2024 AGRICULTURAL AND BIOSYSTEMS ENGINEERING

BOARD EXAM REVIEWER

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
OF AGRICULTURAL AND
FOOD PRODUCTS
by

Engr. Alexis T. Belonio, MS

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineer
ASEAN Engineer

Volume 6 –AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD PROCESS ENGINEERING

Disclaimer

Photos, illustrations and schematic diagrams of equipment or machine parts shown in

the presentation are solely for educational purposes to facilitate comprehension of the
topics by the students. Showing them does not endorse a product nor imply criticism
of similar products not mentioned.
 INTRODUCTION
☐ Knowledge on engineering properties of various agricultural crops
is essential for scientific designs of machines and of structures for
production, handling, processing, and storage of crops and
livestock. It is also helpful in solving problems related to heat and
mass transfer required in grain drying, storage, aeration,
refrigeration, and other process operation.
Classifications of the Different Properties of A/F Products

1. Physical –These are properties that lend themselves to

description and quantification by physical rather than chemical
means. In terms of quality (texture, structure, appearance) and
stability (water activity). Physical properties such as thermal
conductivity, density, viscosity, specific heat, enthalpy and many
others are essential for the rational design and operation of
agricultural and food process equipment as well as in plant design.
This is significant for both quality and engineering point of view.

2. Mechanical – The properties that determine the behavior of the

product when subjected to external forces. Applications includes
conveying, size reduction, etc to consumption such as texture, mouth
feel, etc. Some parameters includes the stress which is the forces
acting on the material and strain which is the response of material to
deformation. Rheology is the science which study the relationship of
stress to strain in the product.
3. Thermal – This is relevant to agricultural and food process
engineering since almost all the products produce undergoes
different heat treatment from cooking to cooling and vice versa.
Properties that of particular importance includes thermal
conductivity, thermal diffusivity, specific heat, latent heat,
emissivity, etc.

4. Electrical – they are relevant to microwave and ohmic of the

material and to the effect of electrostatic force on the behavior of
powder. The most important properties are the electrical
conductivity and dielectric properties of agricultural and food
materials.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

☐ Surface Area

The surface area of the product, especially paddy grains, is regarded

as cono-elliptical cylinder in shape. It affects the physical properties
of the product, particularly in terms of porosity, angle of repose, and
angle of friction. It is important in designing cleaning, and separating
equipment, as well as drying and storage facilities.
Surface Area of Various Paddy Varieties

Variety Surface Area (mm2)

Patnai 65.0

Dular 54.5

Taichung 56.7

Kalinpong 62.3
☐ Porosity

Porosity has an important role in drying and in storage of the

product. It indicates the relationship between the volume of the
product and the volume of the mass of the product. Porosity
depends on the shape, dimension, and roughness of the product
surface.
Pm = 69.05 – 0.885 M and
P1 = 65.55 – 0.475 M
where:
Pm - porosity for medium size paddy, %
P1 - porosity for long size paddy, %
M - moisture content, % wet basis
Porosity of Three Varieties of Paddy at Various Moisture Ranges

Crop Moisture Content Porosity

(%) (%)
Rice
Dular 11-25 47-64
IR-8 12-26 47-64
Basmati 10-26 46-52
What is the porosity of a medium-sized paddy having a moisture
content of 21% wet basis? If the paddy will be dried to 14% wet
basis, what is the percentage increase in the porosity of the
sample?

Given:
MCwb1 - 21%
MCwb2 - 14%
Required:
Porosity and percentage increase
if sample is dried to 14%
Solution:
Pm = 69.05 - 0.885 MC (at 21% MC)
= 69.05 – 0.885 (0.21)
= 68.86 %
PM = 69.05 – 0.885 MC (at 14% MC)
= 69.05 – 0.885 (0.14)
= 68.92%
% Increased = (68.92% - 68.86%) x 100 / 68.86%
= 0.1%
☐ Bulk Density

Bulk density is the ratio of the weight and the volume of the
product. It indicates how heavy the product is at a given volume. It
is normally expressed in kg/m3 of lb/ft3. Knowledge on this property
aids in coming up with an accurate estimate in determining the size
of the holding bin or of the storage structure required for a certain
product to be handled.
 Bulk Density of Various Agricultural Crops

Crop Bulk Density Crop Bulk Density

(lb/ft3) (lb/ft3)
Alfalfa 48 Millet 38-40
Barley 38 Mustard 46-84
Beans
Lima, dry 45 Peanuts
Lima, unshelled 26 Unshelled 14-17
Snap 24 Popcorn
Bluegrass 11-24 Earcorn 28
Broomcorn 35-40 Shelled 45
Buckwheat 38-42 Repressed 40-48
Castor Beans 37 Rice, rough 36
 Crop Bulk Density Crop Bulk Density
(lb/ft3) (lb/ft3)
Clover 48 Rye 45
Corn Sesame 37
Ear, husked 28 Sorgo 40
Shelled 45 Sorghum 40-45
Green sweet 28 Soybean 48
Cottonseed 26 Sunflower 19-26
Cowpeas 48 Velvet Beans 48
Flaxseed 45 Walnuts 40
Kapok 28-32 Wheat 48
Lentils 48
Ten (10) tons of shelled corn will be stored in a
cylindrical silo. Loading will be done only from
the bottom to the top of the cylindrical container
without considering the additional volume of the
cone due to the effect of the angle of repose of
the sample. If the silo requires a ratio of 2D =
H, what would be the dimension of the silo?
Assume a bulk density for shelled corn of 45
lb/ft3.

Given:
Sample - shelled corn
Weight of sample - 10 tons
Ratio - 2D = H
Density of sample - 45 lb/ft3
Required:
Dimension of the silo
Solution:

Volume of paddy= Weight/Density

= [10 tons x 1000 kg/ton]/[45 lb/ft3
x kg/2.2lb x (3.28 ft/m)3 ]
= 13.85 m3
pD2 /4 x H = 13.85 m3
pD2/4 x 2D = 13.85 m3
D3 = (8/p) 13.85 m3
D = 2.07 m
H = 4.14 m
☐ Angle of Repose

The angle of repose is the angle at which the product forms a

conical shape from the horizontal after it is allowed to freely flow
from a discharge spout of the bin. This property is important in
the design and construction of bulk storage facilities, and in the
calculations of the dimensions of intermediate holding bins and
hoppers at a given capacity.
Angle of Repose of Various Agricultural Products

Product Angle of Repose

(Deg)
Barley 28
Corn, shelled 27
Flaxseed 25
Sorghum 33
Oats 28
Rice, rough 36
Rye 26
Soybeans 29
Sugar 30
Tares 29
Vetch 25
Wheat 25
☐ Angle of Friction

The angle of friction refers to the angle measured from the

horizontal at which a product starts to move downward over a
smooth surface and smoothness of the material. Basically, moisture
content affects the angle of friction of the grains. Wet grains has a
greater angle of friction than dried grains.
Coefficient of Friction of Various Agricultural Crops

Crop Steel Smooth Smooth Rough

Concrete Wood Wood
Barley 0.38 0.45 0.32
Corn
Ear - - 0.62 -
Shelled 0.37 0.42 0.31 0.32
Flaxseed 0.34 0.41 0.31 -
Oats 0.41 0.47 0.37
Peas 0.26 0.30 0.27
Rice, rough 0.41 0.52 0.44 0.52

Rye 0.41 0.35 0.33

Sorghum 0.37 0.33 0.30

Angle of Friction = Tan -1 Cf

 Crop Steel Smooth Smooth Rough
Concrete Wood Wood
Soybean 0.36 0.44 0.32 0.30
Sugar Beat - 0.52 0.82 0.70

Tares 0.36 0.36 0.39 -

Vetch 0.33 0.24 0.26 -
Wheat 0.40 0.42 0.46 0.35
A receiving pit for rough rice is to be designed for a rice mill. If the
material to be used is concrete, what is the minimum angle of
inclination that will be needed for the pit so it will cause self-
emptying? Consider a coefficient of friction for rough rice to smooth
concrete of 0.52. If steel will be used instead of concrete with
coefficient of friction of 0.46, what will be the inclination needed for
the pit?
Given:
Material - rough rice
Coef of friction to concrete - 0.52
Coef of friction to steel - 0.46
Required:
Minimum angle of friction to concrete
and steel materials
Solution:
= tan -1 0.52 for concrete
= 27.47 degrees
= tan -1 0.46 for steel
= 24.70 degrees
 THERMAL PROPERTIES
☐ Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity is the thermal property of material that indicates

the amount of heat transfer from one side of the material to the other
side by conduction.

Thermal conductivity of the material increases with an increase in

moisture content. The presence of water in the grains provide a good
conducting medium of heat. Thermal conductivity of paddy grains and
husks increases linearly with an increase in the mean bulk temperature,
bulk density, and moisture content.
Equation

K = 0.0500135 - 0.000767 M

where:
K - thermal conductivity, BTU/hr-ft-°F
M - moisture content, % wet basis
☐ Specific Heat

Specific heat of the product is the amount of heat required to

raise its temperature one degree higher when heat is added.
Data on the specific heat provides information necessary in the
optimum design of drying and cooling equipment.

Equation:

C = 0.22008 + 0.01301 M

where:
C - specific heat, BTU/lb-°F
M - moisture content, % wet basis
What is the amount of heat needed to raise
the temperature of 1.5 tons medium-sized
paddy from 27°C to 45°C? The moisture
content of paddy is 14% wet basis.

Given:
Sample - paddy
Weight of sample - 1.5 tons
Initial temperature of sample - 27°C (106.2°F)
Final temperature of sample - 45°C (138.6°F)
Moisture content - 14% wet basis
Required:
Heat energy required to raise the temperature of sample
Solution:
C = 0.22008 + 0.1301 M
= 0.22008 + 0.1301 (0.14)
= 0.22190 BTU/lb-°F
Qs = 1.5 tons x 0.2219 BTU/lb-°F x (138.6°F – 106.2°F)
= 23,725.548 BTU
 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL
EXPANSION

☐ The coefficient of thermal cubical expansion for milled rice at

storage moisture over a temperature of 30º-70°C can be computed
using the formula:

Ck = 0.0002403 per °C; for temperature below 53°C

Ck = 0.0003364 per °C; for temperature above 53°C

 Knowledge on the thermal coefficient provides information
on the thermal cracking in grains. Temperature difference
above 43°C results in serious grain cracking. For brown rice
at a moisture level of 2.2 to 29.2%db and temperature range
of 30° to 70°C, the coefficient of thermal expansion can be
estimated as

Ck = (0.936 + 0.0109 M2 + 0.000329 M3) x 10-4

where:
Ck - coefficient of thermal expansion, decimal
M - moisture content, % dry basis
 HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

☐ The heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to

remove certain amount of moisture from the product. In
estimating the amount of heat required to dry a product, the
information on the heat of vaporization is of much important.
Regression equation developed by Brook and Foster for the latent
heat of vaporization using the equilibrium moisture content data for
the different varieties of rice is,

HV = 2.32 [1094 – 1.026 (T + 17.780] [1 + 2.4962 Exp (-21.73 M)]

where:
HV - latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
T - temperature of air, °C
M - moisture content, dec db
Heat Vaporization of Rough Rice at Various
Moisture Content and Temperatures

Moisture Content (% Temperature Heat of Vaporization

dry basis) (°C) (kJ/kg)
10 3563 – 4743
20 3803 – 4470
5
30 4047 – 4229
40 4015 – 4285
10 2698 – 3078
20 2862 – 2953
15
30 2846 – 2987
40 2753 – 3040
10 2474 – 2550
20 2468 – 2508
30
30 2451 – 2471
40 2426 - 2438
What is the latent heat of vaporization of paddy
at 28% moisture content wet basis and at a
temperature of 40°C. If 200kg moisture will be
removed from the bulk of paddy, what is the
amount of heat required to remove the
moisture?
Given:
Moisture content - 28% wet basis
Temperature - 40°C
Moisture to be removed - 200 kg
Required:
Latent heat of vaporization and amount of heat
required to remove the moisture
Solution:
HV = 2.32 [1094-1.026(T+17.78)][1+2.4962 – 21.73 M]
= 2.32 [1094 – 1.026 (40°C + 17.78][1+2.496– 21.73 (0.28)]
= 2,409.731 kJ/kg of water
Heat to be removed = HV x Moisture to be removed
= 2,409.731 kJ/kg x 200 kg
= 481,946.2 kJ
 Thermal Diffusivity

☐ The thermal diffusivity equations for rough rice components were

found by Steffe and Singh (1980). For starchy endosperm, the
thermal diffusivity equation as a function of the temperature is
given as,

D = 0.00257 Exp ( -0.00257/Ta)

• For the bran layer, the equation is

D = 0.79700 Exp (-0.00511/Ta)

• For rice husks, the equation is

D = 484 Exp (-7380/Ta)

where:
D - Diffusivity, m2/hr
Ta - Absolute dry bulb temperature, °K
 HYGROSCOPIC PROPERTIES

☐ Equilibrium Moisture Content

The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) is that property of grain

that holds moisture when it is subjected to a prolonged condition of
known temperature and relative humidity. EMC is very important in
the design of convection dryer and storage facilities to protect the
grains from moisture changes.

The EMC of various grains can be computed using the Chung and
Pfost equation:
Md = E – F ln [-R (T + C) ln RH
 Chung and Pfost Equilibrium Constant

Grain Constant
A B C E F
Beans, edible 1334.93 14.964 120.098 0.480920 0.066826
Corn, yellow dent 620.56 16.958 30.205 0.379212 0.058970
Peanut, Kernel 506.65 29.243 33.892 0.212966 0.034196
Peanut, Pod 1037.19 37.093 12.354 0.183212 0.026383
Rice, Rough 1181.57 21.733 35.703 0.325535 0.046015
Sorghum 2185.07 19.644 102.849 0.391444 0.050970
Soybean 275.11 14.967 24.576 0.375314 0.066816
Wheat, Durum 1831.40 18.077 112.350 0.415593 0.055318
Wheat, Hard 1052.01 17.609 50.998 0.395155 0.056788
Wheat, Soft 1442.54 23.607 35.662 0.308163 0.042360
What is the equilibrium moisture content of paddy
stored in bags at a storage temperature of 27°C
and humidity of 90%. If the moisture content of
paddy stored is 14% wet basis, is there a danger
for the grains to deteriorate when the condition
prevails for a longer period?

Given: Storage temperature - 27°C

Storage humidity - 90%
Moisture content of sample - 14%

Required: Equilibrium moisture content

Solution:
Md = E – F ln [-R (T+C) ln RH)
= 0.325 – 0.046 ln [-1.987 (27 +35.703) ln (0.90)
= 0.206 or 20.66% moisture dry basis
Mw = Md 100 / (100 – Md)
= 20.6% x 100 / (100 – 20.6%)
= 17.08%
 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

☐ The mass transfer coefficient for rough rice drying by natural air
on a drying bed can be computed using the regression equation
developed by Chang and Chung (1983). The equation is a
function of the temperature, relative humidity, airflow rate, and
grain bed depth.

Kg = 0.008489 – 0.000225 T + 0.000236 RH – 0.00042

where:
Kg - mass transfer coefficient, moisture decimal
dry basis-cm2/h-m2-kg
T - temperature of drying air, °C
RH - relative humidity, %
Q - airflow rate of drying air, m3/min
 TEMPERING TIME

¡ Tempering is the process of allowing the grains to rest in order for

the moisture at the innermost portion of the kernel to equilibrate
with the outer layer. For rice, Steffe and Singh (1979) developed
an equation to compute the tempering time of rough rice at the
specified moisture reduction or drying time.
• For specified moisture reduction, the regression equation is:
t = 24.145 – 5.344 ln (T) + 0.0253 ln (DELM)
– 0.287 RH + 1.096 Mo

• For tempering with specified drying time, the equation is:

t = 21.5373 – 4.899 ln (T) + 0.131 ln (DTIME)
– 0.491 RH + 2.132 Mo

where:
t -
time of tempering, hr.
T -
dry bulb temperature, °C
RH -
relative humidity, dec
Mo -
initial moisture content, decimal dry basis
DELM -
moisture reduction during one drying pass,
dec db
DTIME - time elapsed during one drying pass, hr.
 DRY MATTER LOSS

☐ Stored grains respire and consume dry matter during storage.

This respiration process occurs when the grains react with oxygen
and produces carbon dioxide, heat, and water. As the grains
respire, there is an equivalent loss in the dry matter in the grain.
☐ To estimate the dry matter loss, in order to answer how long can
paddy be stored without economic loss, the mathematical
expression as a function of storage temperature, time, and
moisture content is:

DML = 1 –exp [-(AxtC) exp {D (T – 60} exp {E (W – 0.140}]

where:
DML - dry matter loss, dec
t - storage time, hr/1000
T - temperature, °F
W - moisture content, decimal wb
A,C,D,E- constant
 Dry Matter Loss Constants
Grain Size A C D E
Long 0.001889 0.7101 0.02740 31.63

Medium 0.000914 0.6540 0.30756 33.61

Five hundred (500) tons of paddy, at 16% wet basis, is to be stored
in a silo for 6 months. If the storage temperature in the warehouse
is maintained at 95°F, what would be the expected weight of paddy
after the storage period? Neglect losses due to insect and pest.

Given: Product - paddy

Weight of product - 500 tons
Storage time - 6 months
Moisture content - 16%
Storage temperature - 95°F

Required: Weight of paddy after storage

Solution:
DML = 1- exp [(A x TC) exp [D (T-60)] exp (E (W-0.14))]
= 1-exp [(-0.000914 x 4.32 0.6540) exp [0.03756
(95-60)] Exp [33.61 (0.16 – 0.14)]]
= 1 – exp [-(0.00237)(3.715)(1.958)]
= 1 – 0.983
= 0.01
Therefore, the weight of paddy after 6 months is 491.45 tons
 AERODYNAMIC PROPERTIES

☐ Pressure Drop – is the resistance of material to airflow which

mostly relevant in the design of heated air dryer, aeration system,
etc
☐ Pneumatic Separation – usually utilize in cleaning and
conveying systems for grains, powders, and others.
 PRESSURE DROP

☐ Agricultural crops have

different resistance to
airflow. The formula for the
pressure drop of various
grains as a function of
airflow rate, percentage of
foreign materials, moisture
content, bed depth, and air
velocity is shown in figure
below.
 PNEUMATIC SEPARATION

¡ The use of air to separate grains from other materials is an

important principle for many agricultural machines. In designing
pneumatic separators, the terminal velocity of seeds is
determined and used. In pneumatic separation, a fan or a blower
is used to create higher pressure which will cause the grains to
move and separate during separation.
 Aerodynamic Properties of Paddy Grain
and Its By-Products

Variety Flow Rate Terminal Drag Reynold’s

(cc/min) Velocity Coefficient No.
(m/sec) Cd Re
Patnai 4200 6.81 0.49 1142
Dular 37300 6.00 0.50 1100
IR – 8 (68) 43800 7.13 0.47 1470
T-27 35500 5.70 0.52 1175
Padma 35200 5.85 0.55 1105
Rice fractions
Broken - 4.05 - -
Germs - 3.28 - -
Bran - 1.59 - -
 REFERENCES
☐ Berk, Z. 2009. Food process engineering and Technology. Food
Science and Technology Series. First Edition. Elsevier. 360 Park
Avenue South, New York, NY 10010-1710, USA . 603pp.
☐ Chung D.S. ad C.H. Lee. Physical and Thermal Properties of
Grains. In: {Preserving Grain Quality by Aeration and In-Store Drying.
ACIAR Proceedings no. 15. G.P.O. Box 1571. Canberra, Australia.
Pp 53-66. 1986.
☐ Gupta, C. P. Physical and Engineering Properties of Rice Grain and
By-Products:Their Application in the Design of Rice Processing
Machines, Handling Equipment and Storage Structures. Paper
presented at the 1985 ASEAN Technical Seminar on Grain
Postharvest Technology. Manila Hotel, Manila. August 6-9, 1985.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. Unhulled grain of Oryza 4. Coefficient of friction of rice
sativa. to steel material is 0.41. What
a. Palay would be the minimum angle of
b. Paddy the hopper required for the
c. Rough rice system?
d. All of the above a. 22 deg.
b. 30 deg.
2. Fibrous layer of paddy when c. 50 deg.
hull is removed and is d. None of the above
commonly known as the silver
skin of brown rice. 5. Drying temperature of copra
a. Lemma and Palea is ____.
b. Pericarp a. less than 50°C
c. Bran layer b. between 50° to 95°C
d. None of the above c. above 95°C
d. None of the above
3. Angle with tangent equals
the coefficient of friction 6. Density of pig and poultry
between surfaces of the stored feeds is approximately ____.
materials. a. 250 kg/m3
a. Angle of contact b. 450 kg/m3
b. Angle of friction c. 650 kg/m3
c. Angle of repose d. None of the above
d. All of the above
7. Slender type paddy has ____ a. mechanical stress
length to width ratio. b. thermal stress
a. less than 2.0 c. physical stress
b. between 2 to 3 d. All of the above
c. more than 3.0 e. None of the above
d. None of the above
10. Property of a product that
8. Free space between the husk holds moisture when subjected to
of rough rice and the brown rice a prolong condition of known
kernel greatly affects milling in the temperature and relative humidity.
sense that ____. a. Dry matter loss
a. the larger the free space the b. Mass transfer coefficient
greater is the amount of broken c. Equilibrium moisture content
grains d. None of the above
b. the smaller the free space the
lesser its abrasive effect to the 11. Specific gravity of rice.
rubber-roll huller a. 1.11 to 1.12
c. the larger the free space, the b. 1.19 to 1.30
lesser the breakage and losses c. 1.22 to 1.26
d. All of the above d. None of the above

9. Uneven expansion and

contraction of the inner and the
outer layers of the grains that
cause fissuring is a factor of ____.
12. Specific gravity of sorghum. c. Bulk density
a. 1.11 to 1.12 d. Angle of repose
b. 1.19 to 1.30 e. Angle of friction
c. 1.22 to 1.26 f. All of the above
d. None of the above
16. Angle of repose of rough rice.
13. Bulk density of rough rice. a. 27 degrees
a. 25 lbs/ft3 b. 33 degree
b. 36 lbs/ft3 c. 36 degrees
c. 45 lbs/ft3 d. None of the above
d. None of the above
17. Angle of repose of shelled
14. Specific gravity of corn. corn.
a. 1.11 to 1.12 a. 27 degrees
b. 1.19 to 1.30 b. 33 degree
c. 1.22 to 1.26 c. 36 degrees
d. None of the above d. None of the above

15. Physical properties of 18. Angle of repose of sorghum.

important product to agricultural a. 27 degrees
processing. b. 33 degree
a. Surface area c. 36 degrees
b. Porosity d. None of the above
19. Angle-of-friction of rough rice a. Thermal conductivity
in steel. b. Specific heat
a. 0.41 c. Coefficient of thermal
b. 0.37 expansion
c. 0.36 d. Heat of vaporization
d. None of the above e. Thermal diffusivity
f. All of the above
20. Angle-of-friction of shelled
corn in steel. 23. Thermal conductivity of
a. 0.41 paddy grains ____ linearly with
b. 0.37 temperature, bulk density, and
c. 0.36 moisture content.
d. None of the above a. increases
b. decreases
21. Angle-of-friction of soybean c. do not increase or decrease
in steel. d. None of the above
a. 0.41
b. 0.37 24. Bulk density of shelled corn.
c. 0.36 a. 25 lbs/ft3
d. None of the above b. 36 lbs/ft3
c. 45 lbs/ft3
22. Which of the following d. None of the above
thermal properties are important
in agricultural processing?