Introduction

Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of education developers. These forces are
actually beliefs and orientations as well as conceptions of learning and the needs of society.
Curriculum developers need to make decisions about the goals of the curriculum, what content to
include, how it should be organized, how it should be taught and how to determine effectiveness
of the curriculum. To decide the above issues philosophy, psychology, sociology and history
plays a pivotal role. These have been accepted as the foundations of a curriculum. Of the above
decisions four of them are questions raised by Ralph Tailor in 1949 in his book basic principles
of curriculum and instruction. Foundation of curriculum is rooted with the foundation of
education. This article therefore elaborates the historical, sociological, philosophical and
psychological foundation of curriculum in Ethiopia.

Historical foundation of Education during Hailesellase (Italian occupation- 1974)

Knowledge of history is indispensable to understanding who we are and where we fit in the
world and how we differ and related to the past. In Ethiopia, the notion of education has
embedded in the heart of church education (Orthodox Church). However, according to Bekeke
(1991), modern school did not develop directly from traditional institutions. This is because there
was a great resistance at that time to accept the modern education by church leaders. In Ethiopia,
western modern education is introduced in 1908, though there is traditional education starting
from the entrance of Christianity in Ethiopia sixth century.

The purpose of church education was to provide religious education and to promote doctrine.
Through its history, the church enabled the country to develop its own script that made it the
only country Sub-Saharan Africa (Teshome, 1979).

Important event in the expansion of modern education was the advent of the late Emperor
Haile Selassie I, as Regent and Heir to the throne in 1916. He was a graduate of the first school
established in Menelik II‟s palace. He was credited for establishing the first printing press which
greatly helped the expansion of modern education through well-organized textbooks, newspapers
and other educational materials and works. Nevertheless, Ethiopia’s educational system
experienced some challenges, as the high cost of printing caused shortage of books, references,
textbooks and other educational materials.

Emperor Haile Selassie opened a new school in his name and empowered the different land lords
(the notable owners of lands) to do the same in various provinces of the country. Consequently,
the aristocracy expanded modern schools in different parts of the country. The schools were
typically named after those who established them to show their political influences. Teferi
Mekonen School focused on the teaching of religion, mathematics, law and calligraphy as a
continuation of Menelik II School. It was also during this period that the first school for girls was
established by Empress Menen in 1931. This seems to be the first attempt to practice gender
equity in education by giving the girls an equal educational opportunity. The education system
from its inception until the occupation by Italian Fascists (1935) was criticized for being “too
European” and unable to respond to the actual needs of Ethiopian society. Plagued by a dearth of
materials, alien curriculum and educational content, and untrained and inefficient teachers, the
educational system was not expected to succeed (Yigzaw, 2005).

The Ethiopian curriculum was also criticized for the lack of emphasis on vocational education.
Not until the 1930s, few schools prepared pupils for technical and professional works through
courses related to production. One of such schools was Lycee Haile Selassie, which offered
courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, civil engineering, veterinary science, and modern
languages. Another modern school was Menen Girls‟ School, which offered courses in
dressmaking, drawing, home management and physical training. After colonization, many
African leaders and authorities perceived a need for competent wives skilled in modern house
management needed to welcome their European visitors at home. Similarly, at the outset, Menen
School focused on providing courses that train girls to be good wives. Later, this school included
courses in science and mathematics.

The schools also have a leadership challenge. While policy makers were made up of the
aristocrats, emperor and foreign advisors, there were no supervisors and coordinators at the
district level who were responsible for looking after the schools and maintaining channels of
communication between the schools and decision makers. Middle-tier academic management
individuals had to be brought in from elsewhere, most of whom were Egyptians and French. For
example, Egyptians headed Menelik II School, whereas Teferi Mekonen School (1925) and the
Menen School (1931) had a French headmaster and a French headmistress respectively. In
general, this period (1908-1935) is characterized by French dominance, as teachers and
headmasters were not only French, examinations were also conducted in French. Therefore, it is
referred to as the French Period.

The efforts of the two successive governments to expand modern education in Ethiopia, hoped
by many to be the basis for the country’s development, were disrupted by the Italian Occupation.
According to Seyoum, “the occupation was short lived; however, it did a lot of harm” (1996:3).
Indeed, a pronounced bottleneck for the growth of education was created by the Italian invasion
of Ethiopia from 1935 to 1941. The devastating war of aggression and its consequences resulted
in a significant and lasting negative effect on the growth and development of education.

During the Italian occupation, schools were either closed or used for military camps and the
educated few were either eliminated or joined the guerrilla fighters of the country (Tekeste,
1990). The only school that was opened in the country was that of the Catholic Mission, which
emphasized religion, the Italian language and subservience to the Mussolini regime. Notable
improvement of the education system was lacking in this period. The major aim of education was
to create citizens that would be loyal to Italy. The content of education focused on reading,
writing and simple arithmetic, semi-vocational skill training and internalizing fascist values to
promote loyalty to the regime. Moreover, they suggested that local administration languages
(Amharic, Oromipha, and Tigrigna) replace the unified national languages of Ethiopia, which
were used for classroom instruction. This decision was not based on the pedagogical principle
that instruction in one‟s mother tongue can help children understand and learn faster and relate
what is taught in schools with their immediate environment, but rather, with the intention to
create disunity among the various ethnic groups in the country (Adane, 1993).

During the occupation, Ethiopian teachers who knew the local languages were employed under
the supervision of priests and nuns, with an emphasis on the socialization of the Italian ideology.
However, in practice, all instructions in government-operated schools were primarily in Italian.
Textbooks were written in Italian and focused on Italian history. Policies opposed equal
opportunity for schooling and implemented rigid discrimination in the schools, with different
schools used for Italians and Ethiopians. Education for Ethiopian nationals was restricted up to
grade 4, while Italians were provided schooling similar to students of their home country. During
this period, there was neither uniform and standardized curriculum nor a standardized assessment
method in the schools.

Reconstruction, (1941-1955)

The liberation of the country in 1941was accompanied by a period of reconstruction that lasted
to the mid-fifties. Like that of the previous governments, the government of this period also
believed that the country‟s independence could be assured through its educated citizens. As a
result, the government encouraged the development of education. In doing so, the Ministry of
Education and Fine Arts was established in 1942, and the effort to modernize education started
all over the country again. Consequently, schools started blossoming in some of the urban
centres of the country (Seyoum, 1996).

Great Britain, which assisted Ethiopia in becoming liberated from Italian aggression, was
interested in the education system of Ethiopia. Accordingly, Mr. E.R.J. Hussey, who had wide
experience in Africa, was appointed as an Advisor in the Ministry of Education in 1942. From
1942 to 1954 the Ethiopian education system was highly influenced by the British advisors.
These advisors greatly influenced the structure of Ethiopian education, the medium of
instruction, and the evaluation system (Zewdie, 2000).

Once again, this education system did not reflect the cultural, social and economic situation of
the country, because it was dominated by the British education system. Therefore, this was
known as the period of British domination. An expatriate educator at that time observed that,
“there was nothing Ethiopian in the classroom except the children” (Seyoum, 1996:4).
Consequently, it was difficult for the education system to respond to the needs and problems of
the society.

As indicated previously, the fundamental principle which directed the development and
implementation of school curriculum until 1952 was the political agenda of the aristocracy an
their foreign advisors (Zewdie, 2000). After 1953, reforms regarding the involvement and participation of
educated Ethiopians were put in place. Human resource development was given due attention in this
period, which led to the involvement of Ethiopians in areas ranging from policymaking to classroom
practice.
The educational expansion was primarily aimed at producing a workforce that could serve in
government, eventually replacing expatriates with native personnel (Tekeste, 1990). It was
important to produce educated people who could fill the modern administration system alongside
those who were already there and who had survived the Italian war of aggression. Moreover,
training of technicians for service sectors like transport and commerce, and officers for police
and the armed forces was emphasized. To meet these needs, academic secondary schools and
technical and vocational schools were opened.

Furthermore, during this time, a gradual advancement in curriculum development occurred. The
first formal written curriculum was published in 1947/48. It was developed by committees
consisting of Ethiopians and foreigners of varying nationalities. Later on, the structure of the
education system was changed on the basis of the perceived interests of the ruling class. After
the development of the first curriculum, a total of seven revisions were made between 1948 and
1968.

In 1953, a Long Term Planning Committee under the chairmanship of the Vice Minister of
Education and Fine Arts had recommended that the fundamental principle for developing and
implementing school curriculum was a careful assessment of the need and purposes of the people
of Ethiopia, with a particular focus on the cultural, social and economic characteristics of the
country. The period was marked by the development of various curriculum materials.

Initially the structure of the education system was designed to be a three-tier 4-4-4 system (four
years of primary, intermediate, and secondary education) by the Long Term Planning
Committee. (Bekele, 1966). In 1947, the first 10 Year Education Plan was drafted, and a 6-6-4
system (six years of primary school, six years of junior secondary education, four years of senior
secondary education) was introduced. It was in 1947 that the first official elementary school
curriculum for grades 1-6, which covered a wide range of subjects, was published. It was later
improved in 1949, and was extended to include grades 7 and 8. The secondary school curriculum
was issued in the same year (Tesfaye and Taylor, 1976).

The subjects offered at this level were Amharic, English, science, art, geography, history,
arithmetic, music, handicraft, and physical education. Amharic was the medium of instruction in
grades one and two. In grades three and four, English was used as a medium of instruction for
teaching of art, science, physical training, handicraft, music, geography, history, and arithmetic.
In grade five and six, all subjects with the exception of Amharic were taught in English.
(Ayalew, 1964).

Generally, the curriculum was not based on the economic, social and cultural realities of
Ethiopia; rather, its components were copied from other countries. Textbooks for primary
education were translated from other languages without reflecting the Ethiopian situation. The
secondary school syllabus was based on the London School Leaving Certificate Examination.
Moreover, the methods and materials used for classroom instruction were inadequate as there
was a shortage of textbooks and other teaching aids. The Bible served as an Amharic textbook
from grade one to four. As a result, non-Christian peoples were obliged to follow the Bible
(Ayalew, 1964).

The revised version of the first curriculum, otherwise known as the second curriculum, became
operational from 1949 to 1963. The pattern of school organization was an 8-4 structure (eight
years of primary education and four years of secondary education). The major reason for the
change of curriculum was the need to expand education and alleviate English language
deficiencies (Ayalew: 1964). As a result, the language of instruction became English starting at
Grade 4. Generally, the curriculum continued to be detached from the cultural context of
Ethiopia. It was replicated from Great Britain and African countries like Kenya and Sudan.

From the mid-1940s and throughout 1950s, students were expected to sit for the General School
Leaving Certificate Examination of Great Britain. The practice began to decline with the
successive growth of the University College at Addis Ababa in 1951. By the mid-1960s, the
Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination had become the only valid diploma (Tekeste,
1990).

With the introduction of 6-6-4 school structure in 1963, a national examination was set for
evaluating the achievements of students in grades 6 and 8. The national grade 12 test, which was
introduced in 1954, became the Ethiopian School Leaving Certificate Examination (ESLCE). At
this time, the ESLCE became a test prepared by subject matter experts at the Haile Selassie I
University (Zewdie: 2000).
Foundation of Modern Education from 1955 to 1972

Between 1950 and 1955, there was a gradual reduction of British influence as Americans began
working in the Ministry of Education. In 1955, the government set up what was known as the
Long Term Planning Committee. The committee focused on the speedy promotion of universal
fundamental education, as well as the relevance of the curriculum to the needs of the society. The
American influence on Ethiopian education was reflected in new grade structure (6+2+4) that
was introduced. This combination meant that a student had to go through six years of primary,
two years of junior and four years of senior high school education. Another significant change
made during the time of American influence was the promotion of Amharic the medium of
instruction at primary school level. According to Tekeste, this change was "the most significant
reform of the decade", (1990, 8) and was the first significant attempt made to implement
multicultural education in the country’s formal education system. This was strengthened by the
general agreement for technical cooperation between the governments of Ethiopia and United
States that marked the dominance of the American education system in Ethiopia from 1965
onward.

As Americans began to increase their influence on Ethiopia’s educational system, they began to
assume headmasterships and teaching positions in schools and started to participate in the
process of policy making through the Education Advisory Group (Zewdie 2000:107). This group
was involved in the operations of the Long Term Planning Committee and in the 1971 Education
Sector Review. Because many perceived foreign involvement in Ethiopia’s educational system to
be excessive, the government gradually began to “Ethiopianize" the education system. Initially,
the government was interested in appointing mostly qualified and experienced Ethiopians in the
process of policy making along with the Education Advisory Group. The government also
focused on the training of teachers, supervisors and school administrators for various
Community Teacher Training Centres, Teacher Training Institutes and the Faculty of Education
(HSIU). Using interviews with a sample of Ethiopians in various occupations, the Education
Commission conducted a study on the education system in the country in 1962.

To meet these objectives, a 4-4-4 system with the proposal for basic formation education (i.e.,
4+2 years) was approved with the following structure:
a) Four years of (1-4) of minimum formation education to be made available to all children as
rapidly as permitted by financial constraint.

b) Two years of basic formation for youth who have been unable to attend the minimum
formation education (MFE) programs.

c) A four years middle school (5-8) and four years senior secondary school (9-12) program for a
limited number of graduates of MFE and basic formation program.

d) An extensive system of non-formal educational program for youth and adults which would be
closely related to the formal system.

As can be seen from the proposed objectives, the Education Sector Review was an innovative
approach to make education more relevant to actual Ethiopian culture and needs. It was a
program designed primarily to integrate education with vocational and environmental education.
Significantly, the educational objectives were designed to be free from any form of domination
of emperor loyalty and church morals. Nevertheless, strong opposition came out of this proposal
from the teachers, students and parents because the review suggested a four-year education for
most children and reduced the salaries of certain teachers.

Although the Education Sector Review had its strong as well as weak points, one can conclude
that it was an important event during this period. The study tried to link education with the actual
societal activities. The study emphasized the importance of universal primary education before
the year 2000. The restructuring of the educational system that was recommended was never
fully implemented due to strong opposition from various corners of the society. Some of the
oppositions may have been a reaction to the decision to keep the policy document secret from the
educated citizens and the public at large. The secrecy caused rumours and misinformation, which
fueled resistance from the society. Consequently, significant measures were not taken to change
the fundamental educational principle.

Foundation of the "Third Curriculum"(Experimental Curriculum)

This curriculum, which was highly influenced by the Americans, became operational from 1952
to 1974, it was essentially instigated by a Long Term Planning Committee under the
chairmanship of the Vice Minister of Education and Fine Arts. American Advisors were also
members of this committee. This committee recommended that the fundamental principles for
developing and implementing a national school curriculum must be based on a careful
assessment of the needs of the people with respect to cultural, social and environmental
characteristics. In 1957, Amharic was chosen to serve as the medium of instruction in the
schools. The Department of Research and Curriculum Development conducted a pilot study on
Amharic as a medium of instruction prior to nationwide implementation. At the end of the pilot
program, it was concluded that the teaching-learning process had been significantly improved
with Amharic instruction (Habtemariam, 1970).

The curriculum in this period is not well organized and written as a document. The duration of
the program is not explicitly given; it depends only on the achievement of the individual and his
motivation. The church has many values and sometimes all the modern things emanate from
church education. For instance, medicinal plants, ethics and the like are contribution of church
education. Calculation of calendar they call it “Bahere Hasab” is introduced by the church, even
the counting of thirteen month till now that makes our country unique is because of church
education. Hence modern education in Ethiopia is rooted in church education (Orthodox
Church). The teaching method is one way and students’ task is to memorize as the teachers
lectures. There is only one truth which is God. Knowledge is gained rather than created. Modern
education is launched in Ethiopia by Emperor Menelik in 1908; the aim was that the need to
cope up with western ideas and modernization, the need for innovations such as national
currency a state bank, construction of bridge, hospitals, hotels and railroad, postal service,
telephone and etc Maheteme Selassie (as cited in Bekeke, 1991). The school was first directed by
Egyptian Coptic professor Hanna (as cited in Bekeke, 1991).

In this school there was about 150 students’ only boys, most of whom where sons of the nobility,
including two future Emperors: Lij Iyasu and Teferi Mokonnen (Emperor Haile Silasie). The
establishment of modern school then spread throughout the country and the curriculum includes subjects
like science, mathematics, drawing, English, French, Arabic, physical training and home management.
The first minister of education in Ethiopia was appointed during the time of Lij Eyassu (1913– 1916)
(Maaza, 1966) after which the opening of a number of primary schools followed. It was during the time
of Emperor Haileselassie I (1930–1974) that a significant development was registered in the education
sector. The development was virtually in all aspects of education: educational structure, teacher training,
educational management and co-operation. Ethiopian education after 1936 –1941 was generally modeled
following the British education system. The syllabus, teaching materials and even teachers were all
imported from England to prepare Ethiopian students for the General Certificate Examination of the
University of London (Nuru, 2000).

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