Summary of Chapter 6: Political Participation

Overview

 Political participation encompasses a wide range of activities, both

institutional and noninstitutional, that allow individuals to influence the
governance of their society.

 The chapter explores various theoretical frameworks and typologies

that explain the nature and significance of political participation.

Political Participation as Power

 Citizenship: Central to political participation, combining political and

social roles within a community.

 T.H. Marshall: Highlighted the tension between democratic citizenship

and capitalism, emphasizing citizenship as a historical and social
construct.

 Bryan Turner: Expanded Marshall's model, viewing citizenship as

juridical, political, economic, social, and cultural, and emphasizing
social practices related to group membership.

Theoretical Frameworks

1. Pluralist: Focuses on mass participation and interest groups

competing for power.

2. Elite-Managerial: Suggests that genuine participation is limited to a

small elite who shape policy and allocate resources.

3. Class: Argues that political participation is dominated by the capitalist

class, with mass participation being mostly symbolic.

4. Rational Choice: Views participation as a rational decision based on

cost-benefit analyses.

5. Postmodern: Considers participation as a matter of identity and

everyday life, emphasizing new forms of cultural and political
identities.

Forms of Political Participation

 Institutional Forms: Include voting, engaging in political discussions,

using social media for political purposes, and participating in
campaigns and canvassing.
  Noninstitutional Forms: Include protests, strikes, boycotts, riots,
political violence, and nonviolent disruptions like graffiti.

Typologies of Political Participation

 Early Typologies:

o Milbrath: Suggested participation relates to resources,

knowledge, and intentions.

o Verba and Nie: Argued participation is motivated by individual

goals and desired outcomes.

o Olsen: Examined the relationship between participation and the

ability to influence the political system.

 Contemporary Typologies:

o Zukin et al.: Examined the role of citizen participation in the

context of technological and social changes, arguing for new
forms of participation.

Institutional Forms of Political Participation

 Political Talk/Discourse: Political discussions inform and shape

political opinions, attitudes, and values.

 Social Media: Has transformed political participation by changing how

people engage in political talk, gather information, and mobilize others.

 Campaigning and Canvassing: Positively associated with older age,

strong party allegiance, education, and availability of resources.

Noninstitutional Forms of Political Participation

 Protests and Demonstrations: Reflect the anger and

disappointment of aggrieved populations, sometimes involving
violence.

 Graffiti: Seen as a form of protest or communication for those

excluded from mainstream political discourse.

Group Context and Social Networks

 Political and Social Capital: Social relationships that connect people

and influence political participation.
  Changing Nature of Political Participation: Generational
differences and transformation in views on political participation and
citizenship.

Key Points for Exam Preparation

 Understand the different theoretical frameworks and their perspectives

on political participation.

 Familiarize yourself with the various typologies and forms of political

participation.

 Reflect on the impact of social media and technology on political

participation.

 Recognize the significance of social capital and group contexts in

fostering political engagement.

 Consider the changing nature of political participation across

generations and its implications for contemporary politics.

Summary of Chapter 7: Elections and Voting

Overview

 Elections and voting are fundamental components of democratic

governance, providing citizens the opportunity to influence
government decisions.

 The chapter discusses theoretical frameworks, the functions of

elections, electoral systems, voter turnout, voting behavior research,
social cleavages, issue-based voting, and significant U.S. presidential
elections.

Theoretical Frameworks

1. Pluralist:

o Voting and free elections are essential for democracy.

o Voters have the power to influence government decisions.

o Elections provide a mechanism for expressing political

preferences.
 2. Elite-Managerial:

o Elections are seen as a façade that legitimizes elite control.

o Political power remains concentrated among elites.

o Elections serve more symbolic and controlling functions than

democratic ones.

3. Class:

o Elections legitimize the existing system, maintaining capitalist

control.

o Political participation by lower classes has minimal impact on

power structures.

4. Rational Choice:

o Voters act to maximize their utility, making goal-oriented

decisions.

o Voting is seen as a rational decision based on personal benefits.

5. Postmodern:

o Emphasizes the disorganized and changing nature of electoral

politics.

o Traditional institutions and identities are being transformed.

6. Institutionalist:

o Focuses on social structural factors affecting voting patterns.

o Examines issues like voter registration, campaign advertising,

and voting accessibility.

Functions of Elections

 Provide a means for citizens to choose public officials.

 Shape and enforce public policy.

 Resolve differences among competing interest groups.

 Ensure government stability and legitimacy.

Electoral Systems and Turnout

  Proportional Systems: Representation is based on the proportion of
votes each party receives.

 Nonproportional Systems: Candidates must receive a majority

(more than 50%) or the most votes (single-member plurality).

 Factors influencing turnout include economic conditions, political

discussions, and political party contact.

Voting Behavior Research

 Columbia University Approach:

o Focuses on information during campaigns, individual decision-

making, and group process variables.

o Socioeconomic status and sociodemographic variables are key

factors.

 University of Michigan Approach:

o Emphasizes political attitudes and social psychological factors.

o Party identification, candidate evaluation, and issue positions are

significant influences.

Social Cleavages and Characteristics

 Social Class:

o Traditional class measures are less predictive of voting behavior.

o Managers tend to vote Republican, professionals tend to support

Democrats.

 Gender Gap:

o Women surpassed men in voting rates in 1980.

o Younger women are more likely to vote than younger men, while
older men are more likely to vote than older women.

o Working women tend to support Democratic candidates.

 Racial Cleavages:

o Whites generally support Republican candidates; racial minorities

tend to support Democrats.
 o Black voters overwhelmingly support Democratic candidates
since the 1930s.

o Hispanic voting patterns vary by subgroup, with Mexicans and

Puerto Ricans supporting Democrats, and Cubans supporting
Republicans.

o East Asian Americans have low voting rates despite higher SES,
tending to support Democratic candidates.

 Religious Cleavages:

o Differences in religiosity, church attendance, and religious

affiliation significantly influence voting behavior.

o Evangelical Protestants and frequent church attendees are more

likely to support Republicans, while non-religious and Jewish
voters support Democrats.

Political Views and Issue-Based Voting

 Shift from social characteristics and traditional loyalties to political

attitudes and issue orientations.

 Liberalism and conservatism are evolving, with new issues reshaping

traditional ideological boundaries.

 Partisanship remains a strong predictor of voting behavior.

Significant U.S. Presidential Elections

 2000: Controversial election with the Supreme Court decision

impacting the result.

 2004: Defined by the post-9/11 context and the "War on Terrorism."

 2006: Democratic control of the House and election of the first female
Speaker, Nancy Pelosi.

 2008: Historic election of Barack Obama, the first black president, and
increased role of women in presidential politics.

 2010: Rise of the Tea Party Movement and significant swing to

Republicans.

 2012: Re-election of Obama with a smaller margin than 2008.

 2016: Unprecedented election of Donald Trump against Hillary Clinton.

  2020: Marked by the COVID-19 pandemic and significant mail-in
voting.

Key Points for Exam Preparation

 Understand the various theoretical frameworks and their perspectives

on elections and voting.

 Familiarize yourself with the functions of elections and different

electoral systems.

 Reflect on the impact of social cleavages, including class, gender, race,

and religion, on voting behavior.

 Recognize the significance of issue-based voting and shifting political

views.

 Review the key U.S. presidential elections and their defining

characteristics and outcomes.

Summary of Chapter 8: Social Movements

Overview

 Social movements are organized efforts to promote or resist change in

society, relying on noninstitutionalized forms of political action.

 The chapter explores theoretical frameworks, old and new social

movements, collective identity, framing, emotions, the life cycle of
social movements, and the role of globalization.

Definition of Social Movements

 Social movements are organized efforts to promote or resist societal

change, involving both institutionalized and noninstitutionalized
activities.

 Characteristics include making demands for change, expressing social

and political identities, and developing their own cultures while
interacting with mainstream politics.

Theoretical Frameworks

1. Pluralist:
 o Views social movements as noninstitutionalized political
behavior, often seen as deviant in healthy democracies.

o Focuses on stress, strain, and breakdown as factors encouraging

participation.

2. Elite:

o Emphasizes resource mobilization, highlighting the need for

resources from key elites for movement success.

o Focuses on the contributions of external groups to the

movement.

3. Class (Political Process Model):

o Stresses the importance of political opportunities and the

cognitive liberation of potential adherents.

o Highlights the role of organizational readiness and political

opportunities in generating social insurgency.

4. Rational Choice:

o Suggests individuals participate in movements based on narrow

self-interests and selective incentives.

o Addresses the free-rider problem, where non-participants benefit

from the movement's accomplishments.

5. Postmodern:

o Examines new social identities and the blurring of public and

private spheres in postindustrial societies.

o Focuses on identity issues and the decline of traditional political

engagement.

Old and New Social Movements

 Old Social Movements (OSMs): Based on economic and class

issues, such as labor movements.

 New Social Movements (NSMs): Focus on identity, quality of life,

and democratic procedures, often occurring in postindustrial societies.

 NSMs are characterized by cultural conflicts and direct democracy,

often supported by new middle classes.
Other Approaches to Movements

 Collective Identity: Emphasizes shared definitions based on common

interests, solidarity, and experiences.

 Framing: Focuses on how movements create and influence new

understandings of the world to mobilize support.

 Emotions: Highlights the role of emotions in garnering support and

devaluing opposing views.

Toward a Synthesis of Frameworks

 McAdam's synthesis identifies three key concepts: political

opportunities, mobilizing structures, and framing.

 Political opportunities and threats influence power relations and

movement emergence.

 Shared meanings and framing link political opportunities to actual

social movement participation.

Life Cycle of Social Movements

 Social movements follow a general pattern of emergence, mobilization,

and decline.

 Emergence: Triggered by strain, conflict, and breakdown in social

order.

 Mobilization: Influenced by political opportunity structures, existing

social organization, and interpretive framing processes.

 Decline: Outcomes include policy changes, expansion of social capital,

and changes in participants' biographies.

Globalization and Transnational Movements

 Globalization has led to the diffusion of social movements across

countries and regions, resulting in transnational movements.

 These movements address global issues and demonstrate

interconnectedness among social movements worldwide.

Key Points for Exam Preparation

 Understand the various theoretical frameworks and their perspectives

on social movements.
  Familiarize yourself with the characteristics of old and new social
movements.

 Reflect on the significance of collective identity, framing, and emotions

in social movements.

 Recognize the stages in the life cycle of social movements and the
factors influencing each stage.

 Consider the impact of globalization on the emergence and spread of

transnational social movements.

Summary of Chapter 9: Violence and Terrorism

Overview

 The chapter explores the political uses of hate, genocide, war making,
and terrorism.

 It addresses sociological theories and causes of terrorism, responses to

terrorism, and future directions.

Political Uses of Hate

 Political leaders and organizations use hate to consolidate power,

deflect blame, and justify self-interest.

 Hate can lead to repression, oppression, ethnic cleansing, or genocide.

Genocide

 Genocide is a form of political violence directed by the state against its

own citizens, often defined as state terrorism.

 Acts of genocide include murder, causing harm, creating destructive

conditions, birth control measures, and taking children from one group
to another.

Conditions for Genocide

 Dehumanization campaigns paint the targeted group as subhuman or

evil.

 Political sociologists identify modernity, ethnic conflict, and colonialism

as causes of genocide.
Modernity and Genocide

 Nationalism, scientific racism, technology, and bureaucratic

rationalization are features of modernity related to genocide.

 Criticisms of modernity theory include its limited application to non-

bureaucratic genocides like Rwanda.

Ethnic Conflict and Genocide

 Ethnic conflict involves mobilizing individuals based on shared

identities, leading to ethnic nationalism and potentially genocide.

Colonialism and Genocide

 Colonialism exploits regions for resources and labor, often leading to

genocide through political, social, and cultural control.

War Making

 War is defined as violent confrontation between armed organizations,

typically involving the state.

 Theoretical views focus on the emergence and organization of the

nation-state driving war making.

 The future of war making may involve more global conflict, a decline of
nation-states, and the rise of transnational organizations.

New Wars

 New wars incorporate the destruction of civil society into military

endeavors, including ethnic cleansing and genocide.

 New wars differ from old wars by involving non-state actors and
targeting civilians.

Terrorism

 Terrorism incidents have been rising until 2014, with a decline since
then.

 Terrorism includes actual or threatened use of violence for political

aims, targeting innocent civilians.

Types of Terrorism

 State or Regime Terrorism: Perpetrated by weak states, high

economic inequality, and lack of media openness.
  State-Supported Terrorism: Aided by nation-states.

 Substate Terrorism: Carried out by individuals or groups against the

state, with classic (pyramid structure) and modern (horizontal cell
structure) forms.

Sociological Theories on Terrorism

 Collective Action Theory: Conditions for collective action include

discontent, ideology, organization, and political opportunity.

 Political Economy: Focuses on rational decisions by terrorist actors

and nation-states' responses.

 World Systems Perspective: Examines conditions like hegemonic

decline, globalization, and empire competition.

 Framing: Looks at how terrorist groups develop and apply messages

to mobilize support.

 Categorical Terrorism: Targets complicit civilians benefiting from

state actions.

Causes of Terrorism

 Micro-Dynamic and Psychological Variables: Focus on personality

traits like low self-esteem and lack of trust, with sociodemographic
factors like being young, male, and economically marginalized.

 Mesodynamic: Group-level characteristics, shared ideologies,

socialization, and collective identity.

 Macrodynamic or Structural: Socio-economic and political forces

like lack of political power, globalization, economic stress, and political
oppression.

Responding to Terrorism

 Responses include military action, covert action, diplomacy, economic

sanctions, humanitarian aid, and peacemaking.

 Repressive tactics may involve expanded surveillance and use of

torture.

 Alleviating structural causes and eliminating political opportunities can

reduce terrorism.
  Peacebuilding involves providing security and economic resources, and
negotiating solutions to conflicts.

The Future of Terrorism

 Optimistic View: Technological innovations and globalization may

reduce terrorism.

 Pessimistic View: Increasing inequality and resource depletion may

increase terrorist activities.

Key Points for Exam Preparation

 Understand the various theoretical frameworks and perspectives on

political violence, genocide, war making, and terrorism.

 Recognize the conditions and sociological causes of genocide and the

features of modernity related to genocide.

 Familiarize yourself with the differences between old and new wars.

 Reflect on the types of terrorism and the sociological theories

explaining them.

 Review the causes of terrorism at micro, meso, and macro levels.

 Consider the different responses to terrorism and their effectiveness.

 Analyze the optimistic and pessimistic views on the future of terrorism.

Summary of Chapter 10: Globalization

Overview

 Globalization is the transformation of the way people, groups, and

nation-states connect and interact.

 The chapter discusses theoretical perspectives, debates, the impact on

the nation-state, democracy, antiglobalization movements, and future
directions.

What is Globalization?
  Economic Dimension: Involves the movement and absorption of
goods, capital, politics, power, information, and technologies
worldwide.

 Social and Cultural Dimension: Includes the transmission of

pollution, crime, and other social problems across borders.

Components of Globalization

1. Interdependence: Living in an interconnected world where mutual

reliance is necessary.

2. Liberalization: Ideological justification for free-market capitalism and

laissez-faire governance.

3. Universalization: Weakening state sovereignty with corporations and

NGOs challenging the state.

4. Westernization: Diffusion of Western culture and the homogenization

of places.

5. Capitalism: Viewed as market expansion and the effort to expand

capitalism through transnational corporations.

Theoretical Perspectives

1. World Systems Theory: Globalization emerged over 500 years

related to capitalist markets, predicting terminal crisis around 2050.

2. Theories of Global Capitalism: Emphasize new developments in

capitalist expansion and the role of transnational organizations.

3. Postmodern Views: Suggest a decline and transformation of social

institutions, focusing on technological and market changes.

4. Network Society: Focuses on changes in communication and

information technology driving globalization.

5. Cultural Theories: Emphasize cultural over economic globalization,

considering both homogenization and heterogeneity.

Globalization Debates

 Skeptics: Believe globalization's effects are overstated and not novel.

 Hyperglobalists: Argue that the state is in decline due to

globalization.
  Transformationalists: Believe state power is being redefined rather
than diminished.

Impact on the Nation-State

 Withering State Debate: Three views—realists (state not in decline),

modernists (state in decline), and emerging perspectives (state
redefined).

 Strong-State Weak-State Debate: Globalization depends on

interactions between strong and weak states.

Theoretical Views on State Power

1. World Systems Theory: Capitalist systems need strong states, but

states are transforming and losing legitimacy.

2. Global Capitalist Theorists: Globalization transforms the state's

organization and function.

3. Postmodern Views: The state is no longer autonomous and is

becoming irrelevant.

4. Network Society: Technological innovations expand state capacity

but also keep it in check by civil society.

5. Cultural Theories: Focus on the spread of the modern nation-state

and "McDonaldization" of political power.

Public Policy and Welfare State

 Globalization affects the state's ability to create and enforce public

policies.

 Welfare State: Experiences pressure from economic globalization

with arguments for expansion, retrenchment, or a curvilinear pattern.

Nationalism

 Directly threatened by globalization but also on the rise.

Democracy and Globalization

 Democracy is spreading globally, with more non-authoritarian states.

 Factors promoting democracy include technological innovations, global

shocks, and foreign intervention.

Anti globalization Movements

  Aim to replace the dominant global regime with one maximizing
political control and equitable development.

Future of Globalization

 Pessimistic View: Predicts strengthened state power, economic

booms and busts, environmental degradation, and increased violence.

 Optimistic View: Believes globalization can promote democratic

principles and global well-being.

Key Points for Exam Preparation

 Understand the various theoretical perspectives on globalization.

 Familiarize yourself with the components and dimensions of

globalization.

 Reflect on the debates surrounding globalization's occurrence and

impact.

 Recognize the implications of globalization for the nation-state and

public policy.

 Review the relationship between globalization and democracy,

including antiglobalization movements.

 Consider the optimistic and pessimistic views on the future of

globalization.

Summary for Each Chapter with Keywords

Chapter 6: Political Participation

Key Concepts:

 Political Participation: Activities to influence government decisions.

 Citizenship: Political and social roles within a community.

 Conventional vs. Unconventional Participation: Voting,

discussions vs. protests, demonstrations.
  Institutional vs. Noninstitutional Forms: Voting, campaigning vs.
protests, graffiti.

 Social Movements: Organized efforts to promote or resist change.

 Social Capital: Networks of relationships among people.

Summary: Political participation encompasses both conventional (voting,

campaigning) and unconventional (protests, graffiti) activities. Citizenship
combines political and social roles, influencing how individuals engage with
politics. Institutional forms of participation, like voting and campaigning, are
complemented by noninstitutional forms such as protests and
demonstrations. Social movements, which can be revolutionary, are crucial
for societal change, relying on collective action and social capital.
Understanding political participation's various forms and its impact on
democracy and social change is essential for comprehending political
sociology.

Chapter 7: Elections and Voting

Key Concepts:

 Elections: Mechanism for citizens to choose representatives.

 Voting Turnout: Participation rates in elections.

 Electoral Systems: Proportional vs. nonproportional systems.

 Social Cleavages: Influences of class, race, gender, and religion.

 Issue-Based Voting: Voting based on specific issues.

 Party Identification: Loyalty to political parties.

 Electoral College: Unique feature of the U.S. electoral system.

Summary: Elections are fundamental to democracy, allowing citizens to

influence government. Voter turnout is critical, with different electoral
systems (proportional and nonproportional) affecting outcomes. Social
cleavages, including class, race, gender, and religion, significantly impact
voting behavior. Issue-based voting and party identification shape electoral
decisions, with the Electoral College playing a unique role in U.S. presidential
elections. Understanding these elements provides insight into the electoral
process and its implications for political representation and policy-making.

Chapter 8: Social Movements

Key Concepts:

 Social Movements: Collective efforts to promote or resist change.

 Resource Mobilization: Acquisition of resources for movement

success.

 Political Process: Opportunities and constraints influencing

movements.

 Framing: Constructing meanings to mobilize support.

 Old vs. New Social Movements: Economic/class-based vs.

identity/quality of life-based.

 Life Cycle of Movements: Emergence, mobilization, decline.

 Political Opportunity Structures: Conditions that facilitate or hinder

movements.

Summary: Social movements are organized efforts to enact or resist

change, relying on resource mobilization and political opportunities. They use
framing to construct meanings and mobilize support. Old social movements
focus on economic/class issues, while new ones emphasize identity and
quality of life. Movements typically follow a life cycle: emergence,
mobilization, and decline. Political opportunity structures influence their
success. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for analyzing how social
movements shape political, cultural, and social landscapes.

Chapter 9: Violence and Terrorism

Key Concepts:

 Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing: Extreme forms of political violence.

 Modernity and Ethnic Conflict: Causes of genocide.

 Colonialism: Historical context for political violence.

 War Making: State involvement in organized violence.

 New Wars: Modern conflicts involving non-state actors.

 Terrorism: Use of violence for political aims.

 State/Regime Terrorism: State-directed violence.

 State-Sponsored Terrorism: State-supported terrorist activities.

  Substate Terrorism: Non-state actors targeting the state.

 Categorical Terrorism: Targeting specific groups.

 Microdynamic, Mesodynamic, Macrodynamic Variables: Causes

of terrorism.

 Strain Theory and Geometry: Theoretical perspectives.

 Peacebuilding: Efforts to resolve conflicts.

Summary: Violence and terrorism are significant political phenomena.

Genocide and ethnic cleansing represent extreme political violence,
influenced by modernity and ethnic conflict. Colonialism provides a historical
backdrop for understanding political violence. War making involves state-led
organized violence, with new wars featuring non-state actors. Terrorism,
including state/regime and state-sponsored, involves using violence for
political aims. Categorical terrorism targets specific groups, with various
micro, meso, and macro-level variables influencing its causes. Strain theory
and geometry offer theoretical insights, while peacebuilding focuses on
conflict resolution. Understanding these concepts is vital for analyzing
political violence and terrorism's impact on society.

Chapter 10: Globalization

Key Concepts:

 Globalization: Interconnectedness and interdependence of the world.

 Interdependence: Mutual reliance in a globalized world.

 Liberalization: Free-market capitalism.

 Universalization: Weakening state sovereignty.

 Westernization: Spread of Western culture.

 Transnational/Multinational Corporations: Drivers of globalization.

 Network Society: Impact of communication and IT.

 Homogenization and McDonaldization: Cultural convergence.

 Skeptics, Hyperglobalists, Transformationists: Debates on

globalization's occurrence.

 Economic, Financial, Social, Political Globalization: Different

dimensions.
  Withering State Debate: Impact on state power.

 Antiglobalization Movements: Opposition to globalization.

Summary: Globalization involves interconnectedness and interdependence,

driven by economic, social, and cultural dimensions. It includes
interdependence, liberalization, universalization, and Westernization, with
transnational corporations playing a significant role. The network society
perspective emphasizes the impact of communication and IT. Globalization
debates include skeptics, hyperglobalists, and transformationists, focusing
on its occurrence and impact. Economic, financial, social, and political
globalization are distinct dimensions. The withering state debate explores
globalization's impact on state power, while antiglobalization movements
oppose its effects. Understanding these concepts is crucial for analyzing
globalization's transformative impact on the world.