КАЗАНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫй УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Институт языка

Кафедра английского языка

History of computers

Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности

«Прикладная математика и информатика», «Математические методы в
экономике», «Информационные технологии».

Казанский государственный университет

2010
 Печатается по решению
заседания кафедры английского языка
Казанского государственного университета
Протокол № от _._.200… г.

Составители:
кандидат филол.наук Ситдикова Ф.Б., кандидат филол.наук Хакимзянова
Д.Ф.

Научный редактор:
доктор филол. наук, проф. Г.А.Багаутдинова

Рецензент:

History of computers: Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся

по специальности «Прикладная математика и информатика»,
«Математические методы в экономике», «Информационные технологии». /
Каз. гос. ун-т, Институт языка, каф. англ. языка; сост. Ф.Б. Ситдикова, Д.Ф.
Хакимзянова – Казань: Казан. гос. ун-т, 200_. –___c.

Данное учебное пособие представляет собой сборник аутентичных

текстов по истории возникновения и развития компьютерных технологий.
Пособие предназначено для студентов 2 курса факультета ВМК уровня Pre-
Intermediate и Intermediate для чтения, обсуждения и активизации лексики
по специальности.
Тексты из данного пособия могут также быть использованы в качестве
заданий при проведении зачетов или контрольных точек.

КАЗАНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ У Н И ВЕ Р С И Т Е Т, 2009

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 CONTENTS

Unit 1. The First Freely Programmable Computer ………………………….….. 5

Unit 2. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer – the First Electronic Computer……..…9

Unit 3. The Harvard MARK I Computer………………………………………..11

Unit 4. The ENIAC I Computer…………………………………………………14

Unit 5. The Williams Tube and the Manchester Baby……………………..……17
Unit 6. The invention of semiconductor transistors……………………………..21
Unit 7. UNIVAC computer and its creators, J. P. Eckert and John Mauchly…...24
Unit 8. The History IBM Computers…………………………………………....28
Unit 9.FORTRAN, the first Successful HLL …………………………………...31
Unit 10. The History of the Integrated Circuit aka Microchip…………………..33
Unit 11. The first computer game……………………………………………….35
Unit 12. The History of the Computer Mouse and the Prototype for Windows...37
Unit 13. ARPAnet - The First Internet…………………………………………..40
Unit 14. Intel 4004 - The World's First Single Chip Microprocessor…………...43
Unit 15. The Invention of the Floppy Disk Drive………………………..……...46
Unit 16. The first home computers - Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair and IBM 5100..48
Unit 17. The Apple I and Apple II Computers …………………………………52

Unit 18. WordStar - The First Word Processor…………………………………55

Unit 19. The History of the IBM PC…………………………………………….57
Unit 20. The Invention of the Apple Macintosh - Apple Computers…………...60

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 Introduction

"Who invented the computer?" is not a question with a simple answer. The
real answer is that many inventors contributed to the history of computers and
that a computer is a complex piece of machinery made up of many parts, each of
which can be considered a separate invention.

This series of articles written by Mary Bellis covers many of the major
milestones in computer history (but not all of them) with a concentration on the
history of personal home computers.

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 Unit 1

The First Freely Programmable Computer

I. Pre-reading task

Answer the following questions:

1. Do you know who invented the first calculating device that had all features
of modern computers?
2. When and what country of the world was that ?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) was a construction engineer for the Henschel

Aircraft Company in Berlin, Germany at the beginning of WWII. Konrad Zuse
earned the semiofficial title of "inventor of the modern computer" for his series of
automatic calculators, which he invented to help him with his lengthy
engineering calculations. Zuse has modestly dismissed the title while praising
many of the inventions of his contemporaries and successors as being equally if
not more important than his own.
One of the most difficult aspects of doing a large calculation with either a
slide rule or a mechanical adding machine is keeping track of all intermediate
results and using them, in their proper place, in later steps of the calculation.
Konrad Zuse wanted to overcome that difficulty. He realized that an automatic-
calculator device would require three basic elements: a control, a memory, and a
calculator for the arithmetic.
In 1936, Zuse made a mechanical calculator called the Z1, the first binary
computer. Zuse used it to explore several groundbreaking technologies in
calculator development: floating-point arithmetic, high-capacity memory and
modules or relays operating on the yes/no principle. Zuse's ideas, not fully
implemented in the Z1, succeeded more with each Z prototype.
In 1939, Zuse completed the Z2, the first fully functioning electro-
mechanical computer.
Konrad Zuse completed the Z3 in 1941, with recycled materials donated by
fellow university staff and students. This was the world's first electronic, fully
programmable digital computer based on a binary floating-point number and
switching system. Zuse used old movie film to store his programs and data for the
Z3, instead of using paper tape or punched cards. Paper was in short supply in
Germany during the war.

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 According to "The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse" (by Horst Zuse)
In 1941, the Z3 contained almost all of the features of a modern computer as
defined by John von Neumann and his colleagues in 1946. The only exception
was the ability to store the program in the memory together with the data. Konrad
Zuse did not implement this feature in the Z3, because his 64-word memory was
too small to support this mode of operation. Due to the fact that he wanted to
calculate thousands of instructions in a meaningful order, he only used the
memory to store values or numbers.
The block structure of the Z3 is very similar to a modern computer. The Z3
consisted of separate units, such as a punch tape reader, control unit, floating-
point arithmetic unit, and input/output devices.
Konrad Zuse wrote the first algorithmic programming language called
'Plankalkül' in 1946, which he used to program his computers. He wrote the
world's first chess-playing program using Plankalkül. The Plankalkül language
included arrays and records and used a style of assignment (storing the value of
an expression in a variable) in which the new value appears in the right column.
An array is a collection of identically typed data items distinguished by their
indices (or "subscripts"), for example written something like A[i,j,k], where A is
the array name and i, j and k are the indices. Arrays are best when accessed in an
unpredictable order. This is in contrast to lists, which are best when accessed
sequentially.
Zuse was unable to convince the Nazi government to support his work for a
computer based on electronic valves. The Germans thought they were close to
winning the War and felt no need to support further research.
The Z1 through Z3 models were destroyed during the war along with Zuse
Apparatebau, the first computer company that Zuse formed in 1940. Zuse left for
Zurich to finish his work on the Z4, smuggling the Z4 from Germany in a
military truck, which he hid in stables on route to Zurich, Switzerland. He
completed and installed the Z4 in the Applied Mathematics Division of Zurich's
Federal Polytechnical Institute, in use there until 1955. The Z4 had a mechanical
memory with a capacity of 1,024 words and several card readers. Zuse no longer
had to use movie film to store programs; he could now use punched cards. The
Z4 had punches and various facilities to enable flexible programming including
address translation and conditional branching. In 1949, he moved back to
Germany to form a second company called Zuse KG for the construction and
marketing of his designs. Zuse later rebuilt models of the Z3 in 1960 and the Z1
in 1984.

III. Translate from English into Russian:

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 1) lengthy engineering calculations; 2) an automatic-calculator device; 3)
binary computer; 4) floating-point arithmetic; 5) high-capacity memory; 6) to
operate on the yes/no principle; 7) programmable digital computer; 8) binary
floating-point number; 9) punched cards; 10) to store values or numbers; 11)
punch tape reader; 12) control unit; 13) floating-point arithmetic unit; 14)
input/output devices; 15) algorithmic programming language; 16) arrays; 17)
conditional branching.

IV. Complete the sentences with missing words and phrases according to the
text. Translate the sentences.

1. Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of … … … … … .

2. One of the most difficult aspects of doing a large calculation is … … of all
intermediate results and using them, in their proper place, in later steps of
the ….
3. In 1936, Zuse made a mechanical calculator called the Z1, the first …
computer.
4. Zuse's ideas, not fully … in the Z1, succeeded more with each Z
prototype.
5. Konrad Zuse completed the Z3 in 1941, with … … donated by fellow
university staff and students.
6. This was the world's first electronic, fully programmable … computer
based on a binary … ... number and switching system.
7. Zuse used old movie film to … his programs and data for the Z3, instead of
using paper tape or … .
8. Konrad Zuse did not implement this feature in the Z3, because his … … …
was too small to support this mode of operation.
9. The Z3 consisted of separate units, such as a punch tape reader, … ,
floating-point arithmetic unit, and … / … devices.
10.Konrad Zuse wrote the first algorithmic … … called 'Plankalkül' in 1946.
11.The Z4 had a mechanical memory with a … of 1,024 words and several
card readers.
12.The Z4 had punches and various facilities to enable … … including
address translation and conditional branching.

V. Translate from Russian into English:

1. Конрад Зьюз изобрел свой компьютер для того, чтобы облегчить

сложные инженерные расчеты, необходимые ему для работы.

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 2. В 1936 г. он создал первый механический калькулятор, Z1, который
явился первым бинарным компьютером.
3. Z3 был первым в мире электронным программируемым цифровым
компьютером.
4. Z3, созданный в 1943 г., содержал в себе все черты современных
компьютеров, сформулированные проф. фон Нейманом в 1946 г.
5. Z3 имел блочную структуру и состоял из таких модулей, как блок
управления, устройство считывания с перфокарт, блок вычислений
для чисел с плавающей запятой, устройства ввода-вывода и т.д.
6. Первый язык программирования, называемый 'Plankalkül', был создан
в 1946г.
7. К.Зьюз нелегально вывез Z4 из Германии в военном грузовике, чтобы
продолжить свою работу в Швейцарии.
8. Z4 имел механическую память емкостью в 1,024 слов.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. What do you know about Konrad Zuse? What is he famous for?

2. What kind of difficulty did he want to overcome?
3. When was the first binary computer invented? In what way was it used by
K.Zuse?
4. What kind of machine was Z2?
5. Why were recycled materials used for the creation of Z3?
6. Why was not Z3 able to store the program in the memory together with the
data?
7. Which units did Z3 consist of?
8. What kind of program sis K.Zuse write using his programming language
called 'Plankalkül'?
9. Why didn’t the Nazi government support Zuse’s work?
10.Where did Zuse have to complete his Z4 computer?
11.What kind of memory did Z4 have?
12.What were the names of Zuse’s computer companies?

VII. Make up a plan to the text and render the text according to the plan.

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 Unit 2

The Atanasoff-Berry Computer – the First Electronic Computer

I. Pre-reading task.
Before you study the text read John Atanasoff’s words to reporters and try
to guess the message of his words: "I have always taken the position that there is
enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic
computer".

II. Read the text, then tell if you were right about the meaning of the quote
given in the pre-reading task.

Professor John Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry built the
world's first electronic-digital computer at Iowa State University between 1939
and 1942. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer represented several innovations in
computing, including a binary system of arithmetic, parallel processing,
regenerative memory, and a separation of memory and computing functions.
Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to patent a digital computing
device, the ENIAC computer. A patent infringement case (Sperry Rand Vs.
Honeywell, 1973) voided the ENIAC patent as a derivative of John Atanasoff's
invention. Atanasoff was quite generous in stating, "there is enough credit for
everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer." Eckert
and Mauchly received most of the credit for inventing the first electronic-digital
computer. Historians now say that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was the first.
"It was at an evening of scotch and 100 mph car rides," John Atanasoff told
reporters, "when the concept came, for an electronically operated machine, that
would use base-two (binary) numbers instead of the traditional base-10 numbers,
condensers for memory, and a regenerative process to preclude loss of memory
from electrical failure."
John Atanasoff wrote most of the concepts of the first modern computer on
the back of a cocktail napkin. He was very fond of fast cars and scotch.
Atanasoff-Berry Computer
In late 1939, John Atanasoff teamed up with Clifford Berry to build a
prototype. They created the first computing machine to use electricity, vacuum
tubes, binary numbers and capacitors. The capacitors were in a rotating drum that
held the electrical charge for the memory. The brilliant and inventive Berry, with

9
his background in electronics and mechanical construction skills, was the ideal
partner for Atanasoff. The prototype won the team a grant of $850 to build a full-
scale model. They spent the next two years further improving the Atanasoff-
Berry Computer. The final product was the size of a desk, weighed 700 pounds,
had over 300 vacuum tubes, and contained a mile of wire. It could calculate about
one operation every 15 seconds, today a computer can calculate 150 billion
operations in 15 seconds. Too large to go anywhere, it remained in the basement
of the physics department. The war effort prevented John Atanasoff from
finishing the patent process and doing any further work on the computer. When
they needed storage space in the physics building, they dismantled the Atanasoff-
Berry Computer.

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word phrases:

1) Electronic-digital computer; 2) binary system of arithmetic; 3) parallel

processing; 4) regenerative memory; 5) a patent infringement case; 6) receive
credit for; 7) void smth; 8) condenser; 9) preclude loss of memory; 10) electrical
failure; 11) vacuum tube; 12) capacitor; 13) rotating drum; 14) hold the electrical
charge for the memory; 15) full-scale model; 16) dismantle.

IV. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right:

vacuum tube a piece of equipment that reduces gases to their liquid or solid
form
capacitor to take a machine apart or to come apart into separate pieces
condenser To perform a mathematical process; figure
binary system a device which collects and stores electricity, and is an
important part of electronic equipment such as televisions and
radios
dismantle a number system which represents numeric values using two
symbols, usually 0 and 1
calculate a device used to amplify, switch, otherwise modify, or create an
electrical signal by controlling the movement of electrons in a
low-pressure space.

V. Answer the following questions:

1. Who was the first to build electronic-digital computer?

2. When and where did it happen?
3. What were the innovations of the first electronic-digital computer?

10
 4. How can you explain that Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first
to patent a digital computing device?
5. What is ENIAC?
6. How did John Atanasoff get the idea of the first modern computer?
7. How long did it take Atanasoff and Berry to build a full-scale model of
electronic-digital computer?
8. What were the characteristics of the Atanasoff-Berry computer?
9. Where was it stored?
10. How long did Atanasoff-Berry computer perform its functions?

VI. Basing on the text match the words with similar meaning:

To name, to complete, to calculate, to develop, to keep, to interpret, to

communicate, to fulfill, to apply, to translate, to improve, to build, to call, to
store, to communicate, to figure out, to perform, to use, to finish, to construct, to
connect; speed, aim, storage, information, machine, significance, computation,
data, device, rate, calculation, purpose, memory, importance.

VII. Get divided into two groups. The first group is to prove that the first
electronic-digital computer was invented by Atanasoff and Berry. The
second group is to give reasons that Eckert and Mauchly had the right to
patent their digital computing device. While preparing for discussion use
additional information.

Unit 3

The Harvard MARK I Computer

I. Pre-reading task.
Before you read the text answer the following questions:
1. How big were the first computers made after the World War II?
2. How many operations per second were they able to perform?
3. Have you ever heard of the names of Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper?
What are they famous for?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

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 Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper designed the MARK series of computers at
Harvard University. The MARK series of computers began with the Mark I in
1944. Imagine a giant roomful of noisy, clicking metal parts, 55 feet long and 8
feet high. The 5-ton device contained almost 760,000 separate pieces. Used by
the US Navy for gunnery and ballistic calculations, the Mark I was in operation
until 1959.
The computer, controlled by pre-punched paper tape, could carry out addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and reference to previous results. It had
special subroutines for logarithms and trigonometric functions and used 23
decimal place numbers. Data was stored and counted mechanically using 3000
decimal storage wheels, 1400 rotary dial switches, and 500 miles of wire. Its
electromagnetic relays classified the machine as a relay computer. All output was
displayed on an electric typewriter. By today's standards, the Mark I was slow,
requiring 3-5 seconds for a multiplication operation.

Howard Aiken
Born: 9 March 1900 in Hoboken, New Jersey, USA
Died: 14 March 1973 in St. Louis, Missouri, USA
• Howard Aiken was an electrical engineer and physicist who first conceived
of an electro-mechanical device like the Mark I in 1937. After completing his
doctorate at Harvard in 1939, Aiken stayed on to continue the computer's
development. IBM funded his research. Aiken headed a team of three engineers
including Grace Hopper.
• The Mark I reached completion in 1944.
• In 1947, Howard Aiken completed the Mark II, an electronic computer.
The same year he founded the Harvard Computation Laboratory.
• He later published numerous articles on electronics and switching theory
and started Aiken Industries.
• Howard Aiken loved computers, but even he had no idea of their eventual
widespread appeal. "Only six electronic digital computers would be required to
satisfy the computing needs of the entire United States," he said in 1947.

Grace Hopper
Born: 9 Dec 1906 in New York, USA
Died: 1 Jan 1992 in Arlington, Virginia, USA
• Grace Hopper studied at Vassar College and Yale and then joined the
Naval Reserve in 1943. In 1944, she started working with Aiken on the Harvard
Mark I computer.

12
 • Grace Hopper is responsible for the term 'bug' for a computer fault. The
original 'bug' was a moth, which caused a hardware fault in the Mark I. Hopper
was the first person to 'debug' a computer.
• In 1949, Grace Hopper started research for the Eckert-Mauchly Computer
Corporation where she designed an improved compiler and was part of the team
which developed Flow-Matic, the first English-language data processing
compiler.
• She invented the language APT and verified the language COBOL.
• Grace Hopper was the first computer science "Man of the Year" in 1969.

III. Close the text and tell whether the following sentences are true or false:

1. Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper designed the MARK series of computers
at Oxford University.
2. Mark I computer was 55 feet long and 8 feet high.
3. Mark I was used by the UK Navy for gunnery and ballistic calculations.
4. The computer was controlled by pre-punched paper tape.
5. Mark I could carry out all algebraic and logical operations.
6. It had special subroutines for word processing functions.
7. Mark I was classified as a relay computer.
8. By today's standards, the Mark I was extremely fast.
9. H.Aiken headed a team of thirteen engineers including Grace Hopper.
10.Grace Hopper received the National Medal of Technology in 1999.

IV. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. The MARK series of … began with the Mark I in 1944.

2. The 5-ton … contained almost 760,000 separate pieces.
3. Used by the US Navy for gunnery and … …, the Mark I was … … until
1959.
4. The computer could … … addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
and reference to previous results.
5. It had special … for logarithms and trigonometric functions.
6. Data was stored and counted mechanically using 3000 decimal … …, 1400
rotary … …, and 500 miles of … .
7. Its electromagnetic … classified the machine as a … computer.
8. All … was displayed on an electric … .
9. Mark I was slow, requiring 3-5 seconds for a … operation.
10.Aiken … a team of three engineers including Grace Hopper.
11.Grace Hopper is responsible for the term … for a computer fault.

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 12.Grace Hopper was part of the team which developed Flow-Matic, the first
English-language … … compiler.

V. Translate from English into Russian.

1) to be in operation; 2) to be controlled (by); 3) to carry out subtraction; 4)

subroutines; 5) decimal; 5) to display output; 6) electric typewriter; 7)
multiplication operation; 8) to complete one’s doctorate; 9) articles on electronics
and switching theory; 10) to 'debug' a computer; 11) started research; 12) data
processing compiler.

VI. Remember at least three things that are H.Aiken and G.Hopper are famous
for.

VII. Make presentation concerning Mark I computer and its creators, H.Aiken
and G.Hopper.

Unit 4

The ENIAC I Computer

I. Pre-reading task. Answer the following questions:

1. Do you know what is ENIAC?

2. What is the extension of this abbreviation?

II. Read the text using the dictionary if necessary.

In 1946, John Mauchly and J Presper Eckert developed the ENIAC I

(Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator). The U.S. military sponsored
their research; they needed a calculating device for writing artillery-firing tables
(the settings used for different weapons under varied conditions for target
accuracy). The Ballistics Research Laboratory, or BRL (the branch of the military
responsible for calculating the tables), heard about John Mauchly's research at the
University of Pennsylvania's Moore School of Electrical Engineering. John
Mauchly had previously created several calculating machines, some with small
electric motors inside. He had begun designing (1942) a better calculating
machine based on the work of John Atanasoff that would use vacuum tubes to
speed up calculations.

14
 On May 31, 1943, the military commission on the new computer began;
John Mauchly was the chief consultant and J Presper Eckert was the chief
engineer. Eckert was a graduate student studying at the Moore School when he
met John Mauchly in 1943. It took the team about one year to design the ENIAC
and 18 months and 500,000 tax dollars to build it. By that time, the war was over.
The ENIAC was still put to work by the military doing calculations for the design
of a hydrogen bomb, weather prediction, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,
random-number studies and wind-tunnel design.
The ENIAC contained 17,468 vacuum tubes, along with 70,000 resistors,
10,000 capacitors, 1,500 relays, 6,000 manual switches and 5 million soldered
joints. It covered 1800 square feet (167 square meters) of floor space, weighed 30
tons, consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power. There was even a rumor that
when turned on the ENIAC caused the city of Philadelphia to experience
brownouts, however, this was first reported incorrectly by the Philadelphia
Bulletin in 1946 and since then has become an urban myth.
In one second, the ENIAC (one thousand times faster than any other
calculating machine to date) could perform 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications
or 38 divisions. The use of vacuum tubes instead of switches and relays created
the increase in speed, but it was not a quick machine to re-program. Programming
changes would take the technicians weeks, and the machine always required long
hours of maintenance. As a side note, research on the ENIAC led to many
improvements in the vacuum tube.
In 1948, Dr. John Von Neumann made several modifications to the ENIAC.
The ENIAC had performed arithmetic and transfer operations concurrently,
which caused programming difficulties. Von Neumann suggested that switches
control code selection so pluggable cable connections could remain fixed. He
added a converter code to enable serial operation.
In 1946, J Presper Eckert and John Mauchly started the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation. In 1949, their company launched the BINAC (BINary
Automatic) computer that used magnetic tape to store data.
In 1950, the Remington Rand Corporation bought the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation and changed the name to the Univac Division of
Remington Rand. Their research resulted in the UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic
Computer), an important forerunner of today's computers.
In 1955, Remington Rand merged with the Sperry Corporation and formed
Sperry-Rand. Eckert remained with the company as an executive and continued
with the company as it later merged with the Burroughs Corporation to become
Unisys.
J Presper Eckert and John Mauchly both received the IEEE Computer
Society Pioneer Award in 1980.

15
 At 11:45 p.m., October 2, 1955, with the power finally shut off, the ENIAC
retired.

III. Read and decide which of the statements are true and which are false.
Change the sentences so they are true.

1. ENIAC weighed 3 tons.

2. A converter code was added to ENIAC to enable serial operation.
3. It took the team two years and 750,000 tax dollars to build it.
4. The use of switches and relays created the increase in speed of the
computer.
5. Research made by Univac Division of Remington Rand resulted in the
important forerunner of today's computers.

IV. Give Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

1) Advent; 2) elaborate calculations; 3) paramount; 4) cosmic-ray studies; 5)

thermal ignition; 6) random-number studies; 7) wind-tunnel design; 8) relay; 9)
manual switch; 10) soldered joints; 11) consume; 12) rumor; 13) maintenance;
14) concurrently; 15) pluggable cable connections; 16) enable; 17) forerunner;
18) merge.

V. Fill in the gaps using words from the table:

Enable, calculation, relay, research, magnetic tape, consume, merge,

paramount, condition, increase

1. They decided to … the two companies into one.

2. The … that you made contained a few inaccuracies.
3. His … resulted in some amazing discoveries.
4. Computerization should … us to cut production costs by half.
5. … is a device that reacts to a small change in an electrical current by
moving switches or other devices in an electrical circuit.
6. There are many priorities, but reducing the budget deficit is paramount/is
of … importance.
7. … is a long plastic strip coated with a magnetic substance, used to record
sound or video signals or to store information in computers.
8. There has been some … in business.
9. The house is not in good … .
10. Our high living standards cause our present population to … 25 percent of
the world's oil.

16
VI. Answer the following questions:

1. When was ENIAC developed? How long did it work?

2. Why did US military support this research?
3. What can you tell about J Presper Eckert’s and John Mauchly’s
backgrounds?
4. How was ENIAC used when the war was over?
5. What was ENIAC’s size and characteristics?
6. What kind of rumour existed about ENIAC?
7. What were advantages and disadvantage of ENIAC comparing to other
calculating machines to date?
8. Improvements in what sphere were made thanks to research on ENIAC?
9. What kind of modifications did Von Neumann make to Eckert and
Mauchly computer?
10.What are BINAC and UNIVAC?
11.Did ENIAC inventors get any awards?

VII. Comment on the following extract:

"...With the advent of everyday use of elaborate calculations, speed has become
paramount to such a high degree that there is no machine on the market today
capable of satisfying the full demand of modern computational methods." – from
the ENIAC patent (U.S.#3,120,606), filed on June 26, 1947.

Can these words be related to present-day computer market?

Why (not)?

VIII. Make a presentation about ENIAC computer using the active vocabulary
from the text.

Unit 5

The Williams Tube and the Manchester Baby

I. Pre-reading task.
Answer the following questions:
1. Do you know what is a cathode-ray tube?
2. In which way were these tubes used in computers in the 1940-s?

17
 3. What object had the nickname of Manchester Baby?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

By 1946, a winner in the data-storage game emerged that would dominate

the computer field for the next several years. Sir Frederick Williams and Tom
Kilburn co-invented the Williams-Kilburn Tube (or Williams Tube), a type of
altered cathode-ray tube. Scientists had conducted research on cathode-ray tubes
serving as computer data storage since the early 1940s.
The illustration to the right is an example of the video display terminal used
with the Manchester computer. The terminal mirrored what was happening within
the Williams Tube. A metal detector plate placed close to the surface of the tube,
detected changes in electrical discharges. Since the metal plate would obscure a
clear view of the tube, the technicians could monitor the tubes used a video
screen. Each dot on the screen represented a dot on the tube's surface; the dots on
the tube's surface worked as capacitors that were either charged and bright or
uncharged and dark. The information translated into binary code (0,1 or dark,
bright) became a way to program the computer.
The Williams Tube provided the first large amount of random access
memory (RAM), and it was a convenient method of data-storage. It did not
require rewiring each time the data was changed, and programming the computer
went much faster. It became the dominant form of computer memory until
outdated by core memory in 1955.

History of the Manchester Baby

In December 1946, Williams began to chair the Department of Electrical
Engineering at the University in Manchester, England, with Tom Kilburn moving
to Manchester as well. The men had both worked for the Telecommunications
Research Establishment (TRE) in Malvern, England, trying to improve the digital
storage ability of a cathode-ray tube.
Williams had already succeeded in storing one bit of information on a
cathode-ray tube and had filed a provisional patent in December of 1946. Tom
Kilburn soon devised an improved method of storing bits, increasing the storage
capacity to 2048 bits. Williams added Kilburn's name to the patent. The team was
ready to build a computer based on the Williams Tube.
In 1948, Tom Kilburn, assisted by another TRE researcher, Geoff Tootill,
worked on designing and building a prototype machine. Nicknamed "The Baby,"
the new computer demonstrated the ability of the Williams Tube. For the first
time in history, a computer used a stored program. Tom Kilburn wrote that
computer program, first executed on June 21, 1948.

18
 Manchester Baby's Specifications:
32-bit word length.
Serial binary arithmetic using 2 complement integers.
Single address format order code.
Random access main store of 32 words, extendable up to 8192 words.
Computing speed of around 1.2 milliseconds per instruction.
The team designed a second computer (Manchester Mark 1) and
commissioned an outside company called Ferranti Ltd. to build the computer in
1949. Ferranti Ltd. and the Manchester University team collaborated in 1951 and
built the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer called the
Ferranti Mark 1. The first machine off the production line was delivered to the
University of Manchester.

Manchester Mark 1 Specs - Ferranti Mark 1 Specs

Store organized in 40-bit Store organized in 20-bit

addressable "lines," holding one 40- addressable "lines," an instruction taking
bit number or two 20-bit instructions. one line and a number two consecutive
lines.
Serial 40-bit arithmetic with Serial 40-bit arithmetic, with
hardware add, subtract, and multiply hardware add, subtract, and multiply and
and logical instructions. logical instructions and simple B-line
arithmetic
2 modifier registers (B-lines, for 8 modifier registers (B-lines, for
modifying addresses in instructions.) modifying addresses in instructions.)
Single address format order Single address format order code -
code - about 30 function codes. about 50-function codes.
4 pages of random access main 8 pages of random access main
store. store.
128-page capacity drum backing 512-page capacity drum backing
store, 2 pages per track, about 30 store, 2 pages per track, about 30
milliseconds revolution time. milliseconds revolution time.
Standard instruction time - 1.8 Standard instruction time - 1.2
milliseconds, multiplication much milliseconds, multiplication 2.16
slower. milliseconds.

III. Translate from English into Russian:

19
1) cathode-ray tube; 2) computer data storage; 3) changes in electrical discharges;
4) to monitor the tubes; 5) to translate into binary code; 6) random access
memory (RAM); 7) core memory; 8) to improve the digital storage ability; 9) to
increase storage capacity; 10)to use 2 complement integers; 11) extendable up to
8192 words; 12) general-purpose computer; 13) modifier registers; 14) standard
instruction time.

IV. Find derivatives from the text for the following words:

1) to store; 2) to invent; 3) to detect; 4) to charge; 5) date; 6) success; 7) to

extend.

V. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. Sir Frederick Williams and Tom Kilburn … the Williams-Kilburn Tube,

a type of altered … … tube.
2. Scientists had conducted … on cathode-ray tubes serving as computer …
… since the early 1940s.
3. A metal … … placed close to the surface of the tube, detected … in
electrical discharges.
4. Each dot on the … represented a dot on the tube's … .
5. The dots on the tube's surface worked as … that were either charged and
bright or uncharged and dark.
6. The information translated into … … became a way to program the
computer.
7. The Williams Tube provided the first large amount of … … … .
8. It became the dominant form of computer memory until outdated by …
… in 1955.
9. The men had both worked for TRE in Malvern, England, trying to
improve the … … ability of a cathode-ray tube.
10. Tom Kilburn soon devised an …method of storing bits, increasing
the … … to 2048 bits.
11. For the first time in history, a computer used a … program.
12. Ferranti Ltd. and the Manchester University team built the world's
first commercially available … … computer called the Ferranti Mark 1.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. When was the Williams-Kilburn Tube invented?

20
 2. In what way could the technicians monitor the tubes?
3. Why was the Willams tube a convenient method of data-storage?
4. When was the Williams tube outdated by core memory?
5. What did Williams and Kilburn try to improve in 1946?
6. When was the Manchester Baby built?
7. What did the Manchester Baby demonstrate?
8. What was the nickname of the computer built in 1949?
9. What kind of computer was Ferranti Mark 1?
10.Where was the first machine off the production line delivered to?

VII. Render the text using the vocabulary from III.

Unit 6

The invention of semiconductor transistors

I. Pre-reading task:
Answer the following questions:
1. What is semiconductor transistor?
2. When and who invented semiconductor transistors?

II. Read the text and check your answers for task I.

The transistor is an influential invention that changed the course of history

for computers. The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes; the second
generation of computers used transistors; the third generation of computers used
integrated circuits; and the fourth generation of computers used microprocessors.
John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain, scientists at the Bell
Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, were researching the
behavior of crystals (germanium) as semi-conductors in an attempt to replace
vacuum tubes as mechanical relays in telecommunications. The vacuum tube,
used to amplify music and voice, made long-distance calling practical, but the
tubes consumed power, created heat and burned out rapidly, requiring high
maintenance.
The team's research was about to come to a fruitless end when a last attempt
to try a purer substance as a contact point lead to the invention of the "point-
contact" transistor amplifier. In 1956, the team received the Nobel Prize in
Physics for the invention of the transistor.
A transistor is a device composed of semi-conductor material that can both
conduct and insulate (e.g. germanium and silicon). Transistors switch and

21
modulate electronic current. Before transistors, digital circuits were composed of
vacuum tubes. [Read the ENIAC story to learn all about the disadvantages of
vacuum tubes in computers.] The transistor was the first device designed to act as
both a transmitter, converting sound waves into electronic waves, and resistor,
controlling electronic current. The name transistor comes from the 'trans' of
transmitter and 'sistor' of resistor.
John Bardeen and Walter Brattain took out a patent for their transistor.
William Shockley applied for a patent for the transistor effect and a transistor
amplifier. Transistors transformed the world of electronics and had a huge impact
on computer design. Transistors made of semiconductors replaced tubes in the
construction of computers. By replacing bulky and unreliable vacuum tubes with
transistors, computers could now perform the same functions, using less power
and space.
The first fully transistorized computer was either the Harwell CADET which first operated in
February 1955, although the price paid for this was that it only operated at the slow speed of
58 kHz,[citation needed] or the prototype IBM 604 transistor calculator, described in the next section.
The Burroughs Corporationclaimed the SM-65 Atlas ICBM / THOR ABLE guidance computer
(MOD 1) that it delivered to the US Air Force at the Cape Canaveral missile range in June 1957
was "the world's first operational transistorized computer".[citation needed]

In Japan the ETL Mark III began operation in July 1956; the Canadian DRTE Computer in
1957, while in Austria, the Mailüfterl was completed in May 1958,[5]being the first transistorized
computers in Asia and mainland Europe.

CHARACTERISTICS
1) Transistors were used in place of vacuum tubes.
2) Second generation computers were smaller in comparison with the first generation computers.
3) They were faster in comparison with the first generation computers.
4) They generated less heat and were less prone to failure.
5) They took comparatively less computational time.
6) Assembly language was used for programming.
7) Second generation computers has faster input/output devices.

IBM 7000, NCR 304, IBM 650, IBM 1401, ATLAS and Mark III are the examples of second generation computers.

III. Answer the following questions:

1. Explain the main principle of dividing computers to four generations.

2. What kind of research did scientists Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain
make at the Bell Telephone Laboratories?
3. For what purpose were vacuum tubes used in phone calling?
4. What were disadvantages of vacuum tubes?
5. For what invention did the team get the Nobel Prize in Physics?
6. What is transistor?
7. What is the function of transistor?

22
 8. Where does the name “transistor” originate from?
9. Did invention of transistor influence computer world? In what way?
10.Who got patent for transistor?

IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Semiconductor transistor; 2) influential invention; 3) integrated circuits;

4) amplify; 5) high maintenance; 6) contact point; 7) insulate; 8) modulate
electronic current; 9) have a huge impact on; 10) bulky.

V. Guess what words from the text are meant by these definitions:

1. a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic

signals.
2. a substance, usually a solid chemical element or compound, that can
conduct electricity under some conditions but not others, making it a
good medium for the control of electrical current.
3. the first type of solid-state electronic transistor ever constructed.
4. an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates
an electromagnetic signal such as radio, television, or other
telecommunications.
5. a part of an electrical circuit designed to produce a particular amount of
resistance to the flow of current.

VI. Choose one of the variants to complete the sentences:

1. Transistors have many … over vacuum tubes.

 patterns  advantages  scales
2. They … very little power.
 consume  generate  embrace
3. An integrated circuit is a group of elements connected together by some
circuit … technique.
 processing  assembly  manipulation
4. The transistor consists of a small piece of a … with three electrods.
 diode  conductor  semiconductor
5. Modern … began in the early 20th century with the invention of electronic
tubes.
 miniaturization  electronics  microelectronics
6. John Fleming was the … of the first two-electrode vacuum tube.
 generator  receiver  inventor

23
 7. One of the transistor advantages was lower power … in comparison with
vacuum tubes.
 consumption  reception  transmission
8. Microelectronics greatly extended man’s intellectual … .
 subsystems  capabilities  dimensions

VII. Translate the following sentences into English:

1. 16 декабря 1947 года ученым научно-исследовательского центра Bell

Labs удалось создать действующий образец одного из самых великих
изобретений двадцатого столетия – транзистора.
2. Транзистор – это полупроводниковый прибор для усиления,
генерирования и преобразования электрических колебаний.
3. В 1948 г. американские учёные Бардин и Браттейн создали
германиевый точечный триод (транзистор).
4. Аппаратура 40-х годов использовала для усиления, преобразования и
коммутации сигналов в абонентских цепях два основных элемента:
электронную лампу и электромеханическое реле.
5. Эти элементы были громоздки, срабатывали медленно, потребляли
много энергии и не отличались высокой надежностью.
6. Bell нуждались в названии устройства. Предлагались названия
«полупроводниковый триод» (semiconductor triode), «Solid Triode»,
«Surface States Triode», «кристаллический триод» (crystal triode) и
«Iotatron», но слово «транзистор» (transistor), предложенное Джоном
Пирсом (John R. Pierce), победило во внутреннем голосовании.

Unit 7
The UNIVAC Computer and its creators,
J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly

I. Pre-reading task.
1. Do you remember the names of Dr. Presper Eckert and Dr. John
Mauchly from Unit 2?
2. What was the name of the computer they created?
3. What problem did they have when they wanted to patent their invention?

24
II. Read the text and check your answers.

The Universal Automatic Computer or UNIVAC was a computer milestone

achieved by Dr. Presper Eckert and Dr. John Mauchly, the team that invented the
ENIAC computer.
J Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, after leaving the academic environment
of The Moore School of Engineering to start their own computer business, found
their first client was the United States Census Bureau. The Bureau needed a new
computer to deal with the exploding U.S. population (the beginning of the
famous baby boom). In April 1946, a $300,000 deposit was given to Eckert and
Mauchly for the research into a new computer called the UNIVAC.
UNIVAC Computer
The research for the project proceeded badly, and it was not until 1948 that
the actual design and contract was finalized. The Census Bureau's ceiling for the
project was $400,000. J Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were prepared to
absorb any overrun in costs in hopes of recouping from future service contracts,
but the economics of the situation brought the inventors to the edge of
bankruptcy.
In 1950, Eckert and Mauchly were bailed out of financial trouble by
Remington Rand Inc. (manufacturers of electric razors), and the "Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation" became the "Univac Division of Remington Rand."
Remington Rand's lawyers unsuccessfully tried to re-negotiate the government
contract for additional money. Under threat of legal action, however, Remington
Rand had no choice but to complete the UNIVAC at the original price.
On March 31, 1951, the Census Bureau accepted delivery of the first
UNIVAC computer. The final cost of constructing the first UNIVAC was close to
one million dollars. Forty-six UNIVAC computers were built for both
government and business uses. Remington Rand became the first American
manufacturers of a commercial computer system. Their first non-government
contract was for General Electric's Appliance Park facility in Louisville,
Kentucky, who used the UNIVAC computer for a payroll application.

UNIVAC SPECS.
The UNIVAC had an add time of 120 microseconds, multiply time of 1,800
microseconds and a divide time of 3,600 microseconds.
Input consisted of magnetic tape with a speed of 12,800 characters per
second with a read-in speed of 100 inches per second, records at 20 characters per
inch, records at 50 characters per inch, card to tape converter 240 cards per
minute, 80 column punched card input 120 characters per inch, and punched
paper tape to magnetic tape converter 200 characters a second.

25
 Output media/speed was magnetic tape/12,800 characters per second,
uniprinter/10-11 characters per second, high speed printer/600 lines per minute,
tape to card converter/120 cards per minute, Rad Lab buffer storage/Hg 3,500
microsecond, or 60 words per minute.
J Presper Eckert and John Mauchly's UNIVAC was a direct competitor with
IBM's computing equipment for the business market. The speed with which
UNIVAC's magnetic tape could input data was faster than IBM's punch card
technology, but it was not until the presidential election of 1952 that the public
accepted the UNIVAC's abilities.
In a publicity stunt, the UNIVAC computer was used to predict the results of
the Eisenhower-Stevenson presidential race. The computer had correctly
predicted that Eisenhower would win, but the news media decided to blackout the
computer's prediction and declared that the UNIVAC had been stumped. When
the truth was revealed, it was considered amazing that a computer could do what
political forecasters could not, and the UNIVAC quickly became a household
name. The original UNIVAC now sits in the Smithsonian Institution.

III. Translate the sentences from English into Russian paying attention to the
words in bold type:

1. It was not until 1948 that the actual design and contract was finalized.
2. Forty-six UNIVAC computers were built for both government and business
uses.
3. It was not until the presidential election of 1952 that the public accepted the
UNIVAC's abilities.

IV. Translate the word-combinations from English into Russian:

1) a computer milestone; 2) to deal (with) 3) research into a new computer; 4)

ceiling for the project; 5) bring to the edge of bankruptcy; 6) to use the computer
for a payroll application; 7) add / multiply / divide time; 8) magnetic tape; 9)
card to tape converter; 10) punched paper tape; 11) buffer storage ; 12) a direct
competitor; 13) to input data.

V. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. The UNIVAC computer was a … … achieved by Dr. Presper Eckert and

Dr. John Mauchly who had invented the ENIAC computer .
2. The Bureau needed a new computer to … … the exploding U.S.
population (the beginning of the famous baby boom).
3. The … for the project proceeded badly.

26
 4. In 1950, Eckert and Mauchly were … out of financial trouble by
Remington Rand Inc.
5. Remington Rand became the first American manufacturers of a
commercial … … .
6. The UNIVAC had an … time of 120 microseconds, … time of 1,800
microseconds and a … time of 3,600 microseconds.
7. Input consisted of magnetic tape with a speed of 12,800 … per second.
8. UNIVAC was a direct … with IBM's computing equipment for the
business market.
9. The UNIVAC computer was used to … the results of the Eisenhower-
Stevenson presidential race.
10.When the truth was revealed, it was considered amazing that a computer
could do what political …could not, and the UNIVAC quickly became a
… name.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do you think the creation of UNIVAC was called a computer

milestone?
2. Why did the United States Census Bureau need a new computer in 1946?
3. How many years did it take to construct the UNIVAC computer? What
was the final cost of the first machine?
4. How many UNIVAC computers were built for government and business
uses?
5. Which company was the first non-government contract made with?
6. What can you say about UNIVAC specifications?
7. Which company was direct competitor with UNIVAC?
8. When did the public accept the UNIVAC abilities?
9. What was the UNIVAC’s prediction for the Eisenhower-Stevenson
presidential race?
10.Where is the original UNIVAC kept nowadays?

VII. Make up a plan to the text and render the text according to the plan. Try to
use grammar patterns given in Exercise 1 and vocabulary from Exercise 2.

Unit 8

The History of IBM Computers

I. Pre-reading task:

27
 1. What do you know about IBM?
2. In groups of three or four write down as many IBM inventions as you
can. Compare your notes.

II. Read the text and see how many inventions you can add to the list you’ve
made in pre-reading task.

This text finally brings us to a famous name most of you will have heard of.
IBM stands for International Business Machines, the largest computer company
in the world today. IBM has been responsible for numerous inventions having to
do with computers.

IBM – Background
The company incorporated in 1911, starting as a major producer of punch
card tabulating machines.
During the 1930s, IBM built a series of calculators (the 600s) based on their
punch card processing equipment.
In 1944, IBM co-funded the Mark 1 computer together with Harvard
University, the Mark 1 was the first machine to compute long calculations
automatically.

The IBM 701 - General Purpose Computer

The year 1953 saw the development of IBM's 701 EDPM, which, according
to IBM, was the first commercially successful general-purpose computer. The
701's invention was due in part to the Korean War effort. Inventor, Thomas
Johnson Watson Junior wanted to contribute what he called a "defense
calculator" to aid in the United Nations' policing of Korea. One obstacle he had to
overcome was in convincing his father, Thomas Johnson Watson Senior (IBM's
CEO) that the new computer would not harm IBM's profitable punch card
processing business. The 701s were incompatible with IBM's punched card
processing equipment, a big moneymaker for IBM.
Only nineteen 701s were manufactured (the machine could be rented for
$15,000 per month). The first 701 went to IBM's world headquarters in New
York. Three went to atomic research laboratories. Eight went to aircraft
companies. Three went to other research facilities. Two went to government
agencies, including the first use of a computer by the United States Department
of Defense. Two went to the navy and the last machine went to the United States
Weather Bureau in early 1955.

Features of the 701

The 1953 built 701 had electrostatic storage tube memory, used magnetic
tape to store information, and had binary, fixed-point, single address hardware.

28
The speed of the 701 computers was limited by the speed of its memory; the
processing units in the machines were about 10 times faster than the core
memory. The 701 also led to the development of the programming language
FORTRAN.

The IBM 704

In 1956, a significant upgrade to the 701 appeared. The IBM 704 was
considered an early super-computer and the first machine to incorporate floating-
point hardware. The 704 used magnetic core memory that was faster and more
reliable than the magnetic drum storage found in the 701.

The IBM 7090

Also part of the 700 series, the IBM 7090 was the first commercial
transistorized computer. Built in 1960, the 7090 computer was the fastest
computer in the world. IBM dominated the mainframe and minicomputer market
for the next two decades with its 700 series.

The IBM 650

After releasing the 700 series, IBM built the 650 EDPM, a computer
compatible with its earlier 600 calculator series. The 650 used the same card
processing peripherals as the earlier calculators, starting the trend for loyal
customers to upgrade. The 650s were IBM's first mass-produced computers
(universities were offered a 60% discount).

The IBM PC
In 1981, IBM created its first personal home-use computer called the IBM
PC, another milestone in computer history.

III . Answer the following questions:

1. When did the company incorporate? What did it produce?

2. What was the series of calculators (the 600s) based on?
3. Who did IBM co-funded the Mark 1 together with?
4. What happened in IBM in 1953?
5. Why was 701's invention due in part to the Korean War effort?
6. What was the reason of IBM 701’s incompatibility with IBM's punched
card processing equipment?
7. How many 701s were manufactured? Where were they used?
8. What were the features of the 701?
9. Development of what programming language did the 701 lead to?
10.What is the difference between the 701 and the 704?

29
 11.What was innovative about the IBM 7090?
12.Why did the 650s become mass-produced computers?
13.When was IBM PC created?

IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Punch card tabulating machine; 2) incorporate; 3) general-purpose

computer; 4) overcome obstacles; 5) incompatible; 6) headquarter; 7)
electrostatic storage tube memory; 8) fixed-point hardware; 9) core memory; 10)
floating-point hardware; 11) magnetic drum storage; 12) mainframe; 13) mass-
produced.

V. Explain the meaning of the following words and use them in your own
sentences:

Stand for, responsible for, equipment, commercially successful, due to,

convince, harm, upgrade.

VI. Using the dictionary give derivatives to the following verbs from the text:
e.g. to calculate – calculating, calculator, calculation.

To compete, to invent, to know, to multiply, to divide, to consume, to

depend, to operate, to contribute, to solve, to use, to discover, to connect, to store,
to consume, to process.

VII. Do the following tasks on this text:

 Make up a plan of the text;

 Find the key words in each paragraph of the text;
 Summarize the text in brief.

Unit 9

FORTRAN, the First Successful HLL

(High Level Programming Language)

I. Pre-reading task
A. Answer the following questions:
1. What does the abbreviation FORTRAN stand for?
30
 2. Do you know who and when developed FORTRAN?
3. What is special about HLL (high level languages)?

B. Read and translate the following quote and give your comments on it.

"I really didn't know what the hell I wanted to do with my life...I said no, I
couldn't. I looked sloppy and disheveled. But she insisted and so I did. I took a
test and did OK." - John Backus on interviewing for IBM.

II. Read the text and check your answers for task A.

FORTRAN or formula translation, the first high level programming

language, was invented by John Backus for IBM, in 1954, and released
commercially, in 1957. It is still used today for programming scientific and
mathematical applications. Fortran began as a digital code interpreter for the IBM
701 and was originally named Speedcoding. John Backus wanted a programming
language closer to human language, which is the definition of a high level
language, other high language programs include Ada, Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C,
C++, LISP, Pascal, and Prolog.
The first generation of codes used to program a computer, was called
machine language or machine code, it is the only language a computer really
understands, a sequence of 0s and 1s that the computer's controls interprets as
instructions, electrically. The second generation of code was called assembly
language, assembly language turns the sequences of 0s and 1s into human words
like 'add'. Assembly language is always translated back into machine code by
programs called assemblers.
The third generation of code, was called high level language or HLL, which
has human sounding words and syntax (like words in a sentence). In order for the
computer to understand any HLL, a compiler translates the high level language
into either assembly language or machine code. All programming languages need
to be eventually translated into machine code for a computer to use the
instructions they contain.
John Backus headed the IBM team of researchers, at the Watson Scientific
Laboratory, that invented Fortran. On the IBM team were the notable names of
scientists like; Sheldon F. Best, Harlan Herrick (Harlan Herrick ran the first
successful fortran program), Peter Sheridan, Roy Nutt, Robert Nelson, Irving
Ziller, Richard Goldberg, Lois Haibt and David Sayre. The IBM team didn't
invent HLL or the idea of compiling programming language into machine code,
but Fortran was the first successful HLL and the Fortran I compiler holds the

31
record for translating code for over 20 years. The first computer to run the first
compiler was the IBM 704, which John Backus helped design.
Fortran is now over forty years old and remains the top language in
scientific and industrial programming, of course it has constantly been updated.
The invention of Fortran began a $24 million dollar computer software industry
and began the development of other high level programming languages, Fortran
has been used for programming video games, air traffic control systems, payroll
calculations, numerous scientific and military applications and parallel computer
research. John Backus won the 1993 National Academy of Engineering's Charles
Stark Draper Prize, the highest national prize awarded in engineering, for the
invention of Fortran.

III. Translate word-combinations from English into Russian:

1) high level programming language; 2) mathematical applications; 3)

digital code interpreter; 4) instructions; 5) assembly language; 6) the sequence of
0s and 1s; 7) to run the first compiler; 8) to update; 9) computer software
industry; 10) payroll calculations; 11) National Academy of Engineering.

IV. Close the text and choose one of the words in brackets to complete the
sentences:

1. FORTRAN is still used today for programming and mathematical

(needs/applications/purposes).
2. FORTRAN began as a digital code (translator/ interpreter/compiler) for the
IBM 701.
3. John Backus wanted a programming language closer to
(computer/artificial/human) language.
4. The machine code is a sequence of 0s and 1s that the computer's controls
(stores /interprets /outputs) as instructions.
5. The third generation of code, was called (medium / low /high) level
language.
6. John Backus headed the IBM team of (constructors/
translators/researchers).
7. Fortran is now over (forty/fifty/sixty) years old and remains the top
language in scientific and industrial programming.

32
 8. The invention of Fortran began a $24 million dollar (computer
manufacturing /computer software / computer design ) industry.
9. John Backus won the 1993 National Academy of Engineering's prize
awarded in (science/technique/ engineering), for the invention of Fortran.

V. Answer the following questions:

1. What does FORTRAN stand for?

2. Who was the FORTRAN’s inventor?
3. How did it start and what was its original name?
4. What was John Backus ‘s objective when he was creating FORTRAN?
5. What other HLLs, apart from FORTRAN, do you know?
6. What do we mean by the first generation of codes?
7. How was the second generation of codes called?
8. What is special about the third generation of codes?
9. What was the name of the first computer to run the first compiler?
10. What purposes has FORTRAN been used for?

VI. Close the text and translate sentences from Russian into English:

1. Фортран, первый язык программирования высокого уровня, был

создан в 1954 г.
2. Дж.Бахус хотел создать язык программирования, близкий к
человеческому.
3. Любой язык программирования в конце концов должен быть
превращен в машинный код, чтобы компьютер мог выполнить
математические операции.
4. Единственный язык, который понимает компьютер, это
последовательность 0 и 1, которые блок управления интерпретирует
как команды.
5. Команда исследователей, создавшая Фортран, работала в Научной
лаборатории IBM.
6. Х.Херрику первому удалось успешно прогнать программу на
Фортране.
7. Хотя Фортрану уже 40 лет, он остается языком первостепенного
значения в программировании.
8. Изобретение Фортрана положило начало индустрии создания
компьютерного обеспечения и развитию других языков
программирования высокого уровня.

33
 9. За разработку Фортрана Дж.Бахус получил национальную премию
Научно-технической Академии 1993 г.
10.Фортран используется для написания компьютерных игр, систем
управления воздушным транспортом, подготовки платежных
ведомостей и многих других приложений.

VII. Summarize the main ideas of the text.

Unit 10

The History of the Integrated Circuit aka Microchip

I. Pre-reading task:
1. Do you know who Jack Kilby is?
2. Read J.Kilby’s words and say what you think about his words.
"What we didn't realize then was that the integrated circuit would reduce the
cost of electronic functions by a factor of a million to one, nothing had ever
done that for anything before" - Jack Kilby.

II. Read the text using the dictionary if necessary.

It seems that the integrated circuit was destined to be invented. Two separate
inventors, unaware of each other's activities, invented almost identical integrated
circuits or ICs at nearly the same time.
Jack Kilby, an engineer with a background in ceramic-based silk screen
circuit boards and transistor-based hearing aids, started working for Texas
Instruments in 1958. A year earlier, research engineer Robert Noyce had co-
founded the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. From 1958 to 1959, both
electrical engineers were working on an answer to the same dilemma: how to
make more of less.
In designing a complex electronic machine like a computer it was always
necessary to increase the number of components involved in order to make
technical advances. The monolithic (formed from a single crystal) integrated
circuit placed the previously separated transistors, resistors, capacitors and all the
connecting wiring onto a single crystal (or 'chip') made of semiconductor
material. Kilby used germanium and Noyce used silicon for the semiconductor
material.
In 1959 both parties applied for patents. Jack Kilby and Texas Instruments
received U.S. patent #3,138,743 for miniaturized electronic circuits. Robert
Noyce and the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation received U.S. patent

34
#2,981,877 for a silicon based integrated circuit. The two companies wisely
decided to cross license their technologies after several years of legal battles,
creating a global market now worth about $1 trillion a year.
In 1961 the first commercially available integrated circuits came from the
Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation. All computers then started to be made
using chips instead of the individual transistors and their accompanying parts.
Texas Instruments first used the chips in Air Force computers and the Minuteman
Missile in 1962. They later used the chips to produce the first electronic portable
calculators. The original IC had only one transistor, three resistors and one
capacitor and was the size of an adult's pinkie finger. Today an IC smaller than a
penny can hold 125 million transistors.
Jack Kilby holds patents on over sixty inventions and is also well known as
the inventor of the portable calculator (1967). In 1970 he was awarded the
National Medal of Science. Robert Noyce, with sixteen patents to his name,
founded Intel, the company responsible for the invention of the microprocessor,
in 1968. But for both men the invention of the integrated circuit stands
historically as one of the most important innovations of mankind. Almost all
modern products use chip technology.

III. Answer the following questions:

1. Who invented integrated circuits (ICs)?

2. Why was the integrated circuit needed?
3. What was used to perform functions of ICs in computer?
4. Explain the difference between Kilby’s and Noyce’s inventions?
5. When did the first commercially available integrated circuit appear?
6. What were the characteristics of original ICs?
7. Where were they used?
8. What is the size and features of modern IC?
9. What other J.Kilby’s inventions do you know?
10.What can you tell about Robert Noyce’s further career?

IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word phrases:

1) Integrated circuit; 2) to be destined; 3) ceramic-based silk screen; 4)

transistor-based hearing aids; 5) monolithic; 6) to be worth; 7) accompanying
parts; 8)portable.

V. Give synonyms to the following words:

35
 To reduce, separate, to be aware, background, dilemma, to increase, to
receive, mankind.

VI. Form nouns from these verbs, using the suffixes –er, -or, -tion, -sion, -
ment. Consult the dictionary and the text.

To control, to invent, to achieve, to produce, to resist, to decide, to

accomplish, to transmit, to manufacture, to prepare, to equip, to improve, to
consume, to move, to invest.

VI. Give a written translation of the text, paying attention to computer science
terminology.

Unit 11
The first computer game

I. Pre-reading task.
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Do you know who and when created the first computer game?
2. What was the name of this game?

B. Read and translate the following extract and give your comments on it.

If I hadn't done it, someone would've done something equally exciting if not
better in the next six months. I just happened to get there first." - Steve Russell
nickname "Slug".

II. Read the text and check your answers.

It was in 1962 when a young computer programmer from MIT, Steve

Russell fueled with inspiration from the writings of E. E. "Doc" Smith*, led the
team that created the first computer game. It took the team about 200 man-hours
to write the first version of Spacewar. Steve Russell wrote Spacewar on a PDP-1,
an early DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) interactive mini computer which
used a cathode-ray tube type display and keyboard input. The computer was a
donation to MIT from DEC, who hoped MIT's think tank would be able to do
something remarkable with their product. A computer game called Spacewar was
the last thing DEC expected who later provided the game as a diagnostic program
for their customers. Russell never profited from Spacewars.

36
 The PDP-1's operating system was the first to allow multiple users to share
the computer simultaneously. This was perfect for playing Spacewar, which was
a two-player game involving warring spaceships firing photon torpedoes. Each
player could maneuver a spaceship and score by firing missiles at his opponent
while avoiding the gravitational pull of the sun. Try playing a replica** of the
computer game for yourselves. It still holds today up as a great way to waste a
few hours. By the mid-sixties, when computer time was still very expensive,
Spacewar could be found on nearly every research computer in the country. Steve
Russell transferred to Stanford University, where he introduced computer game
programming and Spacewar to an engineering student called Nolan Bushnell.
Bushnell went on to write the first coin-operated computer arcade game and start
Atari Computers.
*An interesting sidenote is that "Doc" Smith, besides being a great science
fiction writer, held a Ph.D. in chemical engineering and was the researcher who
figured out how to get powdered sugar to stick to doughnuts.
**Spacewar! was conceived in 1961 by Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and
Wayne Wiitanen. It was first realized on the PDP-1 in 1962 by Steve Russell,
Peter Samson, Dan Edwards and Martin Graetz, together with Alan Kotok, Steve
Piner and Robert A. Saunders.

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Fueled with inspiration; 2) a cathode-ray tube type display; 3) keyboard

input; 4) donation from somebody to somebody; 5) think tank; 6) to profit from
smth.; 7) to share the computer simultaneously; 8) a two-player game; 9) to
maneuver a spaceship; 10) to score by firing missiles; 11) to avoid the
gravitational pull of the sun; 12) coin-operated computer arcade game.

IV. Translate the following words and form derivatives that can be found in
the text:
1) to program; 2) to inspire; 3) active; 4) key; 5) war; 6) engine; 7)
gravitation.

V. Tell whether the following sentences are true of false:

1. It was Doc Smith who led the team that created the first computer game.
2. It took the team about 200 man-hours to write the first version of
Spacewar.
3. PDP-1, an early DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) interactive mini
computer, used a LCD type display and keyboard input.

37
 4. DEC donated MIT PDP-1 because they hoped MIT's think tank would be
able to do something remarkable with their product.
5. Russel got enormous profit from Spacewars.
6. The PDP-1's operating system did not allow multiple users to share the
computer simultaneously.
7. Spacewar was a two-player game involving warring spaceships firing
photon torpedoes.
8. Each player could maneuver a spaceship and score by destroying their
opponent’s ship.
9. Spacewar was the most popular computer game in the country in the mid-
seventies.
10.Steve Russell worked as a lecturer at Stanford University.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. Whose writing inspired the inventor of the first computer game?

2. What was "Doc" Smith famous for?
3. How much time did it take to write the first version of Spacewar?
4. What kind of computer was PDP-1?
5. Why was it donated to MIT by the Digital Equipment Corporation?
6. Did they expect that they will receive a computer game from MIT?
7. What was special about the PDP-1's operating system?
8. Why was that perfect for playing Spacewar?
9. What fact makes it evident that Spacewar used to be extremely popular in
the mid-sixties?
10.What contribution did N. Bushnell make into computer games?

VII. Close the text and write 10 sentences on the history of the 1 st computer
game.

VIII. Prepare a presentation on some famous computer game.

Unit 12

The History of the Computer Mouse and the Prototype for

Windows - Douglas Engelbart

I. Answer the following questions before you study the text below:
1. Do you know why the computer mouse was named so?
2. How did the first computer mouse look like?

38
II. Read the text and check your answers.

"It would be wonderful if I can inspire others, who are struggling to realize
their dreams, to say 'if this country kid could do it, let me keep slogging away'." -
Douglas Engelbart.
Douglas Engelbart changed the way computers worked, from specialized
machinery that only a trained scientist could use, to a user-friendly tool that
almost anyone can use. He invented or contributed to several interactive, user-
friendly devices: the computer mouse, windows, computer video
teleconferencing, hypermedia, groupware, email, the Internet and more.
In 1964, the first prototype computer mouse was made to use with a
graphical user interface (GUI), 'windows'. Engelbart received a patent for the
wooden shell with two metal wheels (computer mouse U.S. Patent # 3,541,541)
in 1970, describing it in the patent application as an "X-Y position indicator for a
display system." "It was nicknamed the mouse because the tail came out the end,"
Engelbart revealed about his invention. His version of windows was not
considered patentable (no software patents were issued at that time), but Douglas
Engelbart has over 45 other patents to his name.
Throughout the '60s and '70s, while working at his own lab (Augmentation
Research Center, Stanford Research Institute), Engelbart dedicated himself to
creating a hypermedia groupware system called NLS (for oNLine System). Most
of his accomplishments, including the computer mouse and windows, were part
of NLS.
In 1968, a 90-minute, staged public demonstration of a networked computer
system was held at the Augmentation Research Center -- the first public
appearance of the mouse, windows, hypermedia with object linking and
addressing, and video teleconferencing.
Douglas Engelbart was awarded the 1997 Lemelson-MIT Prize of $500,000,
the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation. In 1998, he was
inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
Currently, Douglas Engelbart is the director of his company, Bootstrap
Institute in Fremont, California, which promotes the concept of Collective IQ.
Ironically, Bootstrap is housed rent free courtesy of the Logitech Corp., a famous
manufacturer of computer mice.

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Slog away; 2) specialized machinery; 3) user-friendly tool 4) contribute

to; 5) groupware; 6) graphical user interface; 7) application; 8) nickname; 9)
reveal; 10) dedicate to; 11) accomplishment; 12) induct into; 13) currently; 14)
courtesy.

39
IV. Use the words from the table to complete the sentences.

Interactive, device, video teleconferencing, hypermedia, indicator,

display, accomplishment, innovation, promote, contribute to.

1. According to Dabbagh and Kitsantas, WBPT can be classified into four

broad categories: content creation and delivery tools, collaborative and
communication tools, administrative tools, and …tools.
2. I could not rest without calling to ask, once more, whether I can in any
manner …his comfort, or your own.
3. He owns or shares more than a score of patents covering numerous
aspects of …technologies.
4. All you need to do to qualify for this valuable tax break is to …a
retirement-savings plan and earn less than a certain amount.
5. The session will provide them insight into the issues involved in
successful …multimedia systems development.
6. The latter had an ivory plate bearing "statoscope" and other words in
French, and a little …quivered and waggled.
7. Lynde says they've never had a female teacher in Avonlea before and she
thinks it is a dangerous … .
8. This singer is known for his … in vocal technique.
9. It was a very simple …, but perfectly effective, as I think any one will
find who employs it in like circumstances.
10.Companies and building owners alike have come to recognize the value
of … facilities.

V. Answer the following questions:

1. What inventions are connected with the name of Douglas Engelbart?

2. When was the first prototype compute mouse made?
3. How did it look like?
4. Why did this device get the name “mouse”?
5. Did Douglas Engelbart manage to patent his version of windows? Why
(not)?
6. What is NLS? How is Douglas Engelbart connected with it?
7. What happened in 1968, in Augmentation Research Center?
8. Was Engelbart awarded for his inventions? In what way?
9. What do you know about Engelbart’s present life?

VI. Translate the following text into English.

40
 Сейчас трудно представить работу на компьютере без мыши. Более
того, в некоторых приложениях и играх просто-напросто не предусмотрено
другого способа управления. Дуглас Энгельбарт, выдающийся ученый и
инженер, начал задумываться над тем, каким образом можно было сделать
компьютеры более дружественными по отношению к пользователям еще в
пятидесятые годы ХХ века. В итоге команда Энгельбарта отдала
предпочтение относительно простому с точки зрения конструкции
устройству под названием "анализатор положения X-Y для компьютерных
систем". Впоследствии "анализатор положения" из-за соединительного
провода, напоминавшего хвост, получил неофициальное название мышь. И
именно эта "кличка" прижилась за манипулятором, полностью изменившим
характер взаимодействия человека с машиной.

VII. Make a presentation about Douglas Engelbart and the role of his
inventions in computer world. Use all necessary information from
exercises given above and your own knowledge of the theme.

Unit 13

ARPAnet - The First Internet

I. Pre-reading task
Before you read the text answer the following questions:
1. Can you imagine life without the Internet nowadays?
2. Do you know when the first Internet appeared? In which country?
3. Can you guess what the word ARPA stands for?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

On a cold war kind of day, in swinging 1969, work began on the ARPAnet,
grandfather to the Internet. Designed as a computer version of the nuclear bomb
shelter, ARPAnet protected the flow of information between military installations
by creating a network of geographically separated computers that could exchange
information via a newly developed protocol (rule for how computers interact)
called NCP (Network Control Protocol).
One opposing view to ARPAnet's origins comes from Charles M. Herzfeld,
the former director of ARPA. He claimed that ARPAnet was not created as a
result of a military need, stating "it came out of our frustration that there were
only a limited number of large, powerful research computers in the country and

41
that many research investigators who should have access were geographically
separated from them." ARPA stands for the Advanced Research Projects Agency,
a branch of the military that developed top secret systems and weapons during the
Cold War.
The first data exchange over this new network occurred between computers
at UCLA and Stanford Research Institute. On their first attempt to log into
Stanford's computer by typing "log win", UCLA researchers crashed their
computer when they typed the letter 'g'.
Four computers were the first connected in the original ARPAnet. They
were located in the respective computer research labs of UCLA (Honeywell DDP
516 computer), Stanford Research Institute (SDS-940 computer), UC Santa
Barbara (IBM 360/75), and the University of Utah (DEC PDP-10). As the
network expanded, different models of computers were connected, creating
compatibility problems. The solution rested in a better set of protocols called
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) designed in 1982.
To send a message on the network, a computer breaks its data into IP
(Internet Protocol) packets, like individually addressed digital envelopes. TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol) makes sure the packets are delivered from client
to server and reassembled in the right order.
Under ARPAnet several major innovations occurred: email (or electronic
mail), the ability to send simple messages to another person across the network
(1971); telnet, a remote connection service for controlling a computer (1972); and
file transfer protocol (FTP), which allows information to be sent from one
computer to another in bulk (1973).
As non-military uses for the network increased, more and more people had
access, and it was no longer safe for military purposes. As a result, MILnet, a
military only network, was started in 1983. Internet Protocol software was soon
being placed on every type of computer, and universities and research groups also
began using in-house networks known as Local Area Networks or LAN's. These
in-house networks then started using Internet Protocol software so one LAN
could connect with other LAN's.
In 1986, one LAN branched out to form a new competing network, called
NSFnet (National Science Foundation Network). NSFnet first linked together the
five national supercomputer centers, then every major university, and it started to
replace the slower ARPAnet (which was finally shutdown in 1990). NSFnet
formed the backbone of what we call the Internet today.
"The Internet's pace of adoption eclipses all other technologies that preceded
it. Radio was in existence 38 years before 50 million people tuned in; TV took 13
years to reach that benchmark. Sixteen years after the first PC kit came out, 50
million people were using one. Once it was opened to the general public, the

42
Internet crossed that line in four years." - quote from the U.S. Department report
"The Emerging Digital Economy".

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) The flow of information; 2) to create a network of geographically

separated computers; 3) a newly developed protocol; 4) a result of a military
need; 5) powerful research computers; 6) top secret systems and weapons; 7) to
log into a computer; 8) compatibility problems; 9) solution; 10) individually
addressed digital envelopes; 11) to make sure; 12) in bulk; 13) in-house
networks; 14) a new competing network; 15) to form the backbone; 16) to reach a
benchmark.

IV. Form nouns from the following verbs:

1) to state; 2) to amend; 3) to install; 4) to frustrate; 5) to investigate; 6) to

connect; to replace.

V. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. "The Internet may … be regarded as a never-ending worldwide

conversation."
2. ARPAnet protected the flow of information between military …by creating
a network of geographically …computers.
3. One … view to ARPAnet's origins comes from Charles M. Herzfeld, the
former director of ARPA.
4. The first … … over this new network occurred between computers at
UCLA and Stanford Research Institute.
5. As the network expanded, different models of computers were connected,
creating … problems.
6. TCP makes …the packets are delivered from client to server and … in the
right order.
7. As a result, MILnet, a military only …, was started in 1983.
8. Universities and research groups also began using … networks known as
Local Area Networks or LAN's.
9. NSFnet formed the … of what we call the Internet today.
10.The Internet's pace of …eclipses all other technologies that preceded it.

VI. Close the text and answer the following questions:

1. What does ARPA stand for?

43
 2. When did work begin on the ARPAnet?
3. What was the ARPAnet designed for?
4. How does Charles M. Herzfeld, the former director of ARPA, comments
the origin of the ARPAnet ?
5. Was the first data exchange over this new network successful?
6. How many computers were connected in the original ARPAnet?
7. What was the solution of the compatibility problem?
8. Which several innovations occurred under ARPAnet?
9. Why was MILnet started in 1983?
10.When was NSFnet formed?
11.What kind of line did the Internet cross in 4 years?

VII. Do the following tasks on this text:

▪ Make up a plan of the text;
▪ Find the key words in each paragraph of the text;
▪ Summarise the text in brief.

Unit 14

Intel 4004 - The World's First Single Chip Microprocessor

I. Answer the following questions before you study the text below:
1. Do you know why the name Intel was chosen?
2. Why computer inventions, e.g. Intel 4004, include numbers in their
names?

II. Read the text using the dictionary if necessary.

In November, 1971, a company called Intel publicly introduced the world's

first single chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004 (U.S. Patent #3,821,715),
invented by Intel engineers Federico Faggin, Ted Hoff, and Stan Mazor. After the
invention of integrated circuits revolutionized computer design, the only place to
go was down – in size that is. The Intel 4004 chip took the integrated circuit
down one step further by placing all the parts that made a computer think (i.e.
central processing unit, memory, input and output controls) on one small chip.
Programming intelligence into inanimate objects had now become possible.
(1) In 1968, Bob Noyce and Gordon Moore were two unhappy engineers
working for the Fairchild Semiconductor Company who decided to quit and
create their own company at a time when many Fairchild employees were leaving
to create start-ups. People like Noyce and Moore were nicknamed the
"Fairchildren".

44
 Bob Noyce typed himself a one page idea of what he wanted to do with his
new company, and that was enough to convince San Francisco venture capitalist
Art Rock to back Noyce's and Moore's new venture. Rock raised $2.5 million
dollars in less than 2 days.
(2) The name "Moore Noyce" was already trademarked by a hotel chain, so
the two founders decided upon the name "Intel" for their new company, a
shortened version of "Integrated Electronics".
Intel's first money making product was the 3101 Schottky bipolar 64-bit
static random access memory (SRAM) chip.
(3) In late 1969, a potential client from Japan called Busicom, asked to have
twelve custom chips designed. Separate chips for keyboard scanning, display
control, printer control and other functions for a Busicom-manufactured
calculator.
Intel did not have the manpower for the job but they did have the
brainpower to come up with a solution. Intel engineer, Ted Hoff decided that
Intel could build one chip to do the work of twelve. Intel and Busicom agreed and
funded the new programmable, general-purpose logic chip.
Federico Faggin headed the design team along with Ted Hoff and Stan
Mazor, who wrote the software for the new chip. Nine months later, a revolution
was born. At 1/8th inch wide by 1/6th inch long and consisting of 2,300 MOS
(metal oxide semiconductor) transistors, the baby chip had as much power as the
ENIAC, which had filled 3,000 cubic feet with 18,000 vacuum tubes.
Cleverly, Intel decided to buy back the design and marketing rights to the
4004 from Busicom for $60,000. The next year Busicom went bankrupt, they
never produced a product using the 4004. Intel followed a clever marketing plan
to encourage the development of applications for the 4004 chip, leading to its
widespread use within months.
(4) The 4004 was the world's first universal microprocessor. In the late
1960s, many scientists had discussed the possibility of a computer on a chip, but
nearly everyone felt that integrated circuit technology was not yet ready to
support such a chip. Intel's Ted Hoff felt differently; he was the first person to
recognize that the new silicon-gated MOS technology might make a single-chip
CPU (central processing unit) possible.
Hoff and the Intel team developed such an architecture with just over 2,300
transistors in an area of only 3 by 4 millimetres. With its 4-bit CPU, command
register, decoder, decoding control, control monitoring of machine commands
and interim register, the 4004 was one heck of a little invention. Today's 64-bit
microprocessors are still based on similar designs, and the microprocessor is still
the most complex mass-produced product ever with more than 5.5 million
transistors performing hundreds of millions of calculations each second –
numbers that are sure to be outdated fast.

45
III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Single chip microprocessor; 2) central processing unit (CPU); 3) input

and output controls; 4) inanimate objects; 5) to create start-ups; 6) to trademark;
7) 64-bit static random-access memory; 8) general-purpose logic chip 9) silicon-
gated metal oxide semiconductor (MOS); 10) command register; 11) interim
register.

IV. Give antonyms to the following words:

Quit, employee, raise, outdated, mass-produced, encourage, potential, go

bankrupt.

V. Give synonyms to the following words:

Widespread, to convince, solution, to back, similar, complex, to perform, to

head.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. When was the first single-chip microprocessor introduced? Who

invented it?
2. What were innovations of Intel 4004 chip?
3. Who were “Fairchildren”? Why were they called so?
4. How did Noyce and Moore manage to get money for their new venture?
5. Why was the new company called Intel?
6. What was Intel’s first money making project?
7. How did engineers get the idea of Intel 4004?
8. What were the features of the new chip?
9. Can you explain how Intel got back its rights to the 4004 from Busicom?
10.How did the company gain from it?

V. For each part (1)-(4) choose a title A-D which best fits its meaning.

A. The History of Intel

B. The Intel 4004 Microprocessor
C. One Chip Does the Work of Twelve
D. Intel Trademark.

VI. Give the contents of each part in 2-3 sentences.

46
 Unit 15

The Invention of the Floppy Disk Drive

I. Pre-reading task
Answer the following questions:
1. What kind of disk is called “floppy”?
2. How did the word “floppy” come into being?
3. When did the first floppies appear?
4. What devices are floppies being replaced now?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

The floppy disk was invented by IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart.
In 1971, IBM introduced the first "memory disk", as it was called then, or
the "floppy disk" as it is known today.
8-inch Floppy Disk
The first floppy was an 8-inch flexible plastic disk coated with magnetic
iron oxide; computer data was written to and read from the disk's surface.
The nickname "floppy" came from the disk's flexibility. The floppy disk was
considered a revolutionary device in the "History of Computers" for its
portability which provided a new and easy physical means of transporting data
from computer to computer.

Inventor Alan Shugart

The "floppy" was invented by IBM engineers led by Alan Shugart. The first
disks were designed for loading microcodes into the controller of the Merlin
(IBM 3330) disk pack file (a 100 MB storage device). So, in effect, the first
floppies were used to fill another type of data storage device. Overnight,
additional uses for the floppy were discovered, making it the hot new program
and file storage medium.

How Does a Floppy Work?

A floppy is a circle of magnetic material similar to other kinds of recording
tape such as cassette tape; one or two sides of the disk are used for recording. The
disk drive grabs the floppy by its center and spins it like a record inside its
housing. The read/write head, much like the head on a tape deck, contacts the
surface through an opening in the plastic shell, or envelope. The first Shugart

47
floppy held 100 KBs of data.First-hand account of how the operating system for
the 8-inch disk was written.
First-hand account of how the operating system for the 8-inch disk was
written.
5 1/4-inch Floppy Disk
In 1976, the 5 1/4" flexible disk drive and diskette was developed by Alan
Shugart for Wang Laboratories. Wang wanted a smaller floppy disk and drive to
use with their desktop computers. By 1978, more than 10 manufacturers were
producing 5 1/4" floppy drives that stored up to 1.2MB (megabytes) of data.
One interesting story about the 5 1/4-inch floppy disk is how the size was
decided. Engineers, Jim Adkisson and Don Massaro were discussing the size with
An Wang of Wang Laboratories. The trio just happened to be doing their
discussing at a bar. An Wang motioned to a drink napkin and stated "about that
size" which happened to be 5 1/4-inches wide.
3 1/2-inch Floppy Disk
In 1981, Sony introduced the first 3 1/2" floppy drives and diskettes. These
floppies were encased in hard plastic, however, the name stayed the same. They
stored 400kb of data, and later 720K (double-density) and 1.44MB (high-
density).

Post Floppy Disk

For the most part, recordable CDs and DVDs, and flash drives have replaced
floppies as the means of transporting files from one computer to another
computer.

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Recordable; 2) coated with magnetic iron oxide; 3) portability; 4) to be

designed for; 5) file storage medium; 6) to spins it like a record; 7) the read/write
head; 8) an opening in the plastic shell; 9) desktop computers; 10) to be encased
in hard plastic; 11) the means of transporting files.

IV. Translate the following words and from derivatives that can be found in the
text:

1) flexible; 2) revolution; 3) portable; 4) to add; 5) to record; 6) to

manufacturer; 7) case.

V. Tell whether the following sentences are true of false:

1. The floppy disk was invented by Apple engineers.

48
 2. The first floppy was an 8-inch flexible plastic disk.
3. The floppy disk was considered a revolutionary device for its flexibility.
4. When additional uses for the floppy were discovered, they became hot new
program and file storage medium.
5. A floppy is a square of magnetic material similar to other kinds of
recording tape.
6. Only one side of the floppy disk is used for recording.
7. The first Shugart floppy held 100 KBs of data.
8. The 5 1/4" flexible disk drive and diskette was developed by Alan Shugart
in 1986.
9. The size of the 5 1/4" flexible disk is linked with the size of a drink
napkin.
10.It was IMB who introduced the first 3 1/2" floppy drives and diskettes.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. Who was the inventor of the floppy disk?

2. When was the first disk introduced by IBM?
3. What does the nickname “floppy” come from?
4. Why was the floppy disk considered to be a revolutionary device in the
"History of Computers"?
5. For what purpose were the first floppy disks designed for?
6. How much information did the first Shugart floppy hold?
7. What interesting story is linked with the size of the 5 1/4-inch floppy disk?
8. What kind of floppy disk was introduced in 1981 by Sony?
9. How much data were they able to store?
10.What devices have floppies been replaced by nowadays?

VII. Make up a plan of the text and summarize the text in brief.

Unit 16

The first home computers

I. Pre-reading task.
1. When did the first home computers appear? Was it difficult to get them?
2. How did they look like?

II. Read the text and check your answers on pre-reading task.

49
 In the early 1970s, anyone wanting to use a computer had to wait in a long
line as computers were few and far apart. The desire and the market was
increasing for a computer that could be used at home or in the office, the
"personal computer". Several different manufacturers marketed "personal
computers" between 1974 and 1977 in response to that desire. These were mainly
kits (major assembly required) advertised in the back pages of magazines like
Popular Science.
In the March, 1974, issue of QST magazine there appeared the first
advertisement for a "personal computer." It was called the Scelbi (SCientific,
ELectronic and BIological) and designed by the Scelbi Computer Consulting
Company of Milford, Connecticut. Based on Intel's 8008 microprocessor, Scelbi
sold for $565 and came with 1K of programmable memory, with an additional
15K of memory available for $2760. The second "personal computer kit" was the
Mark-8 (also Intel 8008 based) designed by Jonathan Titus. The July issue of
Radio Electronics magazine published an article on building a Mark-8
microcomputer, information the general public was hungry for. At the same time,
the Intel company introduced the new 8080 microprocessor chip, made for
controlling traffic lights. It was to become the microprocessor inside the very
successful Altair computer.
An Albuquerque, New Mexico, company called MITS (Micro
Instrumentation Telemetry Systems) was in the calculator business until Texas
Instruments swept the market in 1972 with their low cost calculators. MITS
owner Ed Roberts, a former air force electronics specialist, then decided to try
designing a computer kit. He was aided by his friend Les Soloman, who
happened to be the technical editor for Popular Mechanics magazine and had
been flooded with letters from readers describing ideas for home computers.
Roberts worked together with hardware engineers William Yates and Jim Bybee
during '73 and '74 developing the MITS Altair 8800. The Altair was named by
Soloman's 12 year-old daughter after an episode from the original Star Trek
television series.
The Altair was the cover story for the January, 1975, issue of Popular
Electronics, which described the Altair as the "World's First Minicomputer Kit to
Rival Commercial Models". The orders for the Altair were huge in response to
the article. The computer kit was shipped with an 8080 CPU, a 256 Byte RAM
card, and the new Altair Bus design (S100 Bus - the connector had 100 pins) for
the price of $400. It was left to the consumer to put it together, make it work and
write any needed software. This was an uneasy task but the computer was
definitely expandable, cheap and available.
Two young programmers realized that a software program already written
for microcomputers could work on the Altair. Ed Roberts was soon contacted by
Harvard freshman Bill Gates (of Microsoft fame) and programmer Paul Allen.

50
Within six weeks, Gates and Allen compiled a version of BASIC to run on the
Altair. Allan was offered a position by Roberts as the Director of Software and
the only member of the software department. Gates, who was then still a student,
started working for MITS part-time after he left school.
BASIC required 4096 bytes of memory to run, sixteen times the amount of
memory the Altair then came with. MITS created a 4K (4096 byte) memory
board that allowed the Altair to run BASIC. The boards were poorly designed
and created problems, and a computer hobbyist named Bob Marsh designed a
better 4k board and started a company called Processor Technology to sell his
Altair compatible boards. Roberts tried to prevent losing his sales by the BASIC
software only with his boards. He succeeded in promoting the first wide-spread
case of software piracy. Hobbyists everywhere bought a Processor Technology
memory board and somehow found a free copy of BASIC.
Robert's tendency to ship some poorly designed products might have caused
MITS' downfall after a few short years, but no one can deny that it was the Altair
which really kick-started the home computer revolution. Gates and Allen went on
to start Microsoft, becoming the world's leading software developers. Ed Roberts
became a doctor and went on to practice medicine.
One more computer worthy of note during this period was the IBM 5100.
The 5100 was released in 1975 after two years of development. It was referred to
as "Project Mercury" by the IBM scientists. The 5100 was IBM's first portable
computer and considered an entry level system, but its $10,000 price tag put it
beyond the range of the hobbyists who bought the Altair. Sales of the 5100 went
to small business and educational institutions who bought the desktop sized
minicomputer which came with BASIC, 16KB of RAM, tape storage and a built-
in 5-inch screen.

III. Answer the questions:

1. When were first personal computers marketed?

2. What was the first “personal computer kit”? What were its features?
3. What was Mark-8?
4. Why did MITS stop working in calculator business?
5. Who was working with Ed Roberts to design a computer kit?
6. What name was given to the new personal computer? Why?
7. What were Altair’s characteristics?
8. What were advantages and disadvantages of Altair?
9. How was the problem with software for the new computer solved?
10.Was it MITS which provided the best memory boards for Altair?
11.What was the reason of the company’s downfall?
12.What is “Project Mercury”? Did it compete with Altair?

51
IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions:

1) Kit; 2) major; 3) assembly; 4) advertise; 5) sweep the market; 6) low-

cost calculator; 7) flood with; 8) expandable; 9) run; 10) require; 11) compatible
boards; 12) hobbyist; 13) software piracy; 14) downfall; 15) tape storage.

V. Use the words from the table to complete the sentences.

Personal computer, former, huge, rival, consumer, freshman,

prevent, be worthy of, built-in.

1. In those days the Standard Oil Company did not deliver oil to the … in big
wagons and motor trucks as it does now.
2. … is a computer built around a microprocessor for use by an individual, as
in an office or at home or school.
3. These devices are intended to be a convenience for accessing a private
home garage door with a … transmitting device in the vehicle.
4. At times Maggie told Pete long confidential tales of her … home life.
5. There was not an actor … the name in that play
6. He was an old man with a white beard and … nose and hands.
7. The surest way to … war is not to fear it.
8. I completed the first half of my … year.
9. It was a … she did not understand.

VI. Look through the previous units and tell expansions of the following
abbreviations:

PC, PU, CU, GUI, ALU, CPU, MPU, IBM, DOS, CRT, ROM, RAM, IC,
SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI, MP, CD, I/O, IOP, CMI, CAI.

VII. Comment on the following:

1. I think there’s a world market for about 5 computers.
(Thomas J. Watson, Chairman of the Board, IBM, circa 1948)
2. There is no reason for any individual to have a computer in his home.
(Ken Olson, President, Digital Equipment Corporation, 1977)

VII. Using additional sources compare Scelbi, Mark-8 Altair and IBM 5100
and speak about their advantages and disadvantages.

52
 Unit 17

The First Hobby and Home Computers:

Apple I, Apple II, Commodore PET, and TRS-80

I. Pre-reading task.
A. Answer the following questions:
1. Have you heard anything of Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak?
2. What are they famous for?
3. When was the Apple I computer released?

B. Translate the following statement and give your comments on it:

"The first Apple was just a culmination of my whole life." - Steve Wozniak,
Co-Founder Apple Computers.

II. Read the text and check your answers.

Following the introduction of the Altair, a boom in personal computers

occurred, and luckily for the consumer, the next round of home computers were
considered useful and a joy to use.
In 1975, Steve Wozniak was working for Hewlett Packard (calculator
manufacturers) by day and playing computer hobbyist by night, tinkering with
the early computer kits like the Altair. "All the little computer kits that were
being touted to hobbyists in 1975 were square or rectangular boxes with non
understandable switches on them..." claimed Wozniak. Wozniak realized that the
prices of some computer parts (e.g. microprocessors and memory chips) had
gotten so low that he could buy them with maybe a month's salary. Wozniak
decided that, with some help from fellow hobbyist Steve Jobs, they could build
their own computer.
On April Fool's Day, 1976, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs released the
Apple I computer and started Apple Computers. The Apple I was the first single
circuit board computer. It came with a video interface, 8k of RAM and a
keyboard. The system incorporated some economical components, including the
6502 processor (only $25 dollars - designed by Rockwell and produced by MOS
Technologies) and dynamic RAM.

53
 The pair showed the prototype Apple I, mounted on plywood with all the
components visible, at a meeting of a local computer hobbyist group called "The
Homebrew Computer Club" (based in Palo Alto, California). A local computer
dealer (The Byte Shop) saw it and ordered 100 units, providing that Wozniak and
Jobs agreed to assemble the kits for the customers. About two hundred Apple Is
were built and sold over a ten month period, for the superstitious price of
$666.66.
In 1977, Apple Computers was incorporated and the Apple II computer
model was released. The first West Coast Computer Faire was held in San
Francisco the same year, and attendees saw the public debut of the Apple II
(available for $1298). The Apple II was also based on the 6502 processor, but it
had color graphics (a first for a personal computer), and used an audio cassette
drive for storage. Its original configuration came with 4 kb of RAM, but a year
later this was increased to 48 kb of RAM and the cassette drive was replaced by a
floppy disk drive.

The Commodore PET

The Commodore PET (Personal Electronic Transactor or maybe rumored to
be named after the "pet rock" fad) was designed by Chuck Peddle. It was first
presented at the January, 1977, Winter Consumer Electronics Show and later at
the West Coast Computer Faire. The Pet Computer also ran on the 6502 chip, but
it cost only $795, half the price of the Apple II. It included 4 kb of RAM,
monochrome graphics and an audio cassette drive for data storage. Included was
a version of BASIC in 14k of ROM. Microsoft developed its first 6502-based
BASIC for the PET and then sold the source code to Apple for AppleBASIC. The
keyboard, cassette drive and small monochrome display all fit within the same
self contained unit.
Note: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak at one point in time showed the Apple
I prototype to Commodore, who agreed to buy Apple. Steve Jobs then decided
not to sell to Commodore, who bought MOS Technology instead and then
designed the PET. The Commodore PET was seen at the time to be a chief rival
of the Apple.
In 1977, Radio Shack introduced its TRS-80 microcomputer, also
nicknamed the "Trash-80". It was based on the Zilog Z80 processor (an 8-bit
microprocessor whose instruction set is a superset of the Intel 8080) and came
with 4 kb of RAM and 4 kb of ROM with BASIC. An optional expansion box
enabled memory expansion, and audio cassettes were used for data storage,
similar to the PET and the first Apples. Over 10,000 TRS-80s were sold during
the first month of production. The later TRS-80 Model II came complete with a
disk drive for program and data storage. At that time, only Apple and Radio
Shack had machines with disk drives. With the introduction of the disk drive,

54
applications for the personal computer proliferated as distribution of software
became easier.
A last note on 1977: It was the year that the tradename "Microsoft" was
registered.

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) The next round of home computers; 2) computer kits; 3) non

understandable switches; 4) single circuit board computer; 5) providing that; 6) to
assemble the kits for the customers; 7) superstitious price; 8) original
configuration; 9) the source code; 10) monochrome display; 11) a chief rival; 12)
optional expansion box; 13) applications … proliferated.

IV. Form nouns (that can be found in the text) from the following verbs:

1) culminate; 2) introduce; 3) manufacture; 4) process; 5) attend; 6)

consume; 7) store; 8) apply; 9) distribute.

V. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. Luckily for the consumer, the next round of … … were considered useful
and a joy to use.
2. All the little computer kits were square or …boxes with non
understandable … on them.
3. The prices of some computer … (e.g. microprocessors and … …) had
gotten so low that Wozniak could buy them with maybe a month's salary.
4. On April Fool's Day, 1976, Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs … the Apple I
computer.
5. Apple I came with a video …, 8k of RAM and a … .
6. A local computer dealer (The Byte Shop) saw it and ordered 100 units, …
that Wozniak and Jobs agreed to …the kits for the customers.
7. The Apple II was also based on the 6502 …, but it had color graphics (a
first for a personal computer), and used an audio cassette …for storage.
8. The Pet Computer also …on the 6502 chip, but it cost only $795, half the
… of the Apple II.
9. The keyboard, cassette drive and small monochrome … of the Pet
Computer all fit within the same self … unit.
10.The Commodore PET was seen at the time to be a chief … of the Apple.
11."Trash-80" was based on the Zilog Z80 … and came with 4 kb of … and 4
kb of ROM with BASIC.

55
 12.With the introduction of the… …, applications for the personal computer
proliferated as distribution of … became easier.

VI. Answer the following questions:

1. What kind of hobby did S.Wozniak have in 1975?

2. What did he and his fellow hobbyist S.Jobs decide to build?
3. When did Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs release the Apple I computer?
4. What specifications did Apple I have?
5. How many Apple I-s were built and sold over a ten month period?
6. When was Apple Computers incorporated?
7. Where did the public debut of the Apple II take place?
8. What does PET stand for?
9. Who was the Pet Computer designed by and when was it presented?
10.What were the Pet Computer’s specifications?
11.What microcomputer model did Radio Shack introduce in 1977?
12.How many TRS-80s were sold during the first month of production?

VII. Make up a plan of the text and summarize the text in brief.

Unit 18

The First Word Processor

I. Pre-reading task.
Comment on the following words of Arthur C. Clarke on meeting Seymour
Rubenstein and Rob Barnaby, the inventors of Wordstar:
I am happy to greet the geniuses who made me a born-again writer, having
announced my retirement in 1978, I now have six books in the works and two
[probables], all through WordStar.

II. Read the text using the dictionary if necessary:

Released in 1979 by Micropro International, WordStar was the first

commercially successful word processing software program produced for
microcomputers and the best selling software program of the early eighties.
Word processing can be defined as the manipulation of computer generated
text data including creating, editing, storing, retrieving and printing a document.
The first computer word processors were line editors, software-writing aids
that allowed a programmer to make changes in a line of program code. Altair
programmer Michael Shrayer decided to write the manuals for computer
56
programs on the same computers the programs ran on. He wrote the somewhat
popular and the actual first PC word processing program, the Electric Pencil in
1976.
Other early word processor programs worth noting were: Apple Write I,
Samna III, Word, WordPerfect and Scripsit.
Seymour Rubenstein first started developing an early version of a word
processor for the IMSAI 8080 computer when he was director of marketing for
IMSAI. He left to start MicroPro International Inc. in 1978 with only $8,500 in
cash.
Software programmer Rob Barnaby was convinced to leave IMSAI and tag
along with Rubenstein to join MicroPro. Rob Barnaby wrote the 1979 version of
WordStar for CP/M. Jim Fox, Barnaby's assistant, ported (meaning re-wrote for a
different operating system) WordStar from the CP/M operating system* to
MS/PC DOS.
The 3.0 version of WordStar for DOS was released in 1982. Within three
years, WordStar was the most popular word processing software in the world.
However by the late 1980s, programs like WordPerfect knocked Wordstar out of
the word processing market after the poor performance of WordStar 2000.
"In the early days, the size of the market was more promise than reality...
WordStar was a tremendous learning experience. I didn't know all that much
about the world of big business. I thought I knew it" Quote from Seymour
Rubenstein the inventor of WordStar
*The CP/M operating system was developed by Gary Kildall, founder of
Digital Research, copywritten in 1976 and released in 1977. MS/PC DOS is the
famous operating system introduced by MicroSoft and Bill Gates in 1981.

III. Answer the following questions:

1. When was the first word processor released?

2. What is word processing?
3. What were the first computer word processors like?
4. What was Michael Shrayer’s contribution to development of word
processors?
5. Can you name other early word processor programs?
6. How did Barnaby and Rubenstein decide to work for MicroPro?
7. Why was it necessary to port WordStar from CP/M operating system to
MS/PC DOS?
8. Can you explain the reason of WordStar’s popularity in the 1980s?
9. What happened with WordStar by the late 1980s? Why?

IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions:

57
 1) Announce; 2) word processor; 3) computer generated text data; 4) to edit;
5) to retrieve; 6) to convince; 7) to tag along; 8) to port; 9) performance; 10)
promise; 11) tremendous.
Make up 3 sentences of your own with the words from this exercise.

V. Match the words on the left with their definitions on the right:

word to put or keep things in a special place for use in the future
processor
store the process of preparing language, images, or sound for
presentation through correction, condensation, organization, and
other modifications.
line editor a process for reproducing text and image.
retrieve a text editor computer program that is oriented around lines.
create a computer application used for the production (including
composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any
sort of printable material.
editing to cause to come into existence
printing to recover (stored information) from a computer system

VI. Tell your partner about early word processor programs using the questions
in exercise III as a plan of the text.

VII. Discuss the question in pairs: “How do you evaluate Barnaby’s and
Rubenstein’s contribution to the further development of word
processors?”.

Unit 19

The History of the IBM PC

I. Pre-reading task.
Answer the following questions:
1. What does IBM stand for?
2. What do you know about IBM PC?

II. Read the text and check your answers.

58
 In July of 1980, IBM representatives met for the first time with Microsoft's
Bill Gates to talk about writing an operating system for IBM's new hush-hush
"personal" computer. IBM had been observing the growing personal computer
market for some time. They had already made one dismal attempt to crack the
market with their IBM 5100.
IBM 5100 was a complete system, with a built-in monitor, keyboard, and
data storage. It was also very expensive – up to US$20,000. It was specifically
designed for professional and scientific problem-solvers, not business users or
hobbyists. When the PC was introduced in 1981, it was originally designated as
the IBM 5150, putting it in the "5100" series, though its architecture wasn't
directly descended from the IBM 5100.
At one point, IBM considered buying the fledgling game company Atari to
commandeer Atari's early line of personal computers. However, IBM decided to
stick with making their own personal computer line and developed a brand new
operating system to go with. The secret plans were referred to as "Project Chess".
The code name for the new computer was "Acorn". Twelve engineers directed by
Don Estridge assembled in Boca Raton, Florida, to design and build the "Acorn".
They developed the PC in about a year. To achieve this they first decided to
build the machine with "off-the-shelf" parts from a variety of different original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and countries. Previously IBM had always
developed their own components. Secondly for scheduling and cost reasons,
rather than developing unique IBM PC monitor and printer designs, project
management decided to utilize an existing "off-the-shelf" IBM monitor
developed earlier in IBM Japan as well as an existing Epson printer model. They
also decided on an open architecture, so that other manufacturers could produce
and sell peripheral components and compatible software without purchasing
licenses.
On August 12, 1981, IBM released their new computer, re-named the IBM
PC. The "PC" stood for "personal computer" making IBM responsible for
popularizing the term "PC".
Alongside "microcomputer" and "home computer", the term "personal
computer" was already in use before 1981. It was used as early as 1972 to
characterize Xerox PARC's Alto. However, because of the success of the IBM
Personal Computer, the term came to mean more specifically a microcomputer
compatible with IBM's PC products.
The first IBM PC ran on a 4.77 MHz Intel 8088 microprocessor. The PC
came equipped with 16 kilobytes of memory, expandable to 256k. The PC came
with one or two 160k floppy disk drives and an optional color monitor. The price
tag started at $1,565, which would be nearly $4,000 today. What really made the
IBM PC different from previous IBM computers was that it was the first one built
from off the shelf parts (called open architecture) and marketed by outside

59
distributors (Sears & Roebucks and Computerland). The Intel chip was chosen
because IBM had already obtained the rights to manufacture the Intel chips. IBM
had used the Intel 8086 for use in its Displaywriter Intelligent Typewriter in
exchange for giving Intel the rights to IBM's bubble memory technology.
Less than four months after IBM introduced the PC, Time Magazine named
the computer "man of the year".

III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and word combinations:

1) Hush-hush "personal" computer; 2) to crack the market; 3) scientific

problem-solvers: 4) to be (originally) designated; 5) to descend from; 6) to stick
with smth.; 7) to be referred to; 8) "off-the-shelf" parts; 9) compatible software;
10) expandable (to); 11) bubble memory technology.

IV. Find synonyms in the text to the following words and word combinations:

1) secret (adj); 2) schientific research makers; 3) to be called (as); 4) to be

supervised (by); 5) ready-made parts; 6) producers; 7) to make use of smth; 8) to
buy (a licence); 9) smth which can be expanded; 10) to get (the rights).

V. Fill in the gaps in the following sentences:

1. In July,1980 IBM representatives met Bill Gates to talk about writing an

… … for IBM's new hush-hush "personal" computer.
2. IBM 5100 was a complete system, with a … … monotor, keyboard, and
data storage.
3. IBM 5100 specifically …for professional and scientific problem-solvers,
not business …or hobbyists.
4. However, IBM decided to … … making their own personal computer
line.
5. The secret plans were … to as "Project Chess".
6. To develop the computer in a short time, they decided to build the
machine with "… … …" parts.
7. The "PC" stood for "personal computer" making IBM … for popularizing
the term "PC".
8. Because of the … of the IBM Personal Computer, the term PC came to
mean more specifically a … compatible with IBM’s PC products.
9. The PC came with one or two 160k …disk drives and an … color
monitor.
10.What really made the IBM PC different from …IBM computers was that it
was the first one built from off the … parts (called open architecture).

60
VI. Answer the following questions:

1. Why were plans of creating a new IBM computer kept in secret?

2. What was the code name for the new computer?
3. What can you say about IBM 5100?
4. Where did twelve engineers directed by Don Estridge get together to create
the new model?
5. How long did it take them to develop the IBM PC?
6. What kind of parts did they decide to build the machine and why?
7. What does “open architecture” mean?
8. When was the IBM PC released?
9. When was the term PC first used?
10.What were the IBM PC’s specifications?
11.What really made the IBM PC different from previous IBM computers?
12.Why was the Intel chip chosen?
13.What memorable event happened four months after IBM introduced the
PC?

VII. Render the text using the questions in previous exercise as a plan of the
text.

Unit 20

The Invention of the Apple Macintosh

I. Pre-reading task.
1. Who were the inventors of the Apple Computers? Why did they choose
such a name for the new computer?
2. What was special about marketing company of Apple Computers?

II. Read the text and check your answers on pre-reading task.

"Hello, I am Macintosh. Never trust a computer you cannot lift... I'm glad to
be out of that bag" - talking Macintosh Computer.
In December, 1983, Apple Computers ran its' famous "1984" Macintosh
television commercial, on a small unknown station solely to make the
commercial eligible for awards during 1984. The commercial cost 1.5 million and
only ran once in 1983, but news and talk shows everywhere replayed it, making
TV history. The next month, Apple Computer ran the same ad during the NFL
Super Bowl, and millions of viewers saw their first glimpse of the Macintosh
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computer. The commercial was directed by Ridley Scott, and the Orwellian scene
depicted the IBM world being destroyed by a new machine, the "Macintosh".
Could we expect anything less from a company that was now being run by
the former president of Pepsi-Cola. Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple Computers
had been trying to hire Pepsi's John Sculley since early 1983. In April of that year
he succeeded. But Steve and John discovered that they did not get along and one
of John Sculley's first actions as CEO of Apple was to boot Steve Jobs off the
Apple "Lisa" project, the "Lisa" was the first consumer computer with a graphical
user interface or GUI. Jobs then switched over to managing the Apple
"Macintosh" project begun by Jeff Raskin. Jobs was determined that the new
"Macintosh" was going to have a graphical user interface, like the "Lisa" but at a
considerably lower cost.
Note: The early Mac team members (1979) consisted of Jeff Raskin, Brian
Howard, Marc LeBrun, Burrell Smith. Joanna Hoffman and Bud Tribble. Others
began working working on the Mac at later dates.

Specifications Macintosh 128K

CPU: MC68000
CPU speed: 8 Mhz
FPU: None
RAM: 128k Dram not expandable
ROM: 64k
Serial Ports: 2
Floppy: 1 3.5" 400k
Monitor: 9" 512x384 square pixels built-in
B/W
Power: 60 Watts
Weight: 16.5 lbs.
Dimensions: 13.6" H x 9.6" W x 10.9" D
System Mac OS 1.0
Software:
Production: January 1984 to October 1985
Cost: $2,495

Seventy-four days after the introduction of the "Macintosh", 50,000 units

had been sold, not that strong a show. Apple refused to license the OS or the
hardware, the 128k memory was not enough and a single floppy was difficult to
use. The "Macintosh" had "Lisa's" user friendly GUI, but initially missed some of
the more powerful features of the "Lisa" like multitasking and the 1 MB of
memory. Jobs compensated by making sure developers created software for the

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new "Macintosh", Jobs figured that software was the way to win the consumer
over.
In 1985, the "Macintosh" computer line received a big sales boost with the
introduction of the LaserWriter printer and Aldus PageMaker, home desktop
publishing was now possible. But 1985 was also the year when the original
founders of Apple left the company.
Steve Wozniak returned to college and Steve Jobs was fired, his difficulties
with John Sculley coming to a head. Jobs had decided, to regain control of the
company away from Sculley, he scheduled a business meeting in China for
Sculley and planned for a corporate take-over, when Sculley would be absent.
Information about Jobs' true motives, reached Sculley before the China trip, he
confronted Jobs and asked Apple's Board of Directors to vote on the issue.
Cveryone voted for Sculley and Jobs quit, in lieu of being fired. Jobs later
rejoined Apple in 1996 and has happily worked there ever since. Sculley was
eventually replaced as CEO of Apple.

III. Answer the following questions:

1. How was advertising campaign for Macintosh computers launched?

2. What was the idea of television commercials for these computers? Was
the commercial effective?
3. Who were the founders of Apple Computers?
4. What was “Lisa” project?
5. Why did Jobs didn’t finish his work with “Lisa”?
6. Can you remember the names of early Mac team members?
7. What were the drawbacks of “Macintosh” in comparison with “Lisa”?
8. What changes took place in Apple company in 1985?
Why did Jobs leave the company?

IV. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and expressions:

1) Eligible; 2) glimpse; 3) CEO; 4) to boot off; 5) FPU; 6) dimensions; 7)

multitasking; 8) to receive a big sales boost; 9) home desktop publishing; 10)
corporate take-over; 11) to confront; 12) to vote on the issue; 13) to quit.

V. Guess what words from the text are meant by these definitions:

 To plan or appoint for a certain time or date.

 A paid advertisement on television or radio.
 Alone, singly; entirely; exclusively.
 To manage to do what one is trying to do; to achieve one's aim or purpose.
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  Firmly decided.
 Not present in a place or situation.
 To discharge from a position; dismiss.
 Instead of.

VI. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:

1. История компании Apple началась тридцать лет назад, когда два друга
Стив Джобс и Стив Возняк решили основать собственную компанию
по производству и выпуску компьютеров.
2. В мае 1979 года сотрудник Apple Джеф Раскин начал работать над
новым компьютером «все в одном», который был ориентирован на
рядового пользователя. Именно этот период и можно назвать началом
рождения первого Macintosh.
3. В 1983 году Apple выпустил Lisa – первый персональный компьютер
с графическим пользовательским интерфейсом, названный так в честь
дочери Джобса. Но из-за довольно высокой цены и ограниченного
набора приложений эта модель не получила широкого
распространения.
4. Самый первый свой Macintosh компания Apple официально
представила 22 января 1984 года рекламным роликом «1984»,
основанным на сюжете книги Д. Оруэлла.
5. Когда Mac OS была впервые представлена в 1984 году, то для того
времени она являла собой совершенство современного
программирования. Операционные системы для других платформ,
которые появились несколько лет спустя, предлагали такие вещи, как
защищенная память и многозадачность, что в конечном итоге давало
лучший пользовательский опыт.

VII. Comment on the following Steve Jobs’ quotes:

 "The desktop computer industry is dead. Innovation has virtually ceased.

Microsoft dominates with very little innovation. That's over. Apple lost.
The desktop market has entered the dark ages, and it's going to be in the
dark ages for the next 10 years, or certainly for the rest of this decade."
(Wired magazine, February 1996).
 "It wasn't that Microsoft was so brilliant or clever in copying the Mac, it's
that the Mac was a sitting duck for 10 years. That's Apple's problem:
Their differentiation evaporated." (Apple Confidential 2.0)
 "I didn't see it then, but it turned out that getting fired from Apple was the
best thing that could have ever happened to me. The heaviness of being
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 successful was replaced by the lightness of being a beginner again, less
sure about everything. It freed me to enter one of the most creative
periods of my life." (Stanford University commencement address, June
12, 2005).

VIII. Compare Apple Macintosh and Windows. Make a presentation about

their advantages and disadvantages.

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