit of applying new concepts to well-known geological
sites was demonstrated by geologists who investigated the platinum potential of large
layered mafic intrusions based on genetic models of the Bushveld deposits. Many new
discoveries were made, but one especially remarkable (though still undeveloped) Au-Pt
deposit was found at Skaergaard. Previously, this intrusion had been described in all
petrology textbooks and was the site of much scientific work, including the discovery of
sulphide immiscibility.

iv) Vaisey’s Bay, Canada: Even today, some mineral deposits are found by accident. In 1994,
diamond prospectors in eastern Labrador, Canada happened upon a small gossan. Trace
metal contents and its location within olivine-gabbro suggested an exploratory
electromagnetic survey. The results revealed the presence of sulphides, which are now
known to be part of the Ni-sulphide deposit Vaisey’s Bay. Total published resources are
137 Mt at 1.59% Ni, 0.85% Cu and 0.09% Co.

v) Lisheen, Ireland: The location of Irish base metal deposits is known to be controlled by
stratigraphy and tensional synsedimentary growth faults. A combination of geochemical

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 and geophysical methods was used to scan areas underneath overburden reaching a
thickness of 300m above the prospective horizon. This depth had been hidden from earlier
explorers. Suggestive anomalies were soon found and examined by diamond drilling. Only
the seventh drillhole revealed ore. In 1994, 22 Mt of ore at 11.5% Zn, 1.9% Pb and 26 g/t
Ag were proven and a new mine was born.

Earlier, the discovery of new deposits was pursued by geologists, miners and enterprising non-
professionals who scanned the land systematically for traces of ore or other indications of
mineralization such as gossans. Promising indications were examined by trenches, shafts and adits,
usually with the aim of immediate exploitation. Meanwhile, however, the chance to discover
unknown ore outcrops on the land surface is very small, because early prospectors worked quite
thoroughly.

Today, large buried deposits are targeted and the search is guided by geological concepts. Modern
exploration is characterized by multi-professional teams and systematic methodology. The essence
of geological concepts is descriptive and genetic models of mineral deposits.

II. Remote Sensing

Today, Landsat TM and more recent satellites producing high-resolution images are standard
exploration and mapping tools. Radiation emitted from the surface of interest is recorded. Different
minerals, rocks, soils and plants reflect radiation in specific wavelengths, which is obvious
considering our subjective colour perception of visible light (from short-wave violet to long-
wavered). Based on comparative spectral data at different scales, from space to ground truth in the
field and laboratory measurements, the method allows identification of minerals and rocks,
different soils, types of hydrothermal alteration, gossans and the discrimination of healthy and
stressed plants.

Digital image processing combined with GIS makes it possible to combine results of remote
sensing with topographic (e.g. digital elevation models, DEMs), geophysical and geochemical
information. In geologically well explored areas, satellite images have mainly assisted in the
recognition of large-scale structures (lineaments) that defied earthbound mapping. After the first
elation, it was soon realized that large structures rarely control the location of ore deposits. Yet,

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tectonic control is frequent and aids rational exploration. Geologically less explored regions of the
Earth, possibly making up 75% of the land surface, can be economically and quickly surveyed
with satellite data. Resulting maps at 1:50,000 to 1:1000,000 support an efficient and effective
exploration programme. TM data allow easy recognition of gossans and of hydrothermal clay,
alunite and mica zones. Famous successes include the discovery of large copper porphyries in
northern Chile. The geological interpretation of aerial photography is employed for smaller areas
that are to be mapped in great detail. Most countries offer a full coverage of black-and-white
photographs at scales between 1:20,000 and 1:50,000. Very precise (orthorectified) topographic
and geological maps are prepared from aerial photographs. Amended by groundwork, these maps
are an excellent means for detailed exploration. In special cases, colour or infrared colour films
are employed for better recognition of certain features (e.g. hydrothermal alteration zoning).
Optimal results of remote sensing are obtained in arid and semi-arid regions that have little soil
and vegetation cover. Humid landscapes yield little geological information, apart from structures.
Vegetated hydrothermal alteration cannot be mapped, although anomalous heavy metal contents
may be discernible by stressed plants because their reflection deviates from that of healthy ones.

3. Geochemical method

Geochemical methods of exploration are based on the observation that most ore deposits are
surrounded by zones (halos), which deviate chemically from ordinary host rocks. Chemical
deviations may be expressed by enrichment or depletion of certain minerals, elements, isotopes
and by other systematic differences. Various ore deposit types display characteristic halos, which
can be found by analyzing samples of rocks, soil, plants, water, soil gas (and of sediments in
streams and lakes. Graphical and statistical processing of geochemical data helps to define
locations that may indicate ore (“geochemical anomalies”). The scale of investigations, for
example the density of sampling, varies from geochemical mapping at the continent scale (1
sample/5 0 0 0 k m2) through an intermediate mesh (1 sample/300 km2, Reimann et al. 2007) to
very detailed local sampling of, for example, soil above a prospective geophysical anomaly.

Geochemical exploration results in a large number of analytical data. Statistics are used to discern
anomalous and therefore potentially prospective results, such as simple frequency plots and more
advanced methods. Concentrations of elements in unmineralized rock bodies always fluctuate

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around a mean value (background). Samples with higher concentrations (above a certain threshold)
may indicate subtle or very clear geochemical anomalies. Of course, anomalies must be considered
within their petrological context. Ultramafic bodies, for example, within metasediments must
cause Ni and Cr anomalies that have no prospective value. In such cases, data have to be sorted by
source rocks into different populations, which are then evaluated for anomalies indicating possible
mineralization. In the same project, a lower threshold can be used for regional exploration (e.g.
finding mineralized zones) and a higher one for locating the best targets for drilling.

Primary geochemical anomalies

Primary geochemical anomalies are formed as a by-product of the processes that concentrate ore.
Geochemical halos enveloping the actual ore are caused by the “primary dispersion” of elements.
When, for example, hydrothermal solutions deposit ore in vein, some of the fluid permeates into
wall rock causing different alterations, which include chemical changes. About the central Cu-Mo
orezone, porphyry copper ore deposits display shells and caps of elevated Pb-Zn, Au and an
extensive outer halo of more mobile elements such as As, Ag, Hg, Ti, Te and Mn. These halos are
3D, whereas others are essentially 2D, such as those associated with SEDEX deposits which are
restricted to the same stratigraphical horizon. Primary trace element halos considerably enlarge the
targets of geochemical exploration. Consequently, a higher sampling distance can be set, reducing
costs. Also, as demonstrated by the halos surrounding copper porphyries, associated and more
mobile elements (“pathfinder elements”) maybe more suitable for finding prospective locations
that than the elements concentrated in ore.

Secondary geochemical anomalies

Secondary geochemical anomalies are formed by processes that acted on the deposit after its
formation. Most frequent are chemical consequences of near-surface mobilization, weathering and
erosion, which transfer elements from the orebody or its primary halo to till, soil, plants,
groundwater and soil gas. Erosion moves particles and dissolved matter into streams, where traces
may be detectable at great distances from the source. This is why stream sediment sampling is a
most effective method of reconnaissance and regional exploration. The post-formation

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redistribution of elements from an ore deposit is called “secondary dispersion”. In the processes
that cause secondary dispersion, the variable mobility of elements is of great significance.
Elements with a higher mobility under surficial conditions enlarge the anomalous zone. A project
targeting polymetallic deposits of Pb, Zn and Cu, for example, would use mobile Zn for regional
sampling with a low density, whereas dense sampling of Zn-anomalies for Cu and Pb should reveal
the drilling target. The mobility of elements in secondary dispersion is strongly influenced by
factors including the nature of rocks, climate, vegetation, relief and groundwater flow. The
complex interaction of these natural factors has been called “landscape geochemistry”. Nearly
ubiquitous influence of human activities, such as industry, agriculture and building, overprints the
natural state. Geochemical exploration projects must consider the possible presence of perturbance
by anthropogenic dispersion.

Effective distinction between prospective and non-significant geochemical anomalies is desirable.

To this purpose, non-geochemical data such as the geological setting are consulted. Based solely
on the geochemical data, the contrast between background and the anomalous data is employed.
High contrast is considered to affirm the significance of an anomaly. Controls of the contrast
include the primary metal contents in ore compared to host rocks, the mobility of the elements
investigated and dilution with barren material. Because contrast is so important, most geochemical
work in exploration starts with an orientation phase, which is expected to identify the most suitable
sample material and other constraints for the main phase work. For unconsolidated soil, stream
and lake sediments, contrast is a function of the chosen grain size, the soil horizon (depth) and the
extraction method. If sufficient contrast of target element concentrations cannot be reached,
possible pathfinder elements should be tested.

Geochemical exploration programmes

Geochemical exploration programmes may be designed for the reconnaissance of large areas or
for detailed investigation of prospective locations. Regional sampling is done along roads and
water courses, whereas sampling grids are typically designed for local investigations. In the first
case, sampling distances are measured in kilometres, in the second rather in metres. The orientation
of the sampling grid is best chosen to support geological mapping, geophysical surveys and later
drilling. Orientation sampling serves to select suitable field methods and the most appropriate

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analytical methods. This allows final planning of the main phase of the sampling programme,
including logistics.

i) Stream sediments sampling

Stream sediments are extremely efficient means to discover geochemically anomalous zones in
large regions and with low sampling density, but only if a well-developed drainage system is
present. Where suitable water courses are absent, remarkable results are achievable with wide-
spaced soil samples (e.g. Australia), till and lake sediments (Canada, Finland). The sediment
sample from an active river bed is considered to represent an average of its upstream watershed.
If mineralization or its dispersion halo is exposed in the drainage area, chemical traces must occur
in the sample. Because coarse material dilutes trace element concentrations (and thus lowers the
contrast), fine-grained stream sediments (clayey and silty mud) are preferred. Samples are sieved
in order to submit a homogeneous fraction for analysis (often 80 mesh corresponding to 180 mm).

Samples for indicator mineral investigations are collected parallel with the stream sediments. In
specific cases, such as expected loss of fine-grained gold, or environmental work aiming at volatile
pollutants, freeze-sampling is employed. Organic substances and Fe-Mn ooze in surface waters
adsorb dissolved metals more than clay minerals.

Geochemical results from such samples have to be treated apart from common siliciclastic
sediment. Water pH, T and Eh should be measured at each sample site, because large variations
strongly influence the mobility of elements. Interpretation of data should always consider the
geochemical characteristics of rock types occurring in the watershed as a geogenic background. If
a reference to common average contents of elements is intended, one of the worldwide clay rock
standards is more appropriate than the crustal average. Fine-grained sediments should only be
compared with material of similar grain size.

ii) Soil sampling

Soil sample geochemistry calls for detailed orientation work, because success depends on
sufficient understanding of soil layering and genesis, which control element mobility. Often,

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present distribution patterns are a legacy of several superposed soil formation phases.
Autochthonous soils must be discerned from transported ones. Allochthonous soil is of little use
in exploration, although exceptions do occur: In Western Australia, nickel concentrations are
anomalous in the B-horizon of transported soil above buried Ni-mineralization. This totally
unexpected feature is explained by nickel transfer from deep roots into leaves and from rotting
litter back into the soil. Many elements are enriched in the B-horizon of a regolith profile, but there
are important exceptions. Ferriferous nodules or pisoids, which are common in areas of lateritic
cover, can be useful geochemical guides to ore in bedrock. In South Australia, even pedogenic
calcrete is sampled for locating subcropping gold-quartz veins.

iii) Rock sampling (Lithogeochemistry)

Geochemical exploration with rock samples, or selected minerals is based on specific geological
petrological models. Examples include the regional sampling of granites in order to locate fertile
intrusions, the discrimination of prospective and barren porphyries by analysing copper in biotite,
and the identification of rare metal pegmatites by muscovite analyses. Also, rock geochemistry is
useful for tracing orebodies in complex structural settings. Certain hydrothermal alteration zones
are easily recognized and help to point development adits or drillholes towards ore. Isotope
investigations complement data on elemental distribution, mainly at a more local scale. Whole
rock stable isotope mapping around centres of epigenetic mineralization, for example, often
reveals very clear anomalies that are useful for finding orebodies. Remember that with all solid
materials, the mass of a representative sample is a direct function of the grain diameter. The rules
of sufficient sample mass and careful diminution, homogenization and sub-sampling must be
strictly followed.

Analytical methods of exploration geochemistry

Samples are dried, sieved, sub-sampled and ground until 100% pass an 80 mesh (180 mm) screen.
For analysis, a small aliquot (0.2–2g) is usually prepared in aqueous solution. Partial solution by
weak acids, which only dissolve weakly adsorbed elements, is one common procedure. The other
is complete dissolution by aqua regia, or a multi-acid mixture combining hydrofluoric,
hydrochloric, nitric and perchloric acids at low temperatures and pressures. The choice is guided
by the speciation of the elements of interest in the sample. If the main interest concerns metals
weakly adsorbed on clay and organic matter, partial solution is recommended. For determination

11
of elements sited in the crystal lattice of minerals, such as barium in muscovite of metamorphosed
distal sedex exhalites, total dissolution is indicated. Methods of sequential elution (sequential
extraction) provide an understanding of metal speciation in soil, lake and stream sediment samples:
Total metal content of a sample is the sum of several species occurring:

. as exchangeable ions;

. carbonates;

. adsorbed to Fe-Mn oxy-hydroxides;

. in sulphides; and

. silicate minerals.

Defining the most suitable dissolution variant for a specific project is one of the aims of an
orientation survey. Geochemical laboratory equipment for exploration and environmental studies
is nearly identical. The workhorses of instrumental analysis are inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS).
Other useful methods include X-ray fluorescence (XRF), instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA), gamma-activation analysis, atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and electrochemical
means such as specific ion electrodes. In the field and in mines, portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
analysers are increasingly used for on-site data acquisition. Colorimetric and other simple field
methods remain useful, but deliver semi-quantitative data for elements (e.g. As, Cu, Zn, Mo, W,
Ni) and ions (e.g. SO 4 2). They are chosen when quick results are more important than accuracy,
for example in remote regions. A decision to use such methods should only be made after trials
with preliminary samples and consultation with an experienced analyst.

Analytical data in exploration geochemistry need not in all cases equal the absolute element
content in a sample, or in other words, accuracy may not be essential. Deviations of 30% from the
absolute figure (e.g. an international laboratory standard) are tolerated, if the relative error remains
within narrow limits. In contrast, excellent reproducibility of results, that is high precision, is
absolutely required. This is the base for any data evaluation, especially if the contrast between
background and anomalies is small. In all geochemical programmes, error control is a fundamental
aspect. Errors may be introduced during sampling, sample processing and transport, and in the

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laboratory. It is good practice to repeat at least 10% of sampling. Analytical errors are revealed by
inserting the same sample or a standard of known composition repeatedly into the series. Control
by another laboratory is advisable. Based on a collection of control data, it is possible to calculate
total error margins and the confidence interval.

Indicator minerals

Indicator minerals are increasingly used as a complementary tool to geochemistry. Indicator

minerals are characterized by elevated density (>2.8g/cm3) and a good preservation potential in
the weathering environment. Of course, their application in diamond prospecting has a long
tradition. Other deposit types, however, also display specific indicator minerals. Porphyry copper
systems, for example, shed gold, rutile, tourmaline, garnet, jarosite and alunite. Many rare metal
deposits are enveloped by tourmalinization halos.

Presentation and interpretation

Data resulting from geochemical exploration should always be presented in maps, because the
search is first of all for spatial variation. Statistical calculations are a useful complement, if geology
and structure are not too diverse. Point-symbol maps represent the basic tool which can be
amplified by wavelength filtering to produce a map of residual anomalies. Principle component
analyses of multi-element data and plotting the factor distribution may provide valuable guides for
regional exploration. The correlation of geochemical results with geology, geophysics and
topography is investigated using GIS. Examples for complex presentation and interpretation can
be found in geochemical atlases which provide data at different scales.

4. Geophysical method

The foundation of geophysical exploration methods are the varied physical properties of ore and
gangue minerals, fluids and rocks. Passive geophysical survey methods use natural potential fields
(e.g. magnetism, gravity). Active methods rely on interaction of induced artificial fields with the
subsurface (e.g. electrical conductivity, seismics). “Inversion” designates the computation of
geophysical models purely from measurements. These models are inherently ambiguous. Useful
interpretations are only obtained when independent constraints are available, for example

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geological models, drillhole and petrophysical data. Petrophysical properties of rocks and ore are
the critical link between geophysics and geology.

Geophysical methods with a depth penetration to several hundred metres below the surface are
commonly employed in the search for solid mineral deposits. Geophysics extend the validity of
geological and geochemical data to this depth, which currently limits the economic exploitability
of most minerals and ores. However, the reason for using geophysics is not always depth
penetration. Geophysical investigations of near-surface ores such as coastal placers, for example,
contribute valuable continuity to deposit modelling, for example between drillholes. Also,
identification and mitigation of mining-induced environmental problems may profit from
geophysical surveys.

In cases of strong incentives to extend the search to greater depth, which common surface-based
geophysical methods cannot reach, magnetotelluric methods (MT) are used. Another approach was
developed in Canada, where base metal deposits such as those of the Sudbury District are explored
to more than 3000 m depth: Deep drillholes are sited on geological evidence to penetrate a
prospective rock body, which is scanned by downhole geophysics for signs of ore.

Geophysical surveys complement other exploration methods at all scales. Regional geological and
geochemical work is supported by geophysical data measured from aircraft and helicopters.
Frequently used aerogeophysical methods include magnetics, electromagnetics, radiometry and
gravimetry. For detailed and more local exploration on the ground, many more methods are
available that allow a high density of observations at higher accuracy and improved validity.
Borehole geophysical surveys result in the highest resolution of data, especially in conjunction
with geological, physical and chemical core logging results.

As with geochemical surveys, geophysical methods reveal a background that is characteristic for
ordinary rocks of an area and distinctive anomalies, which illuminate physical contrasts. The
magnitude of an anomaly is a function of: i) the contrast between host rocks and the anomalous
material; ii) the size, spatial orientation and shape of the anomalous body; and iii) the depth from
the surface. The last is essentially due to the general law of inverse-square attenuation of a
geophysical signal as a function of distance. Identification and interpretation of geophysical
anomalies are often quite challenging, not unlike weak geochemical indices.

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‘A considerable number of geophysical exploration methods are available for mineral exploration
and each method exists in several variants. The specific choice is a function of the geological and
exploration model of the targeted deposits, of general conditions such as remoteness, climate and
human land use, and of the costs. Methods that require the placement of electrodes in the soil, for
example, cannot be deployed in permafrost regions. Electrolyte-rich highly conductive soil and
groundwater in semi-arid lands limits the depth penetration of most electrical methods. Some well-
established geophysical methods in exploration include the following.

4.1. Electromagnetic methods (EM)

EM are very often utilized in geophysical exploration. EM works without a physical contact to the
ground (no electrodes), which is an advantage for use above ice, water, swamps, frozen or arid
ground. Many different surveying systems are available, for aerial and surface deployment. Today,
even highly conductive surface zones such as salt lakes can be penetrated with equipment like
MagTEM (magnetic field sensor transient electromagnetic technology). The principle of TEM is
that an alternating current is passed through a square loop of cable, which induces an
electromagnetic field in the ground. Decaying currents in the subsoil are measured with a receiver
coil or a magnetometer. If the primary field encounters a good conductor, “eddy” currents flow
and this produces a secondary electromagnetic field. Its strength and relative phase compared with
the primary field indicate possible ore. Typical targets are kimberlites, sulphides (e.g. Ni-Cu in
Voisey’s Bay, Canada), graphite (as a guide to unconformity deposits of uranium) and water-
bearing faults. Increasingly, natural electromagnetic fields are measured concurrently with induced
fields. The magnetotelluric method (MT) is a passive electromagnetic technique used for exploring
the conductivity structure of the Earth from tens of metres to a depth of several hundred kilometres.
Main applications are in hydrocarbon exploration.

4.2.Gravity method

Gravity methods in exploration are based on detecting variations of the Earth’s natural gravity
field. The measure of gravity is acceleration expressed in gravity units (1 g.u. ¼ 1 mm/s2; earlier,
named after Galileo, 1 Gal ¼ 1 cm/s2 or 1 mGal ¼ 10 g.u.). Modern instruments (gravimeters)
reach an accuracy of 0.1 g.u., which is approximately a 100 millionth of the Earth’s field. Gravity
gradiometers are designed to measure gradients of geological gravity changes. Surface gravity at
a specific location is a function of the rocks underneath, of the distance from the Earth’s centre of

15
gravity, of latitude and relief. Because one metre difference in height of the gravity station causes
a change of 3.086 g.u., elevation relative to the theoretical sea level reference surface must be
determined to an accuracy of 3 cm. Surveying is usually the costliest part of gravity operations.
Geological factors cause relatively small changes of gravity. Therefore, the above-mentioned
effects on readings must be removed by calculations, including the tidal drift of gravity ( 1 g.u.).
The corrected, “residual” or “extended” Bouguer anomalies, and in some cases gravity gradients,
are presented in maps and in profiles. Interpretation of shape, density and depth of bodies, which
cause the measured gravity pattern. are derived by calculations based on geological models.

Gravity can be determined by airborne systems, on the ground, in the sea and in underground
mines. Regional gravity maps are increasingly utilized in exploration for minerals and metal ores.
Orebodies of solid minerals are distinguished from ordinary rocks by greater (chromite, sulphides)
or smaller density (kimberlites, salt diapirs). One of the notable achievements of gravity
exploration in the recent past was the discovery of the base metal deposit Neves Corvo in the
Iberian Pyrite Belt.

5.0. Radiometric method

Radioactive decay of uranium, thorium and potassium, and of certain daughter nuclides of the first
two releases gamma radiation, which is measured with portable instruments on the ground, with
equivalent systems on board of aeroplanes and helicopters and with borehole probes.
Scintillometers or spectrometers are usually employed. The second use energy sills of c-radiation
to distinguish between the three elements and to estimate their concentrations. Measurements of
c-radiation in the field are snapshots of a random process and readings vary, even with the same
instrument. Geologically-sourced radiation forms peaks superimposed on a background of
scattered cosmic (mainly solar) and terrestrial radiation. The high geochemical mobility of K and
U in surficial environments, compared to the nearly immobile Th, is the motive for the common
use of ratios (U/Th, K/Th) in maps. Application is primarily in the search for uranium, but
numerous other utilizations have been found. Determination of gamma-radiation is a very
convenient and low-cost tool to distinguish rocks, from regional mapping to borehole logging. It
facilitates recognition of potassium salts in halitite, beach placer horizons in sand and phosphorite

16
in marine sediments. Potassium-rich rocks, such as certain granites or zones of hydrothermal K-
alteration, can be detected. Aerial and ground use, however, are restricted to areas with little soil
cover, because most radiation on the surface comes from the uppermost 10–50 cm; deeper sources
below soil remain undetected.

6.0. Trenching and drilling

“The difference between successful and unsuccessful exploration companies is a dramatic

difference in the amount of diamond drilling they do”. S. Muessig 1998.

Potential orebodies that are indicated by geological, geochemical and geophysical exploration
methods must be examined by physical exposures. In most cases, this is done by drilling, but
trenching through the overburden may reveal valuable information. Exploration pits, deep trenches
and adits are not regularly made in this phase of investigations. Similar to the preceding
reconnaissance exploration work, the objective of detailed follow-up exploration is identification
of the most promising prospects, whereas locations with insufficient potential are discarded. For
prospects that display essential characteristics, such as resources (tonnage) and ore grade which
resemble profitable working mines, the detailed follow-up phase ends with the preparation of a
prefeasibility study.

Planning for the trenching and drilling programme is based on the presumed geological model.
The programme includes maps and sections showing the required drillholes and exposures, and
their description. Technical details and the sequence of execution are proposed. Intermediate
targets (milestones) that can be assessed are described. Fund-controlling recipients of the
programme proposal often stipulate a comparison of costs and potential rewards of the planned
work This is founded in the principle that for a company, drilling is an investment that must be
justified.

6.1. Pits, trenches and shallow drillholes

Pits, trenches and shallow drillholes are made in soil and soft rock in order to expose near-surface
ore, alteration zones and host rocks for detailed geological mapping and sampling. Trenches, tens
to hundreds of metres long, may be excavated by manual labour, trench excavators and bulldozers.

17
Pits and shallow shafts provide large samples (e.g. of gold or diamond ore). Shallow drillholes can
be sunk with various tools. In unconsolidated loose rocks, such as tin placers, scoops with a valve,
light-cable and tool-boring rigs, or augering equipment may be used. Hole depths of 60 m are
possible. Experiments with radiotracer gold particles showed that in non-cohesive material, dry
augering is the best method to recover representative gold contents.

7.0. Rotary Percussion air blast drill rigs

Rotary percussion air blast drill rigs (RAB), also called top, or down-the-hole hammers (DTH),
are commonly used in quarries and open cut mines for drilling blast holes at diameters from 25–
400 mm to depths of 100–200 m. In exploration, low costs may be an argument for using this
method, aiming at quick data acquisition. Compressed air is used in order to lift rock cuttings and
dust from the bit to the surface, between the drill pipe and the wall of the hole. The hole is typically
open and casing (lining), which keeps the wall rocks from falling in, is not installed. Rock flour
and cuttings from DTH-holes are useful samples, but higher accuracy is obtained with reverse
circulation (RC) hammers. The drill-string of RC-hammers consists of two pipes: The compressed
air flows down between the inner and the outer pipe, whereas the rock chips are lifted in the inner
pipe. This avoids erosion of wall rocks, which may mix with the cuttings, resulting in diluted
samples. The large sample size and the high speed of penetration are important advantages of DTH
compared to diamond drilling. RC-drilling has become a standard where high accuracy is essential
and coincides with closely spaced (and therefore expensive) drilling, as in gold exploration and
mining. Most RC drill rigs are constructed for holes to 500 m depth, but the largest machines are
capable to drill to 1500 m.

8.0. Diamond core drilling

Diamond core drilling is the most common method employed in exploration for mineral deposits
in hard rocks. This technology is two to three times more expensive than RC, but has several
advantages compared with hammer drilling, not least the smaller disturbance of the environment.

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Small diamond drills can be carried on foot by geologists and average sized rigs can be pulled by
common four-wheel drive vehicles. RC rigs, in contrast, are much heavier. Some machines are
produced that can alternatively be equipped for diamond or RC operation. Diamond coring is
relatively easy in solid rock, but asks for considerable skill in the more common cases of rapidly
changing hard material (quartz), solid rock and soft material (clay, fault gauge, etc.). Ideally, the
core taken from a hole is a complete and coherent sample of the ground. Cores provide a wealth
of information, such as lithology, rock boundaries and structural data. Core samples are used to
determine (assay) ore grade as well as geochemical, mineralogical and petrophysical parameters.
The essential determinant of the significance of core-derived data is core recovery, defined as the
ratio of the length of recovered core to the length drilled. Low core recovery impedes quantitative
interpretation of important properties, such as ore grade and ore boundaries. Therefore, core
recovery of more than 90% is stipulated with drilling contractors. Other strict rules must be agreed,
such as careful extraction of the core and its packing in properly labelled core boxes, and marking
individual core runs. Drilling should be supervised on site by experienced geologists. Proper
storage of core is needed for the duration of the project (if the prospect is rejected) and for the
whole life of the resulting mine if the deposit is feasible. Note that although onerous, storage is
much cheaper than repeat drilling.

A B

Fig.2. A. Sandvik DE 130 portable Fig.2. B. Reverse circulation hammer bit.

exploration Photograph by Leon Bird, copyright
diamond drill rig in Turkey. Photograph by Sandvik 2010. Note the wide openings,
Muzaffer which guide air flow and cuttings into the
Bayazitoglu, copyright Sandvik 2008. inner tube.
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Exploration drillholes for ore and minerals are rarely sunk to depths greater than a few hundred
metres. In cases of well-known geology and a reasonable expectation of high rewards (e.g.
Witwatersrand, Sudbury), diamond drillholes are driven to more than 5000 m depth. Not only for
deep holes, directional core drilling and borehole deviation surveying are standard procedures.
Inclined and deep drillholes (deeper than 200 m) must be surveyed for deviation, which is too
frequent to be ignored. Reliable estimation of resources and reserves, and precise mine planning
is impossible if the location of orebodies, faults and risky zones, such as water-rich or weak rocks,
is not accurately known. Normally, low-cost electronic multishot (EMS) downhole instruments
based on magnetometers are used, but in steel-cased holes, or in the presence of magnetite and
pyrrhotite, nonmagnetic survey instruments (e.g. gyroscope based) must employed. The first are
prone to considerable errors, which may cause wrong resource estimates.

Neglect of deviation surveying can have drastic consequences: In 1989, resources of the newly
discovered base metal deposit Louvicourt, Quebec, Canada were estimated, based on diamond
drilling to 830 m depth, to >30 Mt of ore at 3.1% Cu and 1.34% Zn. After underground
development and additional drilling of 80,000 metres, the reserves were recalculated in 1994 to
15.7 Mt. The company had to admit that the grave error was due to drillhole deviation.

9.0. Geological logging

Considering the high costs of drilling, a maximum of information must be extracted. Geological
logging of core and drill cuttings is common practice. State-of-the-art standard procedures are best
learnt from large companies and reputed geological state surveys. Digital processing is the norm,
but intricate geological features may be most faithfully recorded by hand-drawings at scales larger
than 1:100 (1 cm ¼ 1 m). Whenever samples are removed from the core box, markers with a
sample number must be put in the empty places. Sample numbers are composed of the drillhole
name and an individual number that must be singular in the company’s database. Colour
photographs of the core complement other documented data, but cannot replace the above-
mentioned sketches. The differentiation of macroscopically similar minerals, such as carbonates,
may be facilitated by colouring techniques. Semiautomated methods of mineralogical analysis are
increasingly employed in field geology, core logging and metallurgy. Host rock and hydrothermal

20
alteration minerals of core and drilling chips can be determined by portable infrared field
spectrometers, such as TerraSpecTM. Automated instruments (HyLoggerTM) developed by the
Australian Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) measure
simultaneously 190 bands in the 400–2500 nm (visible light to infrared) or 7000–14,000 nm
(thermal infrared) range of the electromagnetic spectrum, which allow a very precise assessment
of minerals, their crystallinity and chemistry. Portable XRF (X-ray fluorescence) analysers can be
employed to provide an initial overview of metal contents of the core.

A basic rule in planning drillholes is that whenever possible, orebodies should be penetrated at
right-angles. Accordingly, steeply dipping orebodies are drilled by nearly horizontal holes, and
those with low-angle dips by vertical or inclined holes. Local constraints, such as steep terrain that
limits the choice of collar sites, may enforce disregard of this rule. Often, drillholes are arranged
in fans parallel to gridlines, preferably along profiles that were established for geochemical and
geophysical surveys. The distance between drillholes is essentially a function of the assumed
continuity and variability of the orebody. As soon as sufficient data are available, geostatistical
methods help to adjust distances but geological experience remains indispensable. The first
drillholes are aimed at the centre of the assumed orebody, in order to confirm the presence of
significant mineralization. Large pipe-like deposits (kimberlites, copper porphyries) are explored
and sampled by vertical holes in quadratic or rectangular grids. However, such unidirectional
drilling may induce serious errors, if ore distribution is non-isotropic. In the Cu-Au porphyry
deposit Bougainville (Papua New Guinea), ore grades calculated from vertical drilling were later
found to be lower than excavated ore. Vertical pipes of rich ore had not been sufficiently sampled.
Note that this was a lucky case, with more metal present than originally estimated. Too often, the
reverse ruined a mine.

The decision to abandon a prospect, or to continue with detailed exploration in spite of a series of
negative results, may be very difficult. A wrong decision may cause financial loss, either because
of costs for an unjustified prolongation of investigations, or because the income from a good
orebody is not realized. Of course, every drillhole will be judged on meeting expected targets. Yet,
negative results should not lead to precipitous abandonment of a prospect. One example of the
rewards of persistence is Olympic Dam, where only the tenth drillhole hit exploitable copper ore.

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Naturally, every new drillhole is carefully evaluated in a drilling campaign and results suggesting
variations of the programme are incorporated.

IV. Exploration stages

This activity is commonly undertaken in stages:

i. Reconnaissance exploration – target generation.

ii. Detailed follow-up exploration – investigation of targets.

iii. Evaluation – development of a new mine, or final rejection.

Some stages may be neglected, for instance in cases of companies purchasing prospective mineral
occurrences, or when new orebodies in active mining districts (“brown fields”) are discovered
and developed. The secure provision of metals and minerals depends not only on geological and
technical availability but also on economic, institutional, societal, and legal conditions. All
activities that serve mineral raw materials supply, from exploration to extraction, including mine
closure and reclamation, must be optimized according to the three criteria:

1. environmentally sound

2. socially responsible, and

3. economically profitable/feasible

Economy

Sustainable
Development
22
 Community Environment

Fig. 3. Sustainable development in Mining.

The strategy of exploration programmes directs work from regional scale to smaller scale, with
costs increasing as reconnaissance methods are succeeded by detailed investigations, and the
pursuit of resemblance to models changes to collecting hard data (e.g. drill cores, rock samples,
etc.).

Figure 4. Stages of an exploration project. (Modified from Eimon 1988.)

i. Reconnaissance exploration

Reconnaissance aims at rapid and low-cost sorting out of prospective and un-prospective parts of
an area. Typical methods used include interpretation of published geological maps, satellite images
and aerial photographs, aero-geophysics, heavy (indicator) minerals and geochemical sampling of

23
stream sediments (e.g. for diamond exploration), and other regional geochemical surveys. On-the
ground geological reconnaissance and verification mapping, and on-site inspection of prospects
are indispensable.

ii. Detailed follow-up exploration

In this phase, prospective locations, and anomalies (prospects) are examined to a degree that allows
a preliminary appraisal of their potential. Essential data include the geological setting, contours,
and nature of the suspected orebody. Useful methods include detailed geological mapping,
geochemical and ground-based geophysical investigations, shallow trenching, and some drilling.
This work will rapidly expose the low potential of most locations. Note, however, that in some
prominent cases, perseverance, despite disappointing first drill holes, was well rewarded (e.g.
Olympic Dam). Retained prospective locations are submitted to a prefeasibility study, which
presents the case of potentially profitable exploitation by comparison with mines working similar
deposits.

iii. Evaluation

Evaluation aims to provide comprehensive data that allow the final decision to develop a mine or
to defer development. In this stage, drilling is intensified. Results are indispensable for the
assessment of metal or mineral recovery and of product quality. Access to ore and host rocks
facilitates determination of rock mechanical and geohydrological behaviour. Together with drilling
and assaying results, these data serve to estimate reserves (and resources) of the deposit.

The next step is realistic planning of the future mine and its processing plant and infrastructure. At
this stage, investment, operating costs, and the probable future income can be calculated.
Assessment of environmental and social costs is possible. Of course, a team of professionals does
evaluation. Evaluation of a mining project concludes with the compilation of a feasibility study. A
feasibility study is the required base for a decision to develop a mine and for an investor (e.g. a
bank) to finance the project. Note that wherever exploration is likely to lead to new mining
activities, environmental studies must be taken up as early as possible. It would be a costly error
to defer this work to the last stages of developing a new operation.

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V. Classification of mineral resources

i. Discovered mineral resources

According to increasing geological certainty, they are subdivided into inferred, indicated, and
measured resources (Figure 14). The last category infers that mass and grade are known with a
high level of confidence. Methods for measuring confidence are typically based on drill hole or
sample spacing and geostatistical criteria. Resources are normally not acceptable as a base for
commercial mining.

ii. Mineral, or ore reserves

Mineral, or ore reserves are only that part of an indicated or measured resource that can be
economically mined. Mineral reserves are subdivided into probable and proved, the first with a
lower degree of confidence. Statistical and geostatistical methods are indispensable in the
determination of different levels of confidence. The principle can be illustrated by varying density
of geological observations (Figure 14). In a mine exploiting a simple planar orebody (e.g. a
fluorspar vein, or a steeply dipping SEDEX ore deposit), proved reserves must be physically
outlined on three or four sides. Probable reserves are those parts that are only exposed along two
mine openings (or closely spaced drill holes).

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Figure 5. General relations between exploration results, mineral resources, and mineral reserves as
defined in the JORC code (AusIMM 2004). It is noteworthy that proved reserves can fall back to the
measured resources category.

VI. Equipment Needed in Mineral Exploration

A large variety of equipment is needed for mineral exploration purposes. Of these, some are for
constant and continuous use and should be purchased for permanent retention. Others may be
needed only occasionally and might be hired when a specific need arises. Some of the items of
equipment which are of constant and continuous use are dealt with below:

1. Base maps

A well-prepared topographical and geological map of the area which is to be investigated is the
most important ingredient of a prospecting expedition. The plan should show topographical and
geological details on sufficiently large scale. In India, the standard scales for systematic geological
mapping are (presently 1:50,000). Where a geological map is not available, a geologist may have
to map the area first. For this, topographic base maps are required. Such maps can also be obtained
from the offices of the Survey of India. When topographic maps are not available, use may be
made of forest maps, revenue and cadastral maps available with the district revenue and/or forest

26
authorities. When no base maps are available, it has to be prepared by the Surveyor first if a
surveyor is available, or else, a geologist himself should be able to prepare one.
Where necessary, maps have got to be enlarged systematically on to a suitable scale before using
for geological mapping. Square method, protractor and proportionate compass method,
photographic methods are commonly used depending on the urgency and availability of the
facility. It is also possible to scan the maps and enlarge them digitally, using a common graphical
software. In the case of areas already worked, it is possible that some plans and other details may
be available with government agencies like Indian Bureau of Mines. Where legally feasible and
technically relevant, the possibility of these being used deserves to be considered.
In the field, a map comes to be used rather roughly. Precautions are necessary to prevent the map
from getting torn and damaged. The best precaution is to mount the paper map on a cloth backing
and bind it with card board covers in such a way that they can be loosely folded into a book.
Facilities for map mounting and even mounted maps are available at the map sales offices of the
Survey of India. Such a book covered with a thin transparent plastic sheet would completely protect
the map from most of the damages normally encountered in the field. A permanent map case of
suitable shape and made of light, rust-free metal would also be needed for safe transit and storage
of maps and plans.

2. Satellite images and aerial photographs

Satellite images and aerial photographs are useful for structural, lithological and alteration
mapping. Different lithologies are depicted in different colours in coloured satellite images. A
geologist can save these images in his/her Tablet or GPS and use it in a scale desired. If aerial
photographs are used, a pocket stereoscope is a great help to see the geological features in three
dimensions.

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3. Compass

A compass is used for finding directions, taking traverses and locating one’s own position in the
map. The magnetic needle of the compass always points towards the magnetic (and not the true)
north. A compass meant for a geologist’s field work usually has some built-in arrangement for
measuring strikes, dips of bedding planes and inclinations of the various planar features. For
versatility in use, a Brunton Compass is the best. A Brunton compass is designed in such a way
that it can be used as compass, clinometers and hand-level. For most uses, this instrument can be
held at one’s hand. When accurate measurements are required, it may be mounted on a tripod
stand. Brunton compass may be used for making the following observations: bearings, vertical
angles, strike and dip, geological mapping, elevation calculation, etc.

4. Global Positioning System (GPS)

It is often necessary to know the accurate coordinate position of an outcrop, sample location,
bedding plane measurements, etc. A handheld GPS can provide the geographic location with an
accuracy of ±few metres. In addition, a geologist can upload the necessary maps, satellite images
and aerial photographs and use them while navigating in the field. This device is also useful for
finding any point desired and finding the right path back to the camp.

5. Hammer
Hammer is essential for breaking rocks and collecting samples. Several types of geological
hammers are available; the most useful of them may have a square hammer on one side and a
chisel edge on the other. A hammer of this type with a longer handle than usual may be used as a
pick in climbing steep inclines. A light wooden handle with some flexibility or a steel or wooden
handle with shock absorbing material will protect the striker from shock. The usual field hammer
may weigh 0.5–1 kg.

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6. Chisel

Chisel is necessary to wedge out rock samples as also in cutting channels for sampling for
collecting chip samples. A chisel-like tool with a pointed end is termed a moil and is useful in
cutting and chiseling out rock specimens.

7. Magnifying glass

A pocket lens with a magnification of 10 times is useful for most of the field examinations. Special
large diameter lenses with a large field and high magnifying
power may be required when working in a multimineral area. For purposes of reading maps, a map
reading hand lens will be useful.

8. Magnet
A horseshoe or bar magnet of small size is essential for testing magnetic minerals.

9. Measuring tape
A geological field party should have at least one steel or metallic (cloth) tape of 30 m. length and
another pocket steel tape of 2 m length. The first for ground measurement, measuring traverse
lines, etc., and the other for measuring in shorter units, such as thickness of veins, beds, etc. The
survey teams require 60 m steel tape as well as pocket steel tape of 2 m length.

10. Protractor
A rectangular protractor scale made of plastic and of convenient size to be carried in one’s pocket
is most advisable. For purposes of plotting and measuring the bearings, the protractor may be
circular showing 0°–360° divisions and made of good transparent plastic.
11. Field notebook

A field notebook may be about 18 _ 12 cm in size containing some 200 pages. Most of the pages
should be unruled. Some graph pages and a few ruled pages should be included at intervals. Some
detachable perforated plain sheets at the end of the book will be of immense use. The book should

29
have a hard cover of paste board or plastic material and should show the name and address of the
geologist, details of the project, and date of operation. A field notebook may be provided with a
unit conversion table, equal-area stereographic net, natural trigonometric functions and a
nomogram for bed thickness calculation.
In addition, streak plate, glazed porcelain pieces and pocket knife should be available with the
filed party. Survey work requires special field books to put down all the recordings made in the
field.

12. Pick axes, shovels, baskets, etc.

When some minor excavations become necessary to study an outcrop, pickaxes, shovels, etc., may
be needed. These may be chosen from the wide variety available in the market. Other essential
items are mostly non-specialized equipment and may be chosen from among the various standard
brands available.

13. Transport

Some form of transport is essential in exploration camps. Petrol/diesel driven jeeps and trucks are
the most versatile forms of transport. However, if such transport is too costly or cannot be used,
and for small-scale operations, animals or animal drawn vehicles like bullock carts could be used.

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