Motion:

S = Vt
V = u + at
V2 = u2 + 2as
S = ut + ½at2
S = (v+u/2)t

S: distance/displacement
U: initial velocity
V: final velocity
A: acceleration
T: Time

Displacement is a position vector. It means the position of an object will determine whether it is
positive or negative.

Velocity and acceleration are direction vectors. It means the direction of motion determines whether
velocity and acceleration are positive or negative. POSITION DOES NOT MATTER.
Consider right side to be (+):
Accelerating to the right: +
Accelerating to the left: -
Decelerating to the right: -
Decelerating to the left: +
The velocity of the ball increases going down as it is accelerating due to gravity, but it is negative as
the ball is moving in the negative direction. When the ball bounces up, the velocity decreases as it is
working against gravity going up, but the value is a positive as it is moving in the positive direction.
After every bounce, the ball loses some energy, so it bounces up with less velocity after each
bounce.
The graph cannot be drawn in curves as the velocity is constant due to the constant gravitational
force. However, the yellow lines representing the acceleration become less steep as the impact time
with the ground increases, and the acceleration decreases.

Newton’s laws of motion:

Newton’s law of universal gravitation:

Two objects will experience a force of attraction that is directly proportional to the product of the
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from their center.

Mathematically,

F α Mm/r2
F = GMm/r2

Understand that the force calculated acts on both the objects.

Remember an object can never exert a force on itself. It will experience forces exerted by other
objects and exert a force on other objects.
This means your weight is not a force you exert. It is a force you experience due to Earth’s
gravitational pull.

The force that you exert on the ground when you stand is NOT your weight. You exert a contact
force that is simply EQUAL to your weight.

Types of forces: There are only four types of fundamental forces in the universe. They are:
 Gravitational force: This is the force of attraction between two matter particles.
 Electromagnetic force: This is the force of attraction or repulsion between two charged
particles or between two poles of a magnet.
 Weak nuclear force: It is the force exerted on an atom during radioactive decay.
 Strong nuclear force: It is the force exerted with the nucleus of an atom.

So forces like contact, friction, air resistance, normal reaction force are all electromagnetic in nature.

Newton’s 1st law: An object will remain at rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled
by an external force to act otherwise.

Newton’s 1st law talks about two forces:

 The force that causes the motion.

  The force that changes the motion.

Together, these two forces are called Newton’s 1st law pair (Newton 1 pair)

Newton’s 3rd law: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Newton’s 3rd law talks about two forces:

 The action force an object exerts
 The reaction force the object experiences.

Together, these two forces are called a Newton III pair.

Free body force diagrams: These are diagrams that identify the forces acting on the body.

Every force in a free body diagram must be described with the following information:
 The type of force
 The direction of the force
 The size of the force
 Who exerts the force
 Who experiences the force.

According to universal gravitation, as the Earth pulls the man down with 700 N gravitational force,
the man also pulls the Earth up with 700 N. However, the mass of the Earth is very large, so its
movement towards the man is insignificant.
The Earth is pulling the man downward with a gravitational force of 750 N.
The man is pulling the Earth upward with a gravitational force of 750 N.

A) The Earth is pushing the man upward with a contact force of 700 N.
B) The Earth is pulling the man downward with a gravitational force of 700 N.
C) The man is pulling the Earth upward with a gravitational force of 700 N.
D) The man is pushing the Earth downward with a contact force of 700 N.

Notice: Contact forces push the objects apart, whereas gravitational forces pull objects together.

A & B – Newton 1 pair

A & C – Neither Newton 1 nor Newton 3 pair (random pair)
A & D – Newton 3 pair
B & C – Newton 3 pair
B & D – Neither Newton 1 nor Newton 3 pair (random pair)
C & D – Newton 1 pair

In the presence of the Earth, all other gravitational forces are considered negligible.

In this situation then, we do not need to label the gravitational attraction between the man and the
box.
All wheel drive vehicle: All the wheels receive power from the engine.

Front wheel drive: Only the front wheels receive power from the engine.

Rear wheel drive: Only the rear wheels receive power from the engine.
In any vehicle, the direction of force on the driving wheel is the same as the direction of motion of
the vehicle.

The direction of force on the driven wheel will be opposite to the direction of motion of the vehicle.

In any vehicle, the direction of force on the driving wheel is the same as the direction of motion of
the vehicle.

The direction of force on the driven wheel will be opposite to the direction of motion of the vehicle.
Momentum: The product of an objects mass and velocity.

Momentum is a vector quantity.

Law of conservation of momentum: In an isolated system, total momentum before a collision is

equal to total momentum after a collision.

An isolated system is that in which the objects do not experience any force except during collision.

There are three types of collisions:

 Perfectly inelastic collision: In such a collision –
 Momentum is conserved
 Kinetic energy is not conserved
 The objects stick to each other after the collision

 Elastic collision: In such a collision –

 Momentum is conserved
 Kinetic energy is also conserved
 The objects do not stick to each other after collision

Example: collision between air particles

  Partially inelastic collision: In such a collision:
 Momentum is conserved
 Kinetic energy is not conserved
 The objects do not stick to each other after collision.

(mA×uA)+(mB×uB) = (mA×vA)+(mB×vB)
(1.2×6)+(6.3×0) = (1.2×vA)+(6.3×1.2)
VA = -0.3 m/s
Before:
½×mA×uA2+½mB×uB2
= ½×1.2×62+0
EK = 21.6

After:
½×mA×uA2+½mB×uB2
= ½×1.2×(-0.3)2+½×6.3×(1.2)2
EK = 4.59 J

Therefore, the collision is partially inelastic

Explosion:

Before the explosion, the gun and bullet are both stationary.
Therefore, total momentum before explosion = 0 kgm/s
Since momentum is ALWAYS conserved, the total momentum after the collision should also be
0kgm/s. This means as the bullet moves forward, the gun moves backward. This backward motion is
called recoil.
Mass of gun= 1.6 Kg
Mass of bullet = 100 g
Velocity of bullet = 180 m/s
Find the recoil velocity of the gun.

Total momentum before = 0

(mg×vg)+(mb×vb)
= (1.60)×vg+(0.1×180)
1.6vg+18=0
Vg = -11.25 m/s

 Rocket propulsion:
Q) A rocket is propelled upwards. State its changes in momentum.
Ans: Before the fuel is ignited, the total movement is zero. After ignition, the fumes travel downward
with a (negative) momentum. Since total momentum needs to be conserved, the rocket is propelled
upwards with a (positive) momentum.

 Verifying law of conservation of momentum

We measure the mass of gliders 1 and 2 using the electronic balance (Remember to attach the
interruptor car and pin to glider 1 and the cork to glider 2 before the masses are measured)
We give glider 1 a gentle push and allow it to glide through the first light gate.
The velocity of glider 1 is calculated using u = d/t, where d is the length of the interruptor card and t
is the interruption time recorded by Timer A.
Glider 1 now collides and attaches to Glider 2 and travels through the light gate together. (They both
have the same velocity)
The final velocity, v, is now calculated using v = d/t, where t is now the interruption time recorded by
timer B. The length of the interruptor card remains the same.

We then calculate the total momentum before the collision using:

(m1u1) + (m2 + u2) [1 is for glider 1, and 2 is for glider 2]

We calculate the total momentum after the collision using:

(m1v1) + (m2 + v2)/(m1 + m2) [glider 1 and glider 2 travel together]
The values before and after collision are seen to be equal to each other. This follows the law of
conservation of momentum. We may repeat the experiment multiple times with gliders of different
masses to test for reliability.

Newton’s 2nd law: The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and
acts in the direction the force.

Initial momentum = mu
Final momentum = mv
Therefore, change in momentum = mv – mu
According to Newton II: F α mv-mu/t
F α m(v-u/t)
But v-u/t = a
Therefore, F α ma
F = kma

Applying the definition of 1 N (1 N is the force that causes a mass of 1 Kg to accelerate at 1 m/s2)

So, in F = kma
1 = k×1×1
Therefore, k = 1

Substituting k = 1 back into the equation

F = 1×ma
F = ma
Ft = mv – mu (impulse, name for change in momentum)
Unit = ugm/s or Ns

Q. A force of 16 N is just sufficient to keep a trolley moving along at a steady velocity (trolley mass is
4 Kg)
a) Find the force
b) What is the acceleration of the trolley if the force is doubled
c) if the acceleration is for 3s, calculate:
i) final velocity,
ii) time taken to reach the final velocity,
iii) distance covered.
[Assume that the trolley starts from rest]

Ans: a) at steady velocity, FR = 0

Therefore, Ff = FA
Ff = 16N

b) FR = 32 – 16 = 16 N
a = F/m = 16/4 = 4 ms-2

c.i) v = u + 2t
V = 0 + 12
V = 12 m/s

ii) 3 seconds

iii) s = (v+u/2)t
s = (12+0/2)×3 = 18 m

Ans: The weight is balanced by the normal reaction force. The resultant force on the box is to the
right. So it accelerates to the right.

Horizontal forces do not affect vertical motion and vice versa. This means that the two forces are
independent of each other. The box will move horizontally due to the 16 N force and it will move
vertically due to the 4 N force. Simultaneously the resultant direction will be diagonally downward to
the right.

Calculate the total distance covered by the ball from A to C. Also, find the total time taken to travel
from A to C.

Ans: distance from A to B; u = 16 m/s, a = 9.81 m/s, v = 0

V2 = u2 + 2as
02 = 162 + 2(-9.81)(s)
S = 13 m
Distance from B to C = 13 + 1.5 = 14.5
Therefore, total distance = 14.5 + 13 = 27.5 m
Time from A to B:
V = u + at
0 = 16 + (-9.81)t
T = 1.63 s
Time taken from B to C:
0 = ut + ½at2
14.5 = 0(t) + ½×9.81×t2
T = 1.72 s
Total time = 1.72 + 1.63 = 3.35 s

Vectors: Quantities that are defined by magnitude and direction

1. Displacement
2. Velocity
3. Momentum
4. Impulse
5. Acceleration
6. Force

Component forces can be combined to form a resultant force. Similarly, a resultant force can be
broken down to component forces. Remember that a resultant force can have infinite components.
When doing calculations, (main) we usually consider the resultant force as 2 components.
These two components may act in any direction except in a direction that is perpendicular to the
resultant.
Whenever working with vectors:
1. Never change direction/magnitude of the given vector
2. You can change the point of application of the vector

 Parallelogram method:

The resultant force is 9.9 N acting at an angle of 28.4® North to the 7 N component.

Q) Find the magnitude & direction of the resultant force.

 The resultant force is always closer to the larger component
 The resultant force is always between the 2 components
 The larger the angle between the components, the smaller the result
 The magnitude of the resultant force will always be between the sum and the difference of
the 2 components:
Difference < R < Summation
Sin Q = Ch/W
Ch = W sinQ
OR
Ch = mg sinθ
Cos θ = FR/W
FR = W cosθ
Since FR = CV
Therefore, CV = W Cosθ
OR
CV = mg Cosθ

M = 2 Kg
Therefore, W = mg = 2×9.81 = 19.6 N [We calculated the weight]
Force along the slope = mgSinθ = 19.6×sin25® = 8.29 N [We calculated the accelerating force down
the ramp]
Acceleration, a = F/m = 8.29/2 = 4.15 m/s2 [We calculated the acceleration of the sphere]
Length of the slope, s:
SinQ = 2/s
S = 2/sin25® = 4.7 m [We calculated the distance travelled by the sphere]
Therefore, final velocity:
V2 = u2 +2as
V2 = 02 + 2(4.15)(4.7)
V = 6.25 m/s [We calculated the final velocity of the bottom of the ramp]

Find the reaction force exerted on the sphere by the slope.

FR = mgCosθ
FR = (2)(9.81)Cos(25®) = 17.7 N
Fresultant = WSinθ - Ff = 11Sin30® – 3 = 2.5N [We calculated the unbalanced force that causes
acceleration]
W = mg
M = W/g = 11/9.81 = 1.12 Kg [We calculated the mass]
Therefore, a = F/m = 2.5/1.12 = 2.23 m/s2 [We calculated the acceleration]
Length of slope, s: Sinθ = 1.5/s
S = 1.5/Sin30® = 3 m [We calculated the distance travelled by the sphere]
Now,
S = ut + ½at2
3 = 0t + ½(2.23)(t2)
T = 1.64 s [We calculated the desired travel time]

Decelerating force, F:
F = mgSinθ
F = (2)(9.81)Sin(27®)
F = 8.9 N
Deceleration, a
A = F/m = -8.9/2 = -4.45 m/s2
Distance travelled, s:
V2 = u2 + 2as
02 = (7)2 + 2(-4.45)(s)
S = 5.51 m
Height gained, h:
Sinθ = opp/hyp
H = 5.51×Sin27® = 2.5 m
Statistics: The study of stationary objects. When an object is stationary, we say it is in equilibrium.
Conditions for equilibrium:
 Horizontal forces acting on the object must be equal and opposite.
 Vertical forces acting on the object must be equal and opposite.
 The total clockwise moment about a point on the object must be equal to the total
anticlockwise moment about that point on the object.

FR -> reaction force from ground

Ff -> frictional force from ground
W -> weight of the ladder
FW -> reaction force from the wall
Fx -> frictional force from the wall (usually considered negligible)

Since the ladder is in equilibrium:

FR = W (Vertical forces are equal and opposite)
FW = Ff (horizontal forces are equal and opposite)

Using CM = ACM
 (W×½d) = (FW×h)

Find the frictional force that the ground exerts on the ladder.

Since the ladder is in equilibrium:

FR = W (vertical force)
FR = 12 N

Taking movement about x:

(W×1.5) = (FW×2)
(12×1.5) = (FW×2)
FW = 9N
Since Ff = FW (horizontal forces)
Ff = 9 N

Calculate the TOTAL force the ground exerts on the ladder.

R2 = 92 + 122
R = 15 N

Draw a vector triangle of the forces acting on the ladder.

CV = 440cos28® = 389 N
CV = 440sin62® = 389 N
Ch = 440sin28® = 207 N
Ch = 440cos62® = 207 N
Find the horizontal force exerted on the pole by the wall.

Since the pole is in equilibrium

FW = TSinθ (horizontal forces are equal and opposite)
FW = 12Sin35®
FW = 6.9 N

If the pole has a weight of 6 N, calculate the normal reaction force acting on the pole.

Since the pole is in equilibrium:

FR = W + TCosθ (vertical forces are equal and opposite)
FR = 6 + 12Cos35®
FR = 15.8 N

Calculate the tension T1 and T2 in the strings.

Cosθ = 50/65
Θ = 39.7®

Since the frame is in equilibrium

T1Cosθ = T2Cosθ
T1 = T2
Let T1 and T2 = T
Therefore, equating vertical forces:
T1Sinθ + T2Sinθ = W
2TSin39.7® = 30
T = 23.5 N
Therefore, T1 = 23.5 N and T2 = 23.5 N

The kite experiences a lift force acting vertically upward and a horizontal resistive force due to the
wind.
Assuming the kite is stationary and has a weight of 3 N, calculate the lift force and the resistive force.
Using horizontal motion:
Fdrag = TSinθ
Fdrag = 11×Sin26® = 4.8 N

Using vertical motion:

L = W + TCosθ
L = 3 + 11Cos26®
L = 12.9 N

The current exerts a force of 120 N at an angle of 35® to the horizontal. If the boat has a mass of 100
Kg, Calculate:
 The reaction force the boat experiences from down the wall
 The initial direction and the magnitude of acceleration of the boat
 Draw a vector triangle of the forces acting on the boat

Using vertical forces:

FN = FWSinθ
FN = 120Sin35®
FN = 68.8 N

Using horizontal force:

FR = FWCosθ
ma =120Cos35®
a = 120Cos35®/100
a = 0.98 ms-2 to the right

Projectile Motion:
Remember that horizontal motion is independent of vertical motion and vice versa. This means that
horizontal vectors cannot have vertical components and vice versa.

Once the sphere is given a push, and it leaves the edge, it does not experience and horizontal force.
(We consider air resistance to be negligible)
Hence, the sphere’s horizontal velocity will remain constant throughout its motion.
However, once it crosses the edge, it accelerates downward due to gravity. So its vertical velocity
continues to increase until it hits the ground.

Since both motions start and stop simultaneously, we conclude that the time taken for horizontal
motion is equal to the time taken for vertical motion.
Calculate the horizontal velocity of the sphere.

Using vertical motion:

A = 9.81 m/s2, u = 0 m/s
Therefore, s = ut + ½at2
3 = 0 + ½(9.81)(t2)
tv = 0.78 s
Since tn = tv
Therefore, tn = 0.78 s
Using horizontal motion:
a = 0 m/s
Therefore, s = vt
11 = v×0.78
V = 14.1 m/s

Calculate the vertical velocity with which the sphere hits the ground.

Using vertical motion:

a = 9.81 m/s2, u = 0 m/s; t = 0.79 s
Therefore, v = u + at
V = 0 + (9.81)(0.78)
V = 7.7 m/s

Calculate the direction and magnitude of the velocity with which the sphere hits the ground.

R2 = 7.72 + 14.12
R = 16 m/s
Using Sinθ = 14.1/16
θ = 61.8®
Therefore, R = 16 m/s acting at 61.8® to the vertical

Using horizontal motion:

S = vt
2.36 = 14×t
T = 0.17 s
Using vertical motion:
S = ut + ½at2
S = 0 + ½(9.81)(0.17)
S = 0.14 m = 14 cm

If the dart was initially aligned with the top of the bull’s eye and the diameter of the bull’s eye is 3.2
cm, calculate the minimum velocity with which the dart has to be thrown to successfully hit the
bull’s eye.

Using vertical motion:

S = ut + ½at2
0.032 = 0 + ½(9.81)(t2)
T = 0.081 s
Using horizontal motion:
S = vt
V = s/t = 2.36/0.081 = 29.2 m/s

While going up: The vertical component of velocity decreases due to gravity, but its horizontal
component remains the same (no horizontal force). At the maximum height, the vertical velocity is 0
m/s.
While coming down: The vertical component of velocity is now downward and increases due to
gravity. Since it lands at the same level, the velocity with which it lands is the same as the velocity it
was projected with.

Using vertical motion:

S = ut + ½at2
0 = uSinθ(t) + ½(-g)t2
uSinθ = ½gt
tv = 2uSinθ/g [Not a formula, do not use it directly]
We know tv = th
Therefore, th = 2uSinθ/g
Using horizontal motion:
S = vt
S = uCosθ×t
S = uCosθ×2uSinθ/g
S = 2u2SinθCosθ/g
R = u2Sin2θ/g [Formula for range of the projectile, can be used directly]

Q. A boy throws a ball horizontally out of a high window with a velocity of 3.1 m/s
A) How long will it take to reach the ground 18m below
B) How far away, horizontally should his friend stand in order to catch the ball.

A) Using vertical motion:

S = ut + ½at2
18 = 0 + ½(9.81)(t2)
T = 1.92 s
B) Using horizontal motion:
S = vt
S = 3.1×1.92
S = 5.7
Q) Assuming the maximum height reached by the football is the height of the crossbar, calculate the
magnitude and direction of the velocity of the football.

Using vertical motion:

V2 = u2 + 2as
02 = u2 + 2(9.81)(2.5)
U = 7 m/s
This means uSinθ = 7 m/s
Now,
V = u + at
0 = 7 + (9.81)(t)
Tv = 0.71 s
This means th = 0.71 s
Using horizontal motion:
S = vt
11 = v×0.71
V = 15.5 m/s
This means, uCosθ = 15.5 m/s

R2 = 72 + 15.52
R = 16.9 m/s
Sinθ = 7/16.9
θ = 23.4 ®
Using vertical motion:
S = ut + ½at2
800 = 0 + ½(9.81)t2
T = 12.8 s
Now,
V = u + at
V = 0 + (9.81)(12.8)
V = 125.6 m/s

R2 = 1002 + 125.62
R = 160.3 m/s
And
Sinθ = 125.6/160.3
θ = 51.4®
Using vertical motion:
V2 = u2 + 2as
02 = (uSinθ)2 + 2(-9.81)(4)
U = 15 m/s
While going up:
V = u + at
0 = (12.5Sin45®) + (-9.81)(t1)
T1 = 0.9 s
While coming down:
S = ut + ½at2
1.33 = 0(t2) + ½(9.81)(t2)2
T2 = 0.52 s
Therefore, total time = t1 + t2 = 0.9 + 0.52 = 1.42 s
Alternatively,
S = ut + ½at2
2.67 = (12.5Sin45®)(t) + ½(-9.81)(t)2
T = 1.42 s
Since tu = tv
Tu = 1.42 s
Using horizontal motion:
S = vt
S = (12.5Cos45®)(1.42)
S = 12.6 m
The time taken to fall to the ground after the bounce:
T1 – T2 = 0.9 – 0.52 = 0.38 s
Since no energy was lost at the bounce:
Horizontal velocity = 12.5Cos45®
After the bounce
Therefore, distance covered after the bounce:
S = vt
S = 12.5Cos45®×0.38
S = 3.34 m
Calculate the velocity with which the sphere hits the ground. Include the angle its path creates with
the horizontal. Calculate the total travel time of the sphere.

Using vertical motion:

V2 = u2 + 2as
V2 = (10Sin45®) + 2(9.81)(7)
V = 12.7 m/s

R2 = 13.72 + 7.072
R = 15.4 m/s
Sinθ = 13.4/15.4
Θ = 62.7®

Energy: Energy is the ability to perform work.

Work is done when a force causes an object to move a certain distance in the direction of the force.
(We are defining useful mechanical work done)
Mathematically, W = F×d

Potential energy: The energy that an object possesses by virtue of its position.
Mathematically, EP = mgΔh

Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by a moving object.

Mathematically, EK = ½mv2

Law of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It only changes form.

Remember that an object gains energy when work is done on it, and it loses energy when work is
done against its motion.

Assuming there is no energy loss:

The work done on the box by force F = gravitational potential energy gained by the box
F×d = mgΔh
Wasted work: work done against friction = (Ff×d)
Useful work: work done to push the box to the top = (mgSinθ×d)
Total work done:
(Ff×d) + (mgSinθ×d) = (F×d)

Calculate:
A) Acceleration
B) The velocity at the bottom of the incline

A) FR = mgSinθ - Ff
FR = (2)(9.81)Sin25® - 4
FR = 4.3 N
A = F/m = 4.3/2 = 2.15 m/s2
B) Suvat approach:
Length, L of slope: Sin25® = 3/L
L = 7.1 m
Now, V2 = U2 + 2as
V2 = 02 + 2(2.15)(7.1)
V = 5.53 m/s
Energy approach:
GPE at the top = mgΔh = 2×9.81×3 = 58.9 J
Work done against friction:
= (Ff×d) = (4×7.1) = 28.4 J
Useful work done = 58.9 – 28.4 = 30.5 J
Therefore, EK t the bottom:
½mv2 = 30.5
½(2)(v2) = 30.5
V = 5.52 m/s
EK at the bottom = EP at the top
½mv2 = mgh
½×152 = 9.81×h
H = 11.5 m
Sin 30® = h/d
D = h/½ = 2h
D = 2×11.5 = 23 m

Power: Rate of useful work done.

Mathematically, P = E/t [Unit -> J/s]
If P = E/t
P = F×d/t
P = F×V

Effeciency: It is the ability to transfer useful power.

Mathematically,
Efficiency = useful work output/total work input

A sphere with a velocity of 11 m/s rolls up a slope until it becomes stationary. It has a mass of 1.2 Kg.
Using energy conservation where possible:
 Find the distance travelled
 Find the average power developed
 Find the efficiency of the system.

I) EK at the bottom = ½mv2 = ½×1.2×112 = 72.6 J

Energy lost due to friction = (Ff×d)
Therefore, using conservation of energy:
GPE at the top = KE at the bottom – energy lost due to friction
Mgh = 72.6 J – (Ff×d)
Using Sin25 = h/d
D = h/Sin25®
H = 0.42d
Now,
(1.2)(9.81)(0.42d) = 72.6 – (3×d)
D = 9.14 m
II) S = (v+u/2)t
 9.14 = (0+11/2)t
T = 1.66 s
Now, Avg power = useful energy output/time
P = mgΔh/t
P = (1.2)(9.81)(0.42×9.14)/1.66
P = 27.2 W
III) Efficiency = useful output/total input
Therefore, efficiency = mgΔh/½mv2 = 45.2/72.6 = 0.62 or 62%

The tennis ball is thrown vertically upwards and reaches a height of 11 m

 Find the velocity of the ball halfway between B and C
 Find how high it rises before it reaches half its original velocity.

I)

At x:
EK at x = ½EP at B
½mv2 = ½×mgh
V2 = 2gh
V = √2×9.81×11 = 14.7 m/s
Therefore, ½ the velocity = ½×14.7 = 7.3 m/s
EK Still remaining = ½mv2 = ½×0.15×7.32 = 4 J
Using conservation of energy:
EP = EK at A – EK when velocity is half
Mgh = ½mv2 – 4
(0.15)(9.81)(h) = ½(0.15)(14.7)2 – 4
H = 8.3 m
Therefore, work done = F×d
 Work done = 120Cos30®×40
 Work done = 4157 J ≈ 4160 J

If the mass of the man is 70 Kg, calculate the reaction force he receives from the water surface.

Since the man is NOT moving vertically:

Total upward force = Total downward force

Vertical component of kite + FN = W

120Sin30® + FN = 70×9.81
FN = 627 N

What is the efficiency of pushing this crate up the ramp?

Useful work done = mgh = (15×9.81×1.3) = 191 J

Total work done = F×d = 132×5 = 660 J
Therefore, efficiency = 191/660 = 0.29 or 29%

Calculate the frictional force exerted by the ramp.

Work done due to friction = energy lost

Ff×d = 660 - 191
Ff×5 = 469
Ff = 93.8 N

Determining the average power developed by a trolley and its efficiency as it rolls down a ramp.

Additional apparatus:
 Stopwatch: to measure travel time
 Meter rule: To measure distance
 Electronic balance: to measure mass.

Initial measurements taken:

Mass of trolley: m
Time taken to travel down the slope = t
Width of interruptor card = d
Height from which trolley is released = h

 We allow the trolley to roll down the incline from rest.

 We record the time taken to roll down the incline with a stop watch
 The light gate at the bottom records the interruption time of the card and we use v = d/t to
calculate the velocity of the trolley at the bottom of the incline.
 We now use ‘½mv2’ to calculate EK and ‘mgΔh’ to calculate EP.
 We then use P = EK/t to calculate the average useful power output.
 We use ‘(EK/EP×100)% to calculate the efficiency of the process [E K: useful output|EP = Total
input]

A) The wind is pushing the blades with a force and causes them to move a certain distance in
the direction of the force.
B) i) Volume of air in 1 s. = cross sectional area×length of air
= 6000×9 = 54000 m3
Therefore, volume in 5 s:
54000×5 = 270000 m3 = 300000 m3
ii) p = m/v
m = p×v = 1.2×270000
m = 3.24×105 Kg
iii) EK = ½mv2
EK = ½×3.24×105×92
EK = 1.31×107 J or 13.1 MJ
iv) Maximum output = 59% of 1.31×107 J
= 59/100×1.31×107
 = 7.7×106 J or 7.7 MJ
C) – The wind does not lose all of its kinetic energy.
- Not all of the wind hits the turbine blades.
- Energy wasted (as heat and sound) to overcome friction in the turbine.

Turning effect: It is caused by the moment of a force.

Moment is defined as the product of a force and its perpendicular distance from the pivot.

Mathematically,
Moment = Force×perpendicular distance

The principle of moment states that, for an object in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments is
equal to the sum of anticlockwise moments.

Since the see-saw is in equilibrium:

CW = ACW
2.75× 460 = d2×8240
D2 =

Center of gravity:
It is the point through which the entire weight of the object appears to act.
The centre of gravity is located at the intersection of the object’s diagonals.
This means for a uniform object, the centre of gravity is in the middle.

Remember, that the center of gravity of an object may lie ‘outside’ of the object.
For example, a ring or an empty box or a hollow sphere.

For a non-uniform object, the center of gravity lies closer to the ‘heavier’ side.
The lower the center of gravity is of an object, the more stable it is.
Also, the wider the base of an object, the more stable it is.

If we place a pivot at the center of gravity of an object, the weight does not provide any moment.

This happens because when the weight acts through the pivot, the distance of the force (weight) to
the pivot is zero.

Since the system is in equilibrium

ACM = CM
(FB×d)) = (W×d2) + [Fs×(d2+d3)]

(11×170) + (36×95) + (W×30) = (450×10) + (10×100)

W=7N

When an object is placed on two supports and is in equilibrium: FA + FB = W

When working with situations like these, we choose which support we use as the pivot.
For example, if ‘A’ is the pivot, FA does not provide a turning effect.

Taking moment about B:

FA×dA = W×dW
FA×60 = 120×25
FA = 50 N
FB = 120 – FA = 120 – 50 = 70 N

 Without any calculation, explain which support exerts more force.

Since the plank is in equilibrium, both supports provide the same moment. We know moment =
Force×distance. Support B is closer to the center of gravity and thus provides the larger force.

Taking moment about Y:

(Fx×dx) = (W×dw)
Fx×400 = 200×150
Fx = 75 N
Fy = 200-75 = 125 N

Thus it will be easier to pick up the plank from X.

We know CM = ACM
(FCos45®×30) + (10×10) = (100×50)
F = 231 N

When this is set up in practice, the system does not remain in equilibrium. Suggest what happens to
the system.

 We measure the distance that the sphere will fall, (from the bottom of the sphere to the
trapdoor), using a meter rule of 1 mm precision.
 When the switch is pushed, it activates the time and demagnetises the solenoid. The timer
has a precision of 0.01 s.
 The timer continues as the sphere falls downward.
 The timer stops when the sphere hits the trapdoor.
 We repeat the experiment multiple times by making the sphere fall through different
heights, each time recording the corresponding travel time.
 We tabulate results and plot a graph of ‘h’ versus ‘t2’
  The graph will be a straight line through the origin.
 The gradient gives us ½g.
Therefore, ‘g’ = 2×gradient, gradient = ½g, g = 2×gradient

Precaution:
 We take distance measurements from eye level to avoid parallax error.
 We don’t drop the sphere from a large height to ensure that air resistance remains
negligible.

Source of error:
 The sphere may take time to become demagnetised after the solenoid is switched off. This
will cause the sphere to start falling after the timer starts.

Verifying aαF when ‘m’ is constant. (Newton’s 2nd law)

 We measure the mass of the trolley, m using an electronic balance with a precision of 0.1 g
 We measure the length of the interruptor card, d with a meter rule of precision 1 mm
 We attach a known weight to the trolley with a string and allow it to hang freely.
 We release the trolley and allow it to travel along the table.
 The interruptor card cuts the beam of light of the first light gate and the data logger records
the interruption time and calculates the velocity, u, of the trolley.
 The data logger records and calculates the velocity, v, of the trolley when it crosses the 2 nd
light gate.
 We measure the distance, s, between the two light gates with the meter rule.
 We will repeat the entire process multiple times, each time increasing the accelerating force,
F, and calculating the corresponding acceleration. The force is increased by simply taking
 one slotted mass from the mass hanger at the back and shifting to the mass hanger at the
front.
 The collected data is tabulated below:


 We now plot a graph of acceleration versus force


 The straight line graph through the origin proves that ‘a’ is proportional to ‘F’, when the
mass is constant.

Precautions:
 Take distance measurements from eye level to avoid parallax error.
 For each force, repeat the experiment at least twice to get an average and hence a more
reliable value of acceleration.
 Wear goggles to avoid injury due to whiplash.
 Place sand trays below the hanging masses to avoid injury to the feet.
Topic 2A: Fluids

A fluid is a substance that flows. This includes liquids and gases. Sometimes, granular solids, such as
sand, can behave as a fluid.

Density: It is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance.

Remember that small changes in density can occur due to changes in temperature.

Upthrust: It is the upward force an object experiences when it is submerged in a fluid.

Archimedes’ principle: It states that when an object is submerged in a liquid, it will displace an equal
volume of that liquid.

This displaced volume exerts the upthrust. Notice, for an object floating on a liquid, the upthrust is
equal to the weight of the object.

Mathematically,

Volume of liquid displaced = πr2h

  = π(13/20×10-2)(3×10-2)
 = 3.39×10-4 m3

Now,
U = ρvg
U = 1000×(3.39×10-4)×9.81
U = 3.33 N
Since, w = u
Therefore, w = 3.33 N

The boxes have different weights. To stay afloat they require different amounts of upthrust. Since
the liquid is identical, so exert these upthrosts, the liquid needs to be displaced by different
amounts. Since styrofoam requires the least amount of upthrust to stay afloat, it needs to displace a
smaller volume of the liquid. Thus it floats ‘higher up’.

Even after being completely submerged, the iron box cannot displace enough liquid to experience
and upthrust that can balance its weight. Thus the block sinks.

Summary: If the density of the object is less than the density of the liquid. It will float,
Since the spheres are identical, they all experience the same upthrust to stay afloat (since they all
have the same weight)
Liquid A is the densest since its volume displaced was the least. According to u = ρvg, ρα1/v

a. D = 4.27 cm. r = 4.27/2 = 2.14 cm

Now, volume of liquid displaced = volume of sphere
 = 4/3πr3
 = 4/3π×(2.14×10-2)3
Therefore, v = 4.05×10-5 m3
Now, u = ρvg = 1000×4.05×10-5×9.81 = 0.4 N

b. W = mg = (45×10-3)×9.81 = 0.44 N
Therefore, FR = w – u = 0.44 N – 0.4 N = 0.04 N Downward
 c. The resultant force downward causes the ball to accelerate due to Newton 1. It experiences
drag as it travels and thus resultant force decreases due to Newton 2. Upon reaching the
bottom, the stream bed causes it to decelerate to rest. According to Newton 3, the weight
becomes balanced by upthrust and normal reaction force.

W = mg = (180×10-3)×9.81 = 1.77 N
Volume of the sphere = Volume of liquid displaced
V = m/ρ = 0.18/8000 = 2.25×10-5 m3
Now, using u = ρvg = 800×2.25×10-5×9.81 = 0.18 N
Since the sphere is stationary:
T+U=W
T = 1.77 – 0.18 = 1.59 N
Effect of temperature on density: For a liquid, an increase in temperature decreases the density.

Increasing the temperature of a liquid decreases its density. Since the hydrometer in ‘c’ displace the
largest volume of liquid, it means ‘c’ has the lowest density. So, it must be the warmest.

Alternate:
 The hydrometers are identical, so they have the same weight.
 This means they all experience the same upthrust.
 We know u = ρvg, so ρα1/v
 Liquid displaced is highest in ‘c’ so it has the lowest density.
 Since increase in temperature decreases density, ‘c’ is the warmest.

Surface tension:
The paper clip stays on the surface due to surface tension.

Surface tension is the force exerted by the liquid molecules on the surface of the liquid.

Drag: The resistive force exerted on an object when it travels through a fluid.

Drag (viscous drag) is affected by:

 The velocity of the object: Higher velocities experience more drag.
 The surface area of the object: larger area experiences drag
 How the fluid flows around the object: ‘Laminar’ or ‘Turbulent’ flow offers more drag.
(When doing math with drag, we will always assume that the object is spherical and the fluid
undergoes laminar flow)

As the object falls, it is liable to rotate and hence experience different amounts of drag due to a
change in its surface area over which the drag acts. For a sphere however, that area remains
unchanged.

The drag experienced by a sphere is called Stoke’s force.

Streamline flow (laminar flow):

Such flow occurs when the Laminas (layers) of a fluid all travel parallel to each other without
overlapping.
Turbulent flow:
Such a flow occurs when the laminas of a fluid overlap each other due to sudden changes in speed
and direction. Eddies are formed.

Turbulent flow offers more drag, and it increases with velocity.

A streamlined shape (aerodynamic shape) allows the laminas of air to glide over the surface. The air
undergoes streamline flow and thus offers less drag.

This, in turn, allows the car to reach higher speeds. However, due to low pressure created at the
back of the car as it moves forward, the air will undergo turbulent flow.

The shape of this vehicle is not very aerodynamic. Therefore, the laminas of air undergo sudden
changes in speed and direction. This causes turbulent flow and the vehicle experiences more drag.

Viscosity:
It is the property of a fluid that allows it to offer drag. Viscosity also affects the rate at which the fluid
itself flows.
One of multiple factors that affect viscosity is temperature.

For gases, viscosity is directly proportional to temperature.

Increasing the temperature increases the random motion of the gas particles due to a gain in kinetic
energy. This in turn increases the turbulent flow in the gas, leading to higher viscosity.

For liquids viscosity is inversely proportional to temperature.

Increasing the temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules. This allows the liquid to
travel faster in the same general direction, leading to a lower viscosity.

The co-efficient of viscosity (η) is the numerical measure of the viscosity of a fluid. The unit is Pa.s
(Pascal second)

Simple demonstration to show that temperature is inversely proportional to viscosity in a liquid.

Determining the terminal velocity of a sphere through a liquid.

  We allow a metal sphere to fall through a tube of glycerine.
 When the sphere crosses marker A, we start a stopwatch with a precision of 0.01 s.
 We stop the stopwatch when it crosses marker B.
 We measure the distance between the markers with a meter rule with precision 1 mm.
 We then use v1 = d1/t1 to calculate the velocity of the sphere.
 We now drop another sphere, identical to the first one.
 We start the stopwatch when the sphere crosses marker B.
 We stop the stopwatch when the sphere crosses marker C.
 We measure distance between the two markers.
 We use v2 = d2/t2 to calculate the velocity of the sphere.
 We will notice that the two velocity values are identical.
 This proves that the spheres were travelling with terminal velocity.

Precautions:
 Take distance readings from eye level to avoid parallax error.
 Use a set square to ensure that the meter rule is vertical.
 Use a tube with a large bore to reduce the effect of turbulent flow.
 Take multiple readings of time so that an average and hence a more reliable value of velocity
is obtained.
 Drop the sphere from as close to the middle as possible. Wait until all the bubbles from the
glycerine have escaped before conducting the experiment.
 Wait until all the bubbles from the glycerine have escaped before conducting the
experiment.
At terminal velocity, vterminal:
W=U+d
Msg = ρfvfg + 6πrηvterminal
We know ms = ρs×vs
Therefore, ρsvsg = ρfvfg + 6πrηvterminal
Remember that volume of fluid displaced, vf, is equal to the volume of the sphere, vs. i.e, vf = vs
Now, ρsvsg = ρfvsg + 6πrηvterminal
Since volume of a sphere = 4/3πr3
Therefore, ρs4/3πr3g = ρf4/3πr3g + 6πrηvterminal
6πrηvterminal = ρs4/3πr3g – ρf4/3πr3g
3ηvterminal = 2/3r2(ρs – ρf)
3ηvterminal = 2r3g/3(ρs – ρf)
Vterminal = 2r2g(ρs – ρf)/9η,
Where:
ρs: density of sphere
ρf: density of fluid
η: coefficient of viscosity
r = radius of sphere

Vterminal = 2r2(ρs – ρf)/9η

 = 2(1×10-3)2×9.81(7800 – 1200)/9×1.5
 = 9.59×10-3 m/s
A sphere with a density less than that of the fluid, which is being released from the bottom of the
liquid column.
Since the sphere is travelling upward the drag force acting on it acts downward.
Assuming that the sphere reaches terminal velocity on its way up:
U=W+D
Vterminal = 2r2g(ρs – ρf)/9η

The plimsoll line: These are marking made on the side of commercial ships to ensure that they are
not overloaded.
The laminas of air travel along a curved path above the wind, and a straight path below the wing.
This causes air above the wing to reach the end of the wing slightly later than the air below the wing.
This causes a region of low pressure to be created at the back of the wing. This difference in pressure
exerts the lift required by the airplane to lift off the ground.
However airplanes need to generate more lift. This is done by introducing flaps at the end of the
wings.
As the air hits the flaps and deflect downward, it pushes the wings upward due to Newton III. This
generates additional lift.

Submarines: How they dive and control depth.

When floating, the weight of the submarine is balanced by the upthrust provided by the water
displaced.
To dive underwater, the submarine pumps water into large tanks called ballast tanks.

As the tanks gradually fill up, the weight of the submarine increases. But its volume remains the
same. The upthrust cannot balance the weight anymore and the submarine dives underwater.
The depth of the submarine can thus be controlled by either pumping water in or out of the ballast
tanks.

Remember that the ballast tanks only help in controlling depth. The forward and backward motion is
controlled by the propellers. The left and right steering is controlled by the rudder.

Poiseuille’s Flow:
Poieseuille’s law stares that the volume flow rate of a fluid undergoing laminar flow depends on
multiple factors, such as:
 The viscosity of the fluid
 The pressure gradient across the tube
 The length of the tube
 The internal diameter of the tube.
Basic procedure:
 We measure the head of the liquid and record it.
 We allow the liquid to flow through the pipe and record the time taken for the fluid to fille
up the beaker (using a stopwatch)
 We take the volume discharged and divide with the recorded time to calculate volume flow
rate.
 We repeat the process by varying the head of the liquid and recording the corresponding
time, and calculating the volume flow rate.
 We repeat the process by varying the head of the liquid and recording the corresponding
time, and calculating the volume flow rate.
 We plot a graph of flow rate versus head of liquid.

 The gradient can now be used to calculate the co-efficient of viscosity of the fluid.

Remember to use a thermometer to record the temperature of the liquid.

  Solid Materials:
Hooke’s law: the extension of an object is directly proportional to the applied force (up to the limit
of proportionality)

Mathematically,
 FαΔx

The (-) sign means that the force is a restoring force. (opposite to extension)

Limit of proportionality: The point up to which the extension of an object is directly proportional to
the applied force and the point from which the object returns to its original shape once the
deforming force is removed.

 Using a fiducial marker, we measure the original the original length of the spring with a
meter rule having a precision of 1 mm.
 We hang a slotted mass from a mass hanger from one end of the spring, and wait for it to
become stationary. We then record the extended length.
 We unload the original mass to check that the spring has not become permanently
deformed.
 We now add additional masses and record the corresponding extension.
 We repeat the process for each mass at least twice to get an average and here a more
reliable reading for the extension.
 We now tabulate the results and plot a graph of force vs extension. The straight line through
the origin that is produced is proof of Hooke’s law. The gradient of the graph gives us the
force constant.

Experimental precaution:
1. Take all readings from eye level to avoid parallax error
2. Unload the spring between each reading to ensure that the limit of proportionality is not
crossed.

Safety precaution:
1. Wear goggles to avoid injury due to whiplash.
2. Place a sand tray directly below the hanging masses to avoid injury to the foot.
We assume that the extension caused by force ‘F’ on spring A is ‘Δx’.
 When two springs are connected in parallel, the same force ‘F’ will now be supported by
both the springs. This means, each spring supports ‘½F’. This means, the extension of each
spring is ‘½Δx’.w (to avoid any turning effect, we place the force exactly in the middle of the
two springs.)

Since the force is being divided equally between the two springs:
Total force = force supported by spring 1 + force supported by spring 2
 FT = F1 + F2
Since, F = k×Δx (Hooke’s law)
Therefore, kT×Δx = k1×Δx1 + k2×Δx2
But both the springs extend by the same amount, i.e = ΔxT = Δx1 = Δx2
This means: kT×Δx = k1×Δx + k2×Δx
 KT×Δx = Δx(k1 + k2)
 KT = K1 + K2 [Spring in parallel behave like resistors in series]

FA = FB
KΔxA = 2/3KΔxB
ΔxA/ΔxB = 2/3
During elastic deformation, the work done on the object is used to increase the average separation
of the molecules. The bonds between the particles stretch, and store the energy as elastic potential
energy. (elastic strain energy)
When the deforming force is removed, the bands contract, pulling the particles back to their original
shape. The stored elastic strain energy is released as kinetic energy of the returning particles and is
eventually dissipated as sound and heat.

During plastic deformation, some bonds between the particles break. Therefore, they are unable to
bring the particles back to their original position after deforming the force is removed.

Rubber: it is a polymer that undergoes elastic and plastic deformation simultaneously. Therefore, it
does not obey Hooke’s law. This process of deformation is called hysteresis.

Area under the loading graph represents the work done on the rubber band.
Area under the unloading graph represents the energy released as kinetic energy.
The shaded area represents the energy absorbed by the band. This is why repeated loading and
unloading heats up the rubber band.

Stress: Stress is defined as the force exerted per unit area.

Strain: Strain is the ratio of the extension to the original length of a material.
Mathematically,

This shows that, for an object, Δxαl

We know that the stiffness of an OBJECT is given by its spring constant, K.

However, the stiffness of a MATERIAL is called the Young’s Modulus, E.
Mathematically, E = stress/strain = σ/ε [Notice, that the unit of ‘E’ is also Pa]
Since
E = σ/ε
E = (F/A)/(Δx/l)
E = F/A × l/Δx
E = Fl/AΔx
The longer sample of the material will be easier to deform. This means it has a lower spring
constant. So the gradient of the graph is less steep)

Even though the objects have different stiffness, the Young’s Modulus is the same, since both are
made of the same material.

KA = FA/Δxa
= 2/2
Therefore, KA = 1 Ncm-1

KB = FB/ΔxB
= 2/1
Therefore, KB = 2 Ncm-1

EA = FA×lA/AA×Δxa
EA = 2×1/(1×10-4)×(2×10-2)
EA = 1×106 Pa = 1 MPa
EB = FB×lB/AB×ΔxB
EB = 2×0.5/(1×10-4)(1×10-2)
EB = 1×106 Pa = 1 MPa
Determining the Young’s Modulus of a wire:

a) We measure the original length of the wire with a tape measure multiple times and take the
average. (Precision of tape measure = 1 mm)
b) We measure the diameter of the wire at different places using a micrometre scre guage, and
take the average. (Precision of screw gauge = 0.01 mm)
c) We then calculate the radius of the wire using r = d/2, and using this, we calculate the cross-
sectional area of the wire with the formula A = πr2
d) We then suspend a weight to one end of the wire to keep it under tension and setup the rest
of the apparatus as shown in the diagram
e) We now hang additional known weights to the hangar and for each additional weight, we
record the corresponding extension using the marker.
f) We tabulate the results and plot a graph of stress VS strain.

Precautions:
 Take recordings from eye level to avoid parallax error.
 Use long, thin wire so that the extension is easily measurable.
 Wear goggles to avoid injury due to whiplash.
 Use sand tray beneath hanging mass to avoid injury to the feet, should the masses fall.
 Remember to unload the wire before loading it with a larger force. This ensures the wire is
not permanently deformed.

Energy density = ½×stress×strain | Unit: J/m3

What is the strain of an aluminium wire if it extends from 97 cm to 1.04 m?

Δx = 1.04 – 0.97 = 0.07 m
ε = Δx/l = 0.07/0.97 = 0.072 = 7.2 % [Fractional change]

What is the tensile stress in a vertical steel wire that has a diameter of 0.40 mm and a 1.0 Kg mass
hanging from it?

r = d/2 = 0.4/2 = 0.2 mm

σ = F/A = (1×9.81)/π(0.2×10-3)2 = 7.81×107 Pa = 78.1 MPa

What is the compressive stress in each upper leg bone of a 7 tonne elephant if the bone is a vertical
cylinder with a diameter 25 cm and the elephant is standing normally?

R = d/2 = 25/2 = 12/5 cm

σ = F/A = (7000×9.81)/π(12.5×10-2)2×4 = 3.5×105 Pa

If the young modulus of elephant bone is 19 GPa, and the bones are originally 95 cm long, how much
would they reduce in length if the elephant stood up on its back legs? What assumption do you need
to make?

Stress on two legs = 3.5×105×2 = 7×105 Pa

Now, E = σ/ε
ε = σ/E = 7×105/19×109 = 3.7×10-5
Since ε = Δx/l
Δx = ε×l = 3.7×10-5×0.95 = 3.5×10-5 m

Assumption: The weight of the elephant was distributed equally between the hind legs.

Types of materials:
Strong: A strong material can withstand a lot of stress before breaking.

Stiff: A stiff material is hard to deform elastically. It has a high Young’s Modulus value

Tough: A tough material requires a lot of stress to show a small amount of plastic deformation.

Brittle: A brittle material shows no plastic deformation.

Ductile: A ductile material shows a large amount of plastic deformation under tensile stress. They
can be stretched into wires.
Malleable: A malleable material shows a large amount of plastic deformation under compressive
stress. They can be hammered into thin sheets.

Hard: A hard material will resist plastic deformation by being dented or stratched.

[Hardness cannot be represented by a stress-strain graph. It is determined by the Moh’s Hardness

scale]

A is:
Strong: It has a high stress value.
Ductile/malleable: IT has a large region of plastic deformation.

B is:
Stiff: It has a high Young’s Modulus value.
Tough: It shows very little plastic deformation at high stress.

C is:
Brittle: It has no plastic deformation.
Flexible: It has a low Young’s Modulus value.

Brittle materials CANNOT be tough and vice versa.

Fishing Rod:
Strong, tough, flexible

Tennis Racquet:
Tough, stiff, strong, light-weight

Running shoes:
Tough, flexible, light-weight
a) Upthrust = weight
Thrust = Drag
b) Ρ = mv
M = ρv = 1030×7100 = 7.3×106 Kg
W = mg = 7.3×106×9.81 = 7.2×107 N
c) (i) compressive strain is the ratio of compression to the original length OR The decrease in
length due to compressive forces.
(ii) Decreased volume will reduce the upthrust on the submarine. To maintain its depth, the
weight must be reduced. To achieve this, water must be pumped out of the ballast tanks.
(iii) At great depths, the compressive stress will be high. This will cause a large plastic
deformation, and may even cause the fibre glass to break.
Topic 3A:
Waves:-
1. Wave: It is the transfer of energy or information without the transfer of matter.
2. Wave front: Advancing cross-section of a progressive wave.

3. Wave length: The distance between two consecutive points of a wave that are in phase. It is
denoted by ‘λ’

4. Frequency: The number if complete waves produced in one second. (f)

5. Time period Time taken to complete one wave. Mathematically, T = 1/f
6. Crest: The highest point of a transverse wave

7. Troughs: The lowers point of a transverse wave.

8. Compression: The region of high pressure in a longitudinal wave.

9. Rarefaction: The region of low pressure in a longitudinal wave.

Longitudinal wave: A wave in which the particles vibrate parallel to the direction of wave
propagation.

The wavelength of a longitudinal wave is the distance from the middle of one compression to the
middle of the next compression OR the middle of one rarefaction to the middle of the next
rarefaction.
Examples include sound waves, waves generated in a spring and primary seismic (earthquakes)
waves (p-waves)

Transverse wave: A wave in which the particles vibrate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.

Examples include the EM spectrum, waves generated in a rope and secondary seismic waves (s-
waves)

Pitch: It is the sharpness of a sound wave. Higher the pitch, sharper the sound. Pitch is proportional
to frequency.

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a point in a wave from its original position.

Reflection: The bouncing of a wave from a surface.

Laws of reflection:
i) The incident wave, the reflected wave and normal, at the point of incidence, all lie on
the same plane.
ii) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Refraction: The bending of a wave as it travels from one medium to another.

Law of refraction:
 The incident wave, the refracted wave and the normal, at the point of incidence all lie on the
same plane and on either side of the normal.
 The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant for a give pair of media. (Snell’s law)

During refraction, the speed of the wave changes, so the wavelength of the wave also changes. The
frequency remains constant.

The spreading of a wave as it travels through a gap or a barrier is called diffraction.

Dispersion is the spreading of white light into its component colours when it travels through a prism.

The longest wavelength (red) refracts the leas. The shortest wavelength (violet) refracts the most.

Echo: The reflection of a sound wave.

Phase: Two points in a wave are in phase if:

 They have the same speed.
 They have the same displacement from their equilibrium position.
  They have the same direction of motion.
Since particles all belong to the same wave, it automatically means that they have the same
speed.

The direction of motion of a particle depends on the position of the previous particle. If the previous
particle is above your particle, your particle will move upward.
Similarly, if the previous particle is below your particle, your particle will move downward.

Attenuation: It is the process of energy loss of a wave.

Attenuation follows the ‘inverse square law’, where the intensity of the wave is proportional to the
square of the distance covered. Mathematically, Intensity α 1/(distance) 2

Reverberation: This occurs when the reflection of a sound wave overlaps with the original sound
wave.

Resonance: Resonance occurs when an object is set to vibrate at its natural frequency due to an
external driving frequency.
Measuring the speed of air:
Measuring the speed of sound

1. Make a sound. When the sound reaches microphone 1, the timer starts.
2. When the sound reaches microphone 2 the timer stops giving a time, t, to cover distance, d.
3. The speed of sound can then be calculated from speed = d/t

Pulse-Echo technique:
The pulse echo technique allows us to calculate depths using a pulse of sound.

 A transmitter sends a pulse of sound and triggers.

 The pulse reflects from a surface and when it reaches the receiver, the timer stops.
 If the speed of sound in the medium is known, then the depth can be calculated.
On the other hand, if the depth is known, then the speed of sound in that medium can be calculated.
To determine the speed of sound in air using a 2-beam oscilloscope, signal generator, speaker and
microphone.

 We start by connecting two microphones to a two-beam oscilloscope and placing them next
to each other.
 We then use a speaker connected to a signal generator to produce a sound of known
frequency, f.
 When the sound is received by both microphones, the oscilloscope shows the trace of the
waves.
 The traces show that the waves received by the two microphones are in phase.
 We now keep microphone 1 stationary and move microphone 2 away slowly.
 We will notice that the trace of microphone 2 will shift and a phase difference between the
two traces is created.
 We continue to move microphone 2 until the two waves are in phase again.
 At this point, we can conclude that the microphones are one wavelength apart.
 We measure the distance between the two microphones using a meter rule of precision 1
mm.
 We then use v = fλ to calculate the s

We now plot a graph of ‘λ’ versus ‘1/f’

 The graph will be a straight line through the origin.

 The gradient gives us the speed, v, of the sound wave.

Precautions:
 Se the oscilloscope so that it displays at least two complete waves.
 Take readings of distance from eye level to avoid parallax error.
 Do not use to loud a sound, or a high frequency sound to avoid discomfort.
 Keep ambient noise to a minimum to ensure it does not affect the traces on the oscilloscope.
What length of time each box represents depends on the time-base setting of the oscilloscope. We
can use this to calculate the time taken for one complete oscillation (time period and use f = 1/t, to
calculate frequency.

Wave superposition (interference): Superposition occurs when two or more waves of the same type
overlap with each other.

Principle of superposition states that the displacement of the resultant wave at a point is the vector
sum of the displacement of the original waves at that point.
The two original waves have a ‘phase difference’ or a ‘path difference’. This causes a combination of
constructive and destructive superposition.
At x, phase angle of green wave = π/2
At x, phase angle of orange wave = 0
Therefore, phase difference at x = π/2 – 0 = π/2

This means the waves have a phase relationship of π/2

At y, phase angel of green wave = 2π

Phase angle of orange wave = 3π/2
Therefore, phase difference = 3π/2 - 2π = π/2

The resultant wave is not that uniform and more difficult to observe.

To produce an OBSERVABLE interference pattern:

 The two waves must have the same frequency.
 The two waves must have a constant phase difference
  The two waves must be of comparable amplitude.

When these conditions are fulfilled, we say that the waves are COHERENT.

At A:
Phase of purple wave = π
Phase of green wave = 2π
Therefore, phase difference = 2π – π = π

At B:
Phase of purple wave = 5π/2
Phase of green wave = 11π/4
Therefore, phase difference = 11π/4 - 5π/2 = π/4

At C:
Phase of purple wave = 4π
Phase of green wave = 7π/2
Therefore, phase difference = 4π - 7π/2 = π/2
Wave A: Amplitude -> 3; Frequency -> 3 Hz
Wave B: Amplitude -> 2; Frequency -> 9 Hz

Stationary waves: A stationary wave is formed when two waves of the sand type, travelling in
opposite directions, interfere with each other. For example, the vibration of a guitar string.

When a guitar string is plucked, the wave energy travels along the string and reflects back from the
bridges. On the way back, the two waves interfere, creating a stationary wave.
Node -> A point in a stationary wave where perfect destructive superposition occurs. There is no
amplitude of vibration.

Antinode -> A point in a stationary wave where max amplitude of vibration occurs.

Segment -> A region of stationary wave bound by nodes on either side and an antinode in the
middle.
At the nodes, the two original waves are ALWAYS in anti phase. This means the phase difference is
‘π’.

At the antinodes, the two original waves have a changing phase relationship. This means the phase
difference between the two waves change 0 and π

Constructive superposition and phase difference of 0

When a stationary wave is formed:

 The phase difference between the original waves change between 0 and π. (at the
antinodes)
 Points in adjacent segments are in antiphase
 Points in alternate segments are in phase.
 The stationary wave has an alternating pattern on nodes and antinodes.
 The phase difference between the original waves at the nodes is ALWAYS ‘π’.
 A segment is always = λ/2
Therefore, l = λ/2

L = λ/2
λ = 2L/1

L = 2×λ/2
λ=L
OR
λ = 2L/2

L = 3×λ/2
λ = 2L/3

L = 4×λ/2
λ = 2L/4
Thus the wavelength of a stationary wave:
 λ = 2L/n
Natural frequency: The natural frequency is the frequency at which an object at rest vibrates. Each
object has its own natural frequency.
(The fundamental frequency IS the natural frequency of a wire)
When the object receives energy from an external source, the particles start vibrating with higher
amplitude.
If the frequency of the external wave source matches the fundamental frequency of the string,
resonance will occur.

We know λ = 2L/n
Now, the velocity of the stationary wave,

Experiment 1: Verifying fα1/l

(the tensions and the mass per unit length must remain constant)

We keep the weight of the slotted masses constant to keep tension constant. We use the same wire
throughout the experiment to keep the mass per unit length of the wire constant.

Signal generator: Can be set to a specific frequency that will cause the vibrator to vibrate at that
frequency.

Vibrator: The vibrator oscillates the string attached to it with a frequency set by the signal generator.

Bridge: It acts as a reflector for the wave energy travelling through the string.
Set square and wire: They are used to measure the maximum displacement during vibration of the
string. It is placed at the midpoint of the vibrating length because that is where the antinode will be
formed.

Slotted masses: The weight of these masses will provide the tension in the wire.

Procedure:
 We measure the vibrating length of the wire and record it.
 We place a set-square and meter rule at the midpoint of the vibrating length.
 We switch on the signal generator and start to slowly increase the frequency.
 We will notice the amplitude of vibration of the wire increases as the frequency changes.
 At one particular frequency, the amplitude of oscillation will become maximum.
 We record this frequency as the fundamental frequency of the wire.
 We now repeat the process several times, each time changing the vibrating length (by
adjusting the position of the bridge), and record the frequency at which maximum amplitude
of vibration occurs for each wire.
 We then draw a graph of ‘f’ vs ‘1/l’

 The straight line graph through the origin proves that fα1/l

Experiment 2: Verify that fα√T

(we ensure that ‘l’ and ‘μ’ are constant)

We fix the position of the bridges to keep the vibrating length constant. We use the same wire
throughout the experiment to keep the mass per unit length of the wire constant.
 We record the weight of the hanging masses. (remember that the weight provides the
tension)
 We will switch on the signal generator and notice the wire start to vibrate.
 We adjust the frequency until we observe that the wire vibrates with maximum amplitude.
 We record this frequency as the fundamental frequency of the wire.
 We now change the tension in the string by changing the weight of the slotted masses and
repeat the process.
 This is done multiple times, and each time, the corresponding frequency at which maximum
amplitude of vibration occurs is recorded.
 We plot a graph of ‘f’ vs ‘√T’
  A straight line graph through the origin proves ‘f’ α ‘√T’

Experiment 3: Verifying that fα√1/μ (we keep ‘l’ and ‘T’ constant)

We keep the weight of the slotted masses constant to keep the tension constant. We fix the position
of the bridges to keep the vibrating length constant.
In this experiment, we have to change ‘μ’. This can be two ways.
1. We use wires made of the same material but different diameter.
2. We use the same diameter of wire but made of different materials.
Remember, μ = total mass of wire/total length of wire (kgm-1)
 We measure the length of wire with a meter rule and the mass of the wire using an
electronic balance. We then calculate μ.
 We attach the wire to the sonometer and adjust the position of the bridges to set a vibrating
length.
(We mark the position of the bridges for future reference).
 We now switch on the signal generator and allow the wire to vibrate. We adjust the
frequency until the wire starts to vibrate with maximum amplitude. We now record the
frequency value.
 We repeat the process multiple times, each time changing the wire, calculating ‘μ’, and
recording the frequency at which maximum amplitude of vibration occurs.
 We plot a graph of ‘f’ vs ‘√1/μ’ and a straight line graph through the origin verifies the
relationship.
Stationary waves in pipes (pipe open at both ends):

Such a stationary wave is produced when the air column is vibrated at its fundamental frequency. If
the length of the air column is ‘l’, then the wavelength can be calculated as l = λ/2

Tube open at both ends:

Tube closed at one end:

Tube is closed at both ends:

All objects vibrate at maximum amplitude a their harmonic frequencies.

These harmonic frequencies are called overtones

1st harmonic frequency = fundamental frequency

All other frequencies -> Overtones of the fundamental frequency

A guitar string of length 75 cm vibrates in its second harmonic. The speed of waves in the string is
420 ms-1. What are the wavelength and frequency of this standing wave?

λ = 2l/n = 2×0.75/2 = 0.75 m

f = v/λ = 420/0.75 = 560 Hz

A) V = √(T/μ) = √(90/4.8×10-4) = 433 m/s

B) f = n/2l × √(T/μ) = 1/2(0.74) × 433 = 293 Hz

Determining the speed of sound in air (stationary wave method):

 We switch on the signal generator and set it to a predetermined frequency.

 The sound wave travels towards the reflecting surface and reflects back, overlapping with
the original wave and thus producing a stationary wave.
 We place a microphone attached to a CRO against the reflecting surface.
  We notice that the CRO registers a zero reading, proving that a node is produced at the point
of reflection.
 We now gradually slide microphone away from the surface and notice that the CRO now
registers a trace. The trace gains amplitude as the microphone moves.
 Eventually, the microphone reaches a point where the CRO registers a trace with maximum
amplitude. This means that the microphone has reached an antinode.
 We continue to slide the microphone until the position of the next node is identified.
 We now measure, with a meter rule, the distance between the nodes.
 We now use v = fλ to calculate the speed of sound.
(The frequency, f, is taken from the signal generator)

Limitations:
 Ambient noise may affect the results.
 The intensity of the reflecting wave will be less than the intensity of the original wave. As
such, at the nodes, they do not cancel each other out completely.