Chapter Two: Ethiopian Literature in English

2. Origin and Historical Development of Ethiopian Literature in English

Activity:

 When did Ethiopian Literature in English emerge?

 Who were the pioneer writers of Ethiopian Literature in English?
 What were the factors that facilitate for the emergence of Ethiopian Literature in English?

There is a dearth of fiction writing in English across the Horn of Africa. In light of this well-
known fact, the emergence of writing in English in Ethiopia is an impressive and very young
development began in 1960s after the Second World War. Although French was for a long time
the lingua franca of the Ethiopian intelligentsia, it was superseded by English after 1941, a
position that was consolidated after the return of the emperor, Haile Selassie, who had taken
refuge from the Italian invasion, during the war, in England. After the war, English was
introduced to the court and became the language of instruction in the schools and at the
UniversityofAddisAbaba
Some limited writing in English began during this time, inspired by a new sense of curiosity
about other cultures and ways of being that the postwar period initiated. Some Ethiopian writers
who have lived abroad and become diaspora writers have adopted English as a second language.
Others have managed to write both in English and their native tongues. These writers have
internalized the contours of European literature, and can only write in its conventional forms.
The reasons for the choice of English by Ethiopian writers are as varied as the writers
themselves. For some, it is simply a matter of taste, a preferred medium of esthetic form; for
others, it is a matter of convenience, of gaining access to a wider public through a language of
wide international diffusion. However, all these authors wrote about aspects of Ethiopian life,
thereby staying true to their Ethiopian/African origins even though their medium was English.

Furthermore, Tewodros (2002) elaborates the primary factor for the emergence and development
of Ethiopian literature in English as follows by classifying them as historical, educational and
publication.

Historically, the country's earlier diplomatic contact with foreign countries contributed to the
development of literature in foreign languages. Due to Ethiopia’s relations with Italy, France,
Britain and other countries, many young Ethiopians were sent abroad to study in these Western
countries. This phenomenon was specially intensified in the twentieth century during the reign of
Emperor Haileselassie (1923-1966 E.C), thereby those Ethiopians who were educated in the
Western countries influenced the country's literary tradition, and most of the literary outcomes
after this relationship had a sense of vision for a modern new Ethiopia.

This historical diplomatic tie brought about modern education along with it which is considered
as a major factor for the emergence of Ethiopian literature in English. Those countries, which
had diplomatic contacts with Ethiopia, had also brought some form of educational strategy to this
country.

When modern public education started in Ethiopia with the establishment of Minilik II School in
1900 E.C., more emphasis was given to the teaching of foreign languages most of which were
taught by Copts from Egypt. As a result, language subjects started dominating the educational
system. During the first twenty years of its existence, Minilik II School resembled a language
institute rather than a proper school. French, Italian and Arabic were the main subjects with
Amharic as their prerequisite. This incident has undoubtedly laid, along with other factors, a
favorable condition for the emergence of Ethiopian literature in foreign languages, especially in
English.

During the reign of Haile Selassie I, a more profound schooling system was established. Many
Ethiopians also went abroad for higher education. After the Italian occupation of 1941, a British
staff came to Ethiopia and gradually the British became influential in the country. As a result, the
heads of schools in Addis Ababa and important advisors in the Ministry of education were
British. For this reason, the medium of instruction became English. Afterwards English was
accepted as the official foreign language of the country. To encourage the teaching learning
process, more educational materials used to be brought from Britain, and the secondary school
leaving examinations were set by universities in Great Britain. Furthermore, when the country
expanded its relationship with other countries most of the educational missionaries who used to
come to Ethiopia were from English speaking countries like Canada and USA. Owing to this, at
that time, the proficiency of foreign language, especially English was markedly increasing.

One of the greatest achievements of the modern education in the history of this country is the
establishment of the University College of Addis Ababa in 1950E.C. With the opening of the
university, tremendous changes came. Young Ethiopians found a chance of higher learning in
their own country. The founding educators of this university were foreigners and the medium of
instruction was English. So the University College was another factor for the appearance of
young writers well versed in English language who contributed a lot for the production of
Ethiopian literature in English.

The second major factor that played a great role for the growth of Ethiopian literature in English
is the advent of publishers and journals such as “News and views" and “the Ethiopia Observer”
that publish literary works written in English. The journals began to flourish further, and in
1962E.C another magazine, which was mainly dedicated to the publication of English literary
works began to appear. The title of the magazine was “Something” and it was published from
1962E.C to 1967E.C. In this university students’ literary magazine, various works of literature
written in English on various topics and subject matters appeared in the form of short stories,
poems and essays.

Along with the access of journals publishers the annual poetry competition of the AAU also
created a fertile ground for the growth of English literature in Ethiopia. Starting from 1961,
there was a poetry contest among the students of the university. The best poems in the
competition were read out. This tradition was undoubtedly able to initiate the literary practices
that were witnessed in “News and Views”, “Something “and other publications.

Likewise, the Ethiopian writers’ self-interest to reach the international audience has
contributed as much as the other factors for the Ethiopian literature in English. The problem of
publicity was deeply felt on some Ethiopian writers and, one of the known Ethiopian novelists
in English, Sahlesellassie B.Mariam’s articles, “Yegan Mebrat” is an utterance and invitation,
and also an echo for the disregard of Ethiopian literature by foreign readers and critics.

Last but not least, the migration of Ethiopians in large numbers to the English speaking
world, also has contributed a lot for the production of Literature written in English by
Ethiopians. Several famous writers abroad have used literature and the English language as a
medium to express the nostalgia and love of their country and to mirror the predicaments and
disillusionments they face in foreign countries. The overall situations they leave behind at
home, and the overall situation they encounter abroad, have long been sources of
inspiration for the production of numerous interesting poems, novels and short stories.

Generally, the following factors facilitate for the emergence and development of Ethiopian
Literature in English.

 The use of English language after independence (1941). After the Italian expelation, a
British staff came to Ethiopia and gradually the British became influential in the country.
As a result, the heads of schools in Addis Ababa and important advisors in the
Ministry of education were British. For this reason, the medium of instruction became
English.
 The opening of Haile Selassie I University, in 1961 (now Addis Ababa University).
Graduates of the University began to publish short stories and poems in English. With
the opening of the university, tremendous changes came. Young Ethiopians found a
chance of higher learning in their own country. The founding educators of this
university were foreigners and the medium of instruction was English. So the
University College was another factor for the appearance of young writers well
versed in English language who contributed a lot for the production of Ethiopian
literature in English.
 Becoming of Addis Ababa as the head quarter of AU.
 The presence of foreign educated Ethiopians and they began to write in English.
 The need of individual writers to get an international audience.
 The presence of translation from Geez and Amharic into English.
 The starting of newspapers, magazines and journals like Something, Dialogue, Addis
Reporter, Manan or Ethiopia Observer. “News and Views”, and other publications.
 2.2 Genres of Ethiopian Literature in English
Ethiopian literature in English can be grouped into the following genres.
 Prose Fiction (Novel)
 Poetry
 Drama

2.2.1 Ethiopian Novel in English

Activity: When did the first English novel in Ethiopia begin? It began in the early 1960’s.

1. Confession(1961)

The first Ethiopian novel in English is Confession. The author of this novel is Ashenafi Kebede.
It tells the story of an Ethiopian in America. Confession could be a story of a couple or millions
of people in the same predicament. In a color conscious society a black boy and a white girl fall
in love with each other. Against odds and impediments they strive to keep their love intact and
seem to fare well for a short time; but only to fail miserably in the end.
 Characters: The leading character of Confession is Ezra Dessalegn, a music student in
America. Caroline Ezra Dessalegn’s girl friend.
Mr. Fletcher, Caroline's father who has colonialist attitude
 Theme: Confession has theme of racial prejudices and conflicts.
2. Shinega’s Village(1964)

The author of the novel is Sahleselase Berhane Mariam. Shinega's Village is the first novel
written in Chahaa language. It uses a modified form of the Amharic script with special
characters. Leslau translated the Chaha into English. The novel is a series of related scenes. It
shows the life of a village boy from his birth in the 1940s to the birth of his first child in the
1960s. Over these years the modern world creeps into his life. First he wants to own a pair of
khaki shorts. Then he takes a trip to the nearest town, which has a benzine station. Finally he
makes his way to Addis Ababa. These scenes explore what it was like growing up in a rural
Gurage community. They show the increasing influence of urban Ethiopian life and European
technology. For some the pull of the city is great, but for others it is a place to resent.
The simple ways of an Ethiopian village are chronicled in the story of Shinega from his birth
through his marriage & the birth of his own son. The contrast of village & city life are noted as
Shinega's routes as a peddler take him farther than his father ever travelled -- all the way to
Addis Ababa.
 Characters: Shinega the leading character of the novel, his son…
 Theme: Life in city and village life. Scenes of Ethiopian Life.
3. Aferata(1968)

Author of this novel is Sahleselase Berhane Mariam. Originally Afersata was written in English.
It is a novel with 90 pages long. The novel begins with the hut of villager Namaga burning down
due to arson. In order to discover who the culprit is, Namaga demands an Afersata.

In “The Afersata,” novel of Sahle Sellassie, the story focused on the communal and
traditional court system called the Afersata (Amharic word) to investigate the arson which was
a real experience of the Gurage people in the past. After the burnt down of Namaga’s hut, a
series of Afersata ceremony were held. Through such a scheme like meeting and life of the
innocent peasants in the thirty villages of Wudma, the author discloses different customs and
beliefs. Besides political corruption, social insecurity and economic woes are revealed. The story
evolves during Emperor Haile Sellassie’s regime where Ethiopia suffered from bureaucratic
government system. There were landlord-tenant, tenant-subtenant relationships and different old
and evil social institutions such as irbo-one fourth principle and deje tenat-in favor of the land
lord.

 Character: Namaga a leading character whose hut is burnt by unknown villager. Aga
and Beshir are depicted as villagers of Namaga. Among the villagers, no one vocalizes
the bitter lot of tenancy more than Beshir.
 Genre of Afersata: It is a detective novel.

 Theme: It investigates the traditional criminal detective system. Through Afersat, Sahle
Sellase aims at portraying the life and culture of Gurage people. Other minor themes of
the novel are tradition, modernization, and land reform.
 4. Warrior King (1974)
Warrior King is an historical novel based on the early life of Emperor Tewodros II, from his
origins as a commoner to his ascension to the throne following the defeat of Ras Ali. The events
take place during the Zemene Mesafint, a period in Ethiopian history between the mid-18th and
mid-19th centuries when the country had no effective central authority. The author bases his
novel mostly on solid historical facts.

 Characters: Emperor Tewodros is the protagonist character of the novel, his mother, the
monk, Tewabech (his wife), Gebrye, etc.

 Setting: Set in the reign of Zemene Mesafint (Era of the Princes).

 Genre: Historical novel (a novel written based on history).

 Theme: Tewodro’s life.

5. Firebrands (1979)
Firebrands is written by Sahle Sellasse Berhanemaryam. The theme of Selassie’s novel is
corruption and he drives this point home throughout the book. The story focuses on two brothers,
Bezunch and Worku. Bezunch, the older of the two, has been working for the past eight months
as an auditor for a state corporation, where his job is to root out corruption. Worku is a firebrand
student. At the start of the novel, Bezunch learns that his boss, Kebret, has just received a
promotion from director to managing director and vice minister. We learn that this promotion
has been achieved with the help of Dejazmach Azbete, a governor general of a province, but was
not universally welcomed by those in power, not least because Kebret is still considered a bit
young (in his forties) for the post. Indeed, even the Emperor himself made that point when telling
Kebret of his appointment. However, Bezunch feels that he has to go the party celebrating this
appointment, at Kebret’s house, and is dragging along his reluctant brother. Bezunch has been
involved in a bid for a new fleet of Lorries for the corporation. Two of the main bidders are at
the party – a well-to-do foreigner called Richardson, and a local man who is a Muslim (and
therefore not a part of the inner circle of Orthodox Christians). The next day at work Kebret tells
Bezunch that the bid will go to Richardson’s company, despite the fact that they were the highest
bidder and the Muslim Ethiopian the lowest. Bezunch is horrified and complains but is told
Richardson has reduced his bid by one per cent. Bezunch thinks this is dishonest as the other
bidders have not been given the opportunity to alter their bids. Bezunch later learns that
Richardson has reduced his bid but also given a generous bribe to Kebret. On his own initiative
he gets the Muslim to lower his bid and awards him the bid. Kebret is, of course, furious.
Bezunch is even more annoyed when he finds out that his report on corruption within the
corporation has been buried by Kebret as the four main corrupters are all well connected. Things
go from bad to worse when Kebret calls on Bezunch to resign for lack of cooperation and when
Bezunch refuses to resign fires him.

From here on, the novel moves into a more violent scenario, with the overthrow of Haile
Selassie and the military takeover. We follow not only the fate of Worku and Bezunch, with
Worku very much part of the student riots against the corrupt old ways, but also the fates of
Kebret and Dejazmach Azbete, who are seen as symbols of the old, corrupt ways. Dejazmach
Azbete has been a resistance fighter against the Italians and had been tough and ruthless and
remained so. In the meantime, he had amassed a lot of land, not necessarily by honest means.
When he sees his time is up, he does not go out easily. Sahle Selassie leaves us thinking that the
bad old ways have gone and, thanks to the like of Worku and Bezunch, there are better times
ahead. Sadly, his optimism might have been misplaced.

 Characters: Intellectuals and University students are the leading characters (The central
character, Bezuneh, a fresh graduate from a university and his younger brother, Worku, a
university student, concur on the need for change; though they differ in its urgency.
Worku is impetuous and hurried to pull down the rotten feudo bourgeois system from its
pedestal whereas Bezuneh is n bit more cautious and reserved. Worku holds a different
opinion from Takori, another university student, on tribal issues though both are the fiery
young men, The Firebrands, who clamor at the top of their voices for the advent of
revolution. Dr. Mandefrot, a university lecturer, has a marked difference from Worku
and Takori in his theoretical exclamations on change and in his reactions to it.
Dejazmach Azbete represents the Bourgeoisie.

 Setting of the novel: Set during the reign of Derg (on the Eve and early day of 1974
Revolution).
  Theme of the novel: Corruption-change-corruption (disillusionment) and conflict as a
result of political ideologies.

6. The Thirteenth Sun(1973)

The Thirteenth Sun is the novel written in English by Ethiopian author Daniachew Worku. It was
first published in 1973. The title of the book refers to the fact that Ethiopia has 13 lunar months.
The uncanny thirteenth sun (of the thirteenth month presumably) is realized as a hyperbolic and
symbolic representation of the intense darkness through which the Ethiopian masses went in the
last feudo-bourgeouise system.

The novel's main protagonist is Goytom, a young radical, who accompanies his ageing father on
a pilgrimage. Fitawrary Woldu, his nobleman father, holds traditional beliefs and travels to St.
Abbo's Shrine on Mount Zuqualla in the hope of finding a cure for his heart disease. Despite his
frailty, he continues to assert his authority to the frustration of his son. Travelling with the party
is Woynitu, the Fitawrary's daughter by a prostitute. As they ascend the mountain they find a
place to stay overnight with a peasant and his wife, who is also known as the 'conjure woman'.
The Fitawrary arranges for the peasant's wife to perform a sacrifice on his behalf. The peasant
rapes Woynitu later that night.

The party reaches the shrine on their third day and the Fitawrary takes the Sacrament and
acknowledges Woynitu as his daughter. Later that day they return to stay with the peasant and
his wife. The Fitawrary shoots his gun at the door, killing the peasant standing outside. He then
falls back and dies. The party waits two days for the police to arrive, but when they fail to show
up Goytom leads them back down the mountain. It is clear, however, that the novel can be
understood in the context of mid-twentieth century Ethiopia in the years before the revolution.
Wren concludes: "Young Goytom’s horrible journey with the decaying corpse of Ethiopia’s
past, naturalistic as it seems, is the final symbolism of the novel. However Haile Selassie’s rule
was to end, it would be some such descent from the volcano. The Fitawrary’s last days exposed
the massive contradictions in modern Ethiopia: a past that cannot be left behind and a present
that has not been prepared for."
The author uses the conflict between an aging, dying nobleman and his son to explore the whole
range of difference of opinions plaguing modern Ethiopia and modern man: age and youth,
progress and pastoral purity, spirituality and material wealth, mysticism and realism. The
characters in the novel seemed to be one-dimensional. The father is portrayed as a shallow
selfish man with an unconvincing faith in a peculiar mixture of magic and Christian ritual
Goytom, his son, is described as an unsympathetic youth who recognizes his father’s hypocrisy
without seeing his own.

 Taking this simple story-line, the writer weaves together a number of scenes which
characterize the dark, cruel faces of feudal Ethiopia. Feudal Ethiopia with its ironical
claim to “thirteenth months of sunshine”
Symbolic Characters:

 Goytom: The protagonist, a young radical and western educated intellectual.

 Woynitu: Goytom's step sister symbolized Ethiopia.
 Fitawrary Woldu: Goytom’s and Woynitu’s father, an aging nobleman (Feudal).
 The Peasant: The would be capitalists.

Setting: The novel set in the Eve of the 1974 Revolution.

Genre: The novel is considered as historical, realistic, tragic, allegorical novel.

Theme: The Thirteenth Sun, on a surface level, is a journey of pilgrimage and exorcisms. But
Journey of Pilgrimage to Abbo (mount Zikuala) symbolizes the ardous task the people of
Ethiopia (particularly the intellectuals a represented by Goytom) have faced to bring about the
emancipation of their country from the cruel feudal aristocracy (here represented by Fitawurari
Woldu who symbolizes Haile Sellassie).
7. Defiance(1975)

The story of Defiance is set during the Italian occupation of Addis Ababa and a place where the
horrors of war form the background to the lives of a group of freedom–fighters, collaborators
with the invading regime and Fascist oppressors. It presents in vivid detail the Ethiopian vision
of those trying years and the strategies of resistance developed against the Fascist Italian invader.
In other words, Defiance can be termed a unique example of conflicting rights and competing
discourses during the years of the Italian invasion, made fiction and published years later, in
1975, under the new shelter of an emerging postcolonial context being experienced by Ethiopian
letters in those years. The novel is fully postcolonial for its chronology and for its ideological
mindset.
 Characters: Characters found in the novel are Fitawurari Abesha and his family, w/ro
Wosene, Aster, Sara, and Degu, an Italian Facist General Angelo, etc.
 Setting: Set in the Italian occupation period (1936-41).
 Theme: postcolonial novel, identity, freedom...
8. In the Mirror of Love (1974)

The novel narrates the 17 year old period of the Dergu regime. The theme of the novel focuses
on the effect of poverty on the rural people and internal conflict.

9. Evil Days(2004)

The novel deals with the historical event and incident of the o called reign of Red Terror
committed by the Dergu Junta.

10. Journey of A Passion(2012)

The novel is written by Tewodros Tefera. The novel talks about the girl who searches to get her
passion. The protagonist character of the novel is Yodit.

Activity: What are the recurrent themes of Ethiopian Literature in English?

 What is the current status of Ethiopian literature in English?