10/11/2023

Digital (Discrete-Time) Control Systems

E1541 Introduction to Digital Control Systems
Lec.#02
Prof. Dr. Walaa Gabr
Associate Prof. Dr. Omar Salim
Department of Electrical Engineering
Benha Faculty of Engineering
Benha University

Oct. 2023

Course Syllabus:-
1. Introduction
2. Spectrum analysis of sampling process
3. Signal reconstruction
4. Difference equation
5. The z-transform
6. Impulse transfer function
7. Mapping between s-plan and z-plan
8. Transient and steady state response analysis
9. Design based on root-locus
10.Design based on frequency response
11.Analytical design
2 12.Controllability & observability tests

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Lecture Agenda:-
 Intro Recall “Overview on DCSs”
 Structure of DCS
 Digital Sampling and its types
 Quantization
 Intro. To Computer Control.
 References

Analog to Digital Signal Conversion “Recall”

 A digital signal is superior to an analog signal
because it is more robust to noise and can
easily be recovered, corrected and amplified. Continuous-time analog signal

For this reason, the tendency today is to

change an analog signal to digital data. Continuous-time quantized signal

Sampled data signal

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Digital signal

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Structure of a DCS

Block diagram of a digital control system

showing signals in binary or graphic form
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Digital Sampling ( Analog Signal Sampling)

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Sampling
 Analog signal is sampled every TS secs (Ts is the sampling interval).
 fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency.

 There are 3 sampling methods:

 Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
 Natural - a pulse of short width with varying amplitude
 Flattop - sample and hold, like natural but with single amplitude value

Sampling Types

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Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
Suppose the highest frequency component is fmax. According to the Nyquist Theorem,
the sampling rate must be at least 2fmax, or twice the highest analog frequency
component. If the sampling rate is less than 2fmax, some of the highest frequency
components in the analog input signal will not be correctly represented in the digitized
output. When such a digital signal is converted back to analog, false frequency
components appear that were not in the original analog signal. This undesirable
condition is a form of distortion called aliasing.
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Nyquist Theorem

For lossless digitization, the sampling rate should be at least twice the
maximum frequency response.

 In mathematical terms:
fs > 2fmax
 where fs is sampling frequency and fmax is the maximum frequency in
the signal

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Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

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Sampling of a clock with only one hand

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Analog-Digital Converter (ADC)

 An electronic integrated circuit which converts a signal from analog (continuous) to
digital (discrete) form
 Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital world of signal
processing and data handling

t t
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ADC Conversion Process

Two main steps of process
1. Sampling and Holding (for Conversion Circuits delay)
2. Quantization and Encoding ( for data Transmission if needed)
Analog-to-Digital Converter

Quantizing
and
Encoding

Sampling and Hold

t
Input: Analog Signal t
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ADC Process Sampling & Hold

 Measuring analog signals at uniform time
intervals
 Ideally twice as fast as what we are Continuous Signal
sampling

 Digital system works with discrete states

 Taking samples from each location
t
 Reflects sampled and hold signal
 Digital approximation

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Types of sample Timing:

Periodic Sampling
x x x x x
 In this case the sampling instants
are equally spaced,
or tk = kT (k=0, 1, 2, …) 0 5 10 15 20

x x xx
Multiple-Order Sampling
 In this case the sampling instants are not
equally spaced -1 0 9 10
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Quantizing and Quantization Error

 The process of representing a continuous or analog signal by a

finite number of discrete states is called amplitude quantization.

 Quantizing means transforming a continuous or analog signal into

a set of discrete states.

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Quantization
 Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values
ranging between two limits: a min and a max.
 The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits.
 We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known
values.
 This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max into L
zones, each of height 
 = (max - min)/L

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Quantization Level
 The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1
(resulting in L values)
 Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value
of the midpoint.

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Quantization Zones and Encoding

 Assume we have a voltage signal with amplitudes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
 We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
 Zone width  = [20 – (-20)]/8 = 5
 The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10,
+10 to +15, +15 to +20
 The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
 Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
 The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the number of bits per sample as it is
commonly referred to, is obtained as follows: nb = log2 L
 Given our example, nb = 3
 The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
 Assigning codes to zones:
 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.
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Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

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Quantizing

Leftmost bit of the natural binary code has the most weight (one half of
the FS) – called MSB
Rightmost bit has the least weight (1/2ⁿ times the full scale) and is called
the least significant bit (LSB). Thus,

FSR
LSB =
2n
The least significant bit is the quantization level Q

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Quantization Error.
 A/D conversion involves quantization error. Such quantization error varies between
0 and ±½Q. This error depends on the fineness of the quantization level and can be
made as small as desired by making the quantization level smaller (that is, by
increasing the number of bits n)

• Above show a block diagram of a quantizer together with its input-output

characteristics. In numerical analysis the error resulting from neglecting the
remaining digits is called the round-off error. Since the quantizing process is an
approximating process in that the analog quantity is approximated by a finite
digital number, the quantization error is a round-off error.
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Data Acquisition, Conversion, And Distribution Systems

With the rapid growth in the use of digital computers to perform digital control ,
both the data-acquisition system and the distribution system have become an
important part of the entire control system. The signal conversion that takes place in
the digital control system involves the following operations:

1. Multiplexing and de-multiplexing

2. Sample and hold.
3. Analog-to-digital conversion (quantizing and encoding).
4. Digital-to-analog conversion (decoding)

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Block diagram of a data-distribution system

Physical Low – Pass Analog A/D Sample To digital
Variable Transducer Amplifier Filter multiplexer Converter and Hold controller

(a)

- system
block diagram of a data acquisition

From D/A To
digital Register demultiplexer Converter Hold actuator
controller

(b)

A block diagram of a data-distribution system

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Computer Control
 The output from the process y(t) is a continuous-time signal. The output is
converted into digital form by A/D converter. The A/D converter can be
included in the computer or regarded as a separate unit, according to one's
preference. The conversion is done at the sampling times, tk. The computer
interprets the converted signal, {y(tk)}, as a sequence of numbers, processes
the measurements using an algorithm, and gives a new sequence of
numbers, {u(tk)}.

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References
TextBooks:
 Katsuhiko Ogata, ‘Discrete-Time Control Systems,’ 2nd edition, 1994.
st
 Digital control engineering, Analysis and design, M. Sam Fadali, 1 Edition 2009
 Automatic control systems, Kuo

Lecture Notes:
 Omar Salim, Ph.D. Lecture notes E 1541 (Mechatronics Since 2017)
 Professor Walaa Gabr, Ph.D. Lecture Notes 2015 and 2016.
 Omar Salim, Ph.D. Lecture notes for SYS674 Oakland University 2010.

Software Packages:
 MATLAB Simulink, for Mathworks.

Web Sites:
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(signal_processing)
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)
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