Digital Signal Processing

Chapter one
I II III
Introduction to Digital Discrete time signals Analysis of LTI system
Signal Processing and systems analysis
 Introduction to DSP
I Signal, Signal processing, Dsp,Why DSP,
Elements of Dsp……

1
 Introduction

Signal: Any physical quantity that carries or convey information

✓ Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of one more
independent variables such as time, space, etc.
E.g.. Voltages/Currents in a circuit, speech signals, image signals,
EEG, ECG, MRI, X-Rays, etc….
Signal processing: the analysis, manipulation, interpretation and
transformation of signals.
E.g.. Modulation and demodulation, Encryption and decryption, Data
compression, Filtering for noise reduction, Data analysis and
feature extraction
2
 Cont.…
Types of signal processing
1. Analog signal Processing
2. Digital signal Processing
Analog signal Processing (ASP): If the input signal given to
the system is analog then system does analog signal
processing.
E.g.. Resistor, capacitor or Inductor, OP-AMP etc.

Analog Analog Analog

input system output

3
 Cont.…
Digital signal processing (DSP): If the input signal given to the
system is digital then system does digital signal processing.
E.g.. Digital Computer, Digital Logic Circuits, FPGA etc.

Analog ADC Analog

DSP DAC
input output

The devices called as ADC (analog to digital Converter) converts

Analog signal into digital and DAC (Digital to Analog Converter)
does vice-versa.

4
Why DSP?

5
 Advantages of DSP over ASP

• Physical size of analog systems is quite large while

digital processors are more compact and light in
weight.
• Analog systems are less accurate because of
component tolerance ex R, L, C and active
components. Digital components are less sensitive
to the environmental changes, noise and
disturbances.
• Digital system is most flexible as software
programs & control programs can be easily
modified.
• Digital signal can be stored on digital hard disk,
floppy disk or magnetic tapes. Hence becomes
transportable. 6
 Cont.…
• Digital processing can be done offline.
• Mathematical signal processing algorithm can be
routinely implemented on digital signal processing
systems. Digital controllers are capable of performing
complex computation with constant accuracy at high
speed.
• Digital signal processing systems are upgradeable
since they are software controlled.
• The cost of microprocessors, controllers and DSP
processors are continuously going down.

7
Disadvantage of DSP over ASP

• Additional complexity (A/D, D/A Converters & associated

filters)
• Limit in frequency. High speed AD converters are difficult
to achieve in practice. In high frequency applications
DSP are not preferred.
• Quantization noise and round off errors

8
 Application of DSP

DSP can be applicable in variety of fields, including the following:

• Telecommunications (cellphone, fax ,modems, echo cancellations

,etc.)
• Consumer Electronics (flat screen TVs, MP3 players, video recorders,
DVD players, radio receivers, etc.)
• Image Processing (Compression , enhancement, animation , etc)
• Instrumentation and Control
• Military Applications (radar , intelligence, secure communications,
etc)
• Speech Processing (speech recognition, speech to text conversion,…)
• Aerospace and Automotive Electronics
• Medicine (medical diagnostic instrumentation)
9
 Element of DSP

Band limited Digital

Analog signal signal Analog
input output
Analog Reconst
ADC DSP DAC ruction
filter filter

✓ Analog filter: Limit the frequency range of analog

signals to significantly attenuate aliasing
✓ ADC: Converted the output of the analog filter unit into
the digital signal, which is discrete both in time and in
amplitude.
✓ DSP: Accepts the digital signal and processes the digital
data. (Computer /Microprocessor/ Micro controller/ etc.)
✓ DAC: Converts the processed digital signal to an analog
output signal.
✓ Reconstruction filter: Smooth the DAC output
10
Analog to digitals conversion (ADC)

Analog X[n] Xq[n] Digital

Xa[t]
input output
Sampler Quantizer Encoder

Analog Binary
signal Sequence
Discrete time Quantized
(continuous in both time and continuous signal
amplitude.) amplitude
signal (Discrete in both time and
amplitude)

11
 Sampling
Sampling: is the processes of converting continuous-time analog signal, Xa[t] into a
discrete-time signal, 𝑥 𝑛 by taking the “samples” of the continuous-time signal at discrete-
time intervals T.
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇
Where the time interval T between successive samples is called sampling period / sample
interval. The reciprocal of sampling period is called the sampling frequency/ sampling rate
1
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑇.
Sampling gathers the variation of data into discreet time signals.

12
Cont.…
Types of sampling
✓ Ideal Sampling
✓ Natural Sampling
✓ Flat-Top Sampling

Flat-Top Sampling
Ideal Sampling Natural Sampling

13
 Cont.…
Sampling Process
Mathematically, sampling process can be written as the product of the
continuous signal and the sampling pulses (pulse train). where pulses xp(t) is
the pulse train with a period T =1/fs
Ideal Sampling

For the case of ideal sampling the pulse train is impulses

14
 Cont.…
Practically it is difficult to create a train of impulses

Practical sampling pulses

Natural Sampling
Multiply the input signal x(t) by a train of
rectangular pulses xp(t) to obtain sampled
signal

15
 Cont.…
The problem with a natural sampled waveform is that the tops of the sample pulses
are not flat. It is not compatible with a digital system since the amplitude of each
sample has infinite number of possible values

Flat-Top Sampling
The pulse is held to a constant height for the whole sample period
This technique is used to realize Sample-and-Hold (S/H) operation. In S/H, input signal is
continuously sampled and then the value is held for as long as it takes to for the A/D to acquire
its value

16
 Cont.…
How should we select the sampling period 𝑻 or, the sampling rate 𝑓𝑠 ?
Sampling Theorem: States that, “ If a signal is sampled at a rate which is
greater than twice the max frequency component of the waveform, then the
waveform can be exactly reconstructed from the samples. ”. When these
conditions are not satisfied, the phenomenon of aliasing occurs, which can
cause severe distortion of signal.
𝒇𝒔 ≥ 2𝒇𝒎𝒂𝒙
But we must have some general information concerning the frequency
content of the signal.
✓ If the sampling rate is equal to twice the maximum frequency of the given
signal 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 , then it is called as Nyquist rate.

17
 Cont.…
✓ The sample rate differs from medium to medium. E.g. The sample rate of
8KHz for telephones, for VoIP rate of 16KHz, for CD and MP3 rate of 44KHz is
considered good.
Example
Consider the analog signal
𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 3𝑐𝑜𝑠100𝜋𝑡
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of 200 Hz. What is the
discrete-time signal obtained after sampling
c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate 𝑓𝑠 =75Hz. What is the
discrete time signal obtained after sampling?
𝑓
d) What is the frequency 0 < 𝑓 < 𝑠 of a sinusoid that yields samples identical
2
to those obtained in (c)?
18
 Quantization
Quantization is representing the sampled values of the amplitude by a
finite set of levels, which means converting a discrete- time continuous-
valued signal into a discrete time, discrete valued (digital) signal.

19
 Cont.…
Quantization done by map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of
known values. This is achieved by calculating the step-size
step-size The spacing between the two adjacent representation levels.
𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 : Max value of analog signal
∆=
𝐿
𝑚𝑖𝑛 : Min value of analog signal
N = log 2 𝐿 L: the number of quantization levels
N: the no. of bits to encode each sampled
value
✓ A unipolar quantizer: deals with analog signals ranging from 0 volt to a
positive reference voltage
✓ bipolar quantizer: deals with analog signals ranging from a negative
reference to a positive reference

20
 Cont.…
Uniform Quantization: Constant step size between quantization level
➢ Two types of uniform quantization

𝑥−𝑥 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑖 = 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 Δ
𝑖: Index corresponding to binary code
𝑥𝑞 : Quantization level
𝑥𝑞 = 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛+𝑖Δ , for i = 0,1, … , L − 1

21
 Cont.…
✓ The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L
values)
✓ Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value of the
midpoint.
Quantization error: Deviation between actual sample value 𝑥[𝑛] and quantized
value 𝑥𝑄 [𝑛]

Note that the quantization error is bounded

Encoder is representation of discrete value into binary sequence/ code

22
Digitals to Analog conversion (DAC)

Digital data stored needs to be converted to analog to be used in real

life. DAC convert the binary digital code to a continuous analog signal.
DAC conversion usually involves interpolator followed by Low pass filter
Interpolation is interpolate between samples/ increasing the sample
rate of the signal/ before reconstructed analog signal to enhance the
reconstructed signal.
Low pass filter often used to smooth out the analog signal and remove
unwanted artifact

❖ If 𝑓𝑠 > 2𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 then we recover x(t) exactly, Else we run into some
problems and signal is not fully recovered

23
 Discrete time signals & system
II Representation of discrete time signals, Basic
discrete time signals, Classification of discrete time
systems…….

24
 Discrete time signal and systems
Discrete time signal

Discrete time signal is a function that is defined only at discrete instant of

time, that is denoted by 𝑥 𝑛 .
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 , −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞
✓ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 samples of a continuous time signal, 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) every T
seconds.

25
 Cont.…
Representation of discrete time signal
▪ Functional representation
▪ Graphical representation
▪ Tabular representation
▪ Sequence representation
Consider a signal x(n) with values
x (-2) = 3, x (-1) = 2, x (0) = 0, x (1) = 3, x (2) = 1 and x (3) = 2
Functional representation
−3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −2
2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = −1
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝑥 𝑛 =
3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 1
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 2
2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 3 26
 Cont.…
Graphical representation

Sequence representation

Tabular representation

The arrow indicates n=0

27
Basic discrete time signals
1. Unit impulse sequence: denoted by δ 𝑛
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
δ 𝑛 =ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0

2. Unit step:
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
u 𝑛 =ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

It related to unit sample by

𝛿 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 − 𝑢(𝑛 − 1)

28
 Cont.…
3. Unit ramp
𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑢𝑟 𝑛 = ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

It related to unit step by

𝑢𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢(𝑛)

29
 Cont.…
4. Exponential
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 for all 𝑛
Where 𝑎 may be a real or complex number
if 𝑎 is real, the 𝑥 𝑛 is real exponential sequence

30
 Cont.…
Where 𝑎 complex value it expressed as
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗θ
Then 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑗θ𝑛
= 𝑟 𝑛 (𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑛 )
Now, 𝑥 𝑛 is complex exponential sequence. Since 𝑥 𝑛 is complex value, it have
real and imaginary part
𝑥𝑅 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ𝑛 and 𝑥𝐼 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑛

31
 Simple manipulation of discrete time signals
The manipulation of signals are generally compositions of a few basic signal
transformations.
a) Transformations of the independent variable n
i ) Time shifting: a signal 𝑥(𝑛) can be shifted to the left or right by
𝑛𝑜 that is 𝑥(𝑛 + 𝑛𝑜 )
If 𝑛𝑜 is positive 𝑥(𝑛) is shifted to the left (advance)
If 𝑛𝑜 is negative 𝑥(𝑛) is shifted to the right (delay)
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑘
Shifted Unit sample sequence 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑘 = ቊ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 𝑘

ii) Time reversal/ folding: Replace the independent variable 𝑛 by −𝑛. the
transformation is simply involves “flipping” the signal 𝑥(𝑛) with respect to the
index 𝑛 (folding of the signal about the time origin 𝑛=0).
32
 Cont.…
iii) Time scaling: 𝑥(𝛼𝑛), the sequence is formed by taking every 𝛼 sample of 𝑥(𝑛)
Down sampling: if 𝛼 > 1
Up sampling: if 0 < 𝛼 < 1
Examples of shifting, reversing, and time scaling a signal

33
 Cont.…
b) Transformations of the amplitude of 𝒙(𝒏) (amplitude manipulations)
The most common types of amplitude transformations are addition/subtraction,
multiplication and scaling. Consider two signals 𝑥1 𝑛 and 𝑥2 𝑛
i) Addition/ Subtraction
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 ± 𝑥2 𝑛 −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞
ii) Multiplication
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥1 𝑛 𝑥2 𝑛 −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞
iii) Scaling: amplitude scaling of a signal 𝑥 𝑛 by a constant 𝑐 is accomplished
by multiplying every signal value by 𝑐
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑥 𝑛 −∞ < 𝑛 < ∞

34
 Discrete time system
a discrete time system is a device or algorithm that operate on a
discrete time signal
x(n) T y(n)
𝑥 𝑛 Discrete- time y 𝑛
system
Input 𝑇[. ] Output
Input or excitation output or response

An input signal 𝑥(𝑛) is transformed by the system into an output signal

𝑦(𝑛), such that
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)]
the notation 𝑇[. ] is used to represent a general system
𝑇
𝑥 𝑛 y 𝑛
35
 Cont.…
Classification of discrete time systems
The discrete time system can be classified in several ways, the most basic
ones is based on properties.
i. Linearity (linear vs nonlinear)
A system is said to linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition
➢ principle of superposition obeys:

Scaling a system which produces an output y(n) for an input x(n) must
produce an output ay(n) for an input ax(n).

Additivity a system which produces an output y1(n) for an input x1(n) and an
output y2(n) for an input x2(n) must produce an output y1(n) +
y2(n) for an input x1(n) + x2(n).
𝑻 𝑎1 𝑥1 (n) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑛) = 𝑎1 𝑻 𝑥1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑻[𝑥2 (𝑛)]
36
 Cont.…
Example. Check whether the following systems are linear or not:
1
a) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2 (𝑛) b) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛2 𝑥(𝑛) c) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛 ] d) 𝑥(𝑛) +
2𝑥(𝑛−2)

ii. Causality (causal vs non causal)

A system is said to be causal (or non-anticipative) if the output of the system
at any instant n depends only on the present and past values of the input
but not on future inputs.
✓ Causal systems are real time systems. They are physically realizable.

𝑦(𝑛)=F[x(n), x(n-1), x(n-2),……]

Example: Check whether the following systems are causal or not:
a) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) b) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛2 ) c) 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(2𝑛) d) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑥(𝑛)

37
 Cont.…
iii. Stability (stable vs unstable)
BIBO Criteria: for a stable system the output should be bounded for bounded
input at each and every instant. (if and only if every bound input produce a
bounded output)
Example: Check whether the following systems are stable or not:
a) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥 2 (𝑛) b) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛. 𝑥(𝑛) c) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛. 𝑥(𝑛)
iv. Time invariance (time invariant vs time variant)
A system is called time invariant if its input- output characteristics do not
change with time.
❖ If the system is time invariant and 𝑦1 (𝑛) is the system output due to the
input 𝑥1 (𝑛) , then the shifted system input 𝑥1 (𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 ) will produce a shifted
system output 𝑦1 (𝑛 − 𝑛𝑜 ) by the same amount of time 𝑛𝑜

38
 Cont.…

Example: Check whether the following systems are time-invariant or not :

𝑛
a) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥(2 ) b) 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑥(𝑛)

39
 Block Diagram representation of Discrete-Time System

Some basic building blocks that can be interconnected to form complex

system
An adder: performs the addition (sum) of two signal to form another sequence

A signal multiplier: multiplication of two signal sequences to form another (the

product) sequence

40
 Cont.…
A constant multiplier: This operation simply represents a scale factor on the
input x(n)

A unit delay element: a system that delays the signal passing through it by one
sample. If the input signal is x(n), the output is x(n-1)

A unit advance element: a system that moves the input x(n) by one sample in
time to yield x(n+1)

41
 Analysis of LTI system
III Methods of analyzing LTI systems , Methods of
computing convolution, Properties of convolution

42
 Analysis of Linear Time Invariant system
Methods of analyzing the behavior of discrete time LTI system to a given input signal
Method 1: Direct solution of the input-output equation for the system or solution of
difference equation
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝐹 [𝑦(𝑛 − 1), 𝑦(𝑛 − 2), … … 𝑦(𝑛 − 𝑀), 𝑥(𝑛), 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) … . . , 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑀)
Difference equation written as
𝑦 𝑛 = −𝑎1 𝑦 𝑛 − 1 − ⋯ − 𝑎𝑁 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑁 + 𝑏𝑜 𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑏1 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) + ⋯ . + 𝑏𝑀 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑀)
Or N M
y (n) = − ai y (n − i ) +  b j y (n − j )
i =1 j =0
Where 𝑎1 , ……, 𝑎𝑁 and 𝑏𝑜 , 𝑏1 ,……., 𝑏𝑀 are the coefficients of the difference equation.
𝑀 and 𝑁 are the memory lengths for input 𝑥(𝑛) and output 𝑦(𝑛), respectively.
Note that 𝑦 𝑛 is the current output which depends on the past output samples
𝑦 𝑛 − 1 , … , 𝑦 𝑛 − 𝑁 , the current sample 𝑥(𝑛), and the past input samples, 𝑥(𝑛 −
1), … , 𝑥(𝑛 − 𝑁) 43
 Cont.…
Method 2: decompose or resolve the input signal into a weighted sum of
elementary signals first then analyze.
x (n ) =  c k x k (n )
k
Where 𝑐𝑘 is set of amplitude (weighting coefficients)
Let 𝑦𝑘 𝑛 is the response of the system to the elementary signal 𝑥𝑘 𝑛 and
y 𝑛 total response of the system to the total signal x(𝑛)
 
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇[𝑥(𝑛)] = 𝑇  c k x k (n )
 k 
= c k 𝑇 𝑥𝑘 (𝑛)
k

=  c k y k (n )
k
Elementary signals are select due to the response of the system to such
signals are easily determined.
44
 Cont.…
Resolution of a Discrete-Time signal into impulses
Suppose we have an arbitrary signal 𝑥 𝑛 that we wish to resolve into a sum of
impulses.
Select the elementary signal, 𝑥𝑘 (𝑛) to decompose 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥𝑘 (𝑛) = 𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘)
Where k represents the delay of the impulse sequence.
𝑥 𝑛 𝛿 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑥(𝑘)𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘) for delay 𝑛 = 𝑘
If we repeat this multiplication over all possible delays − ∞ < 𝑘 < ∞ The sum
of all possible products will give

x (n ) =  x (k ) ( n − k)
k=−

Where 𝑥(𝑘) is sample value for 𝑥(𝑛) at 𝑛 = 𝑘

𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘) is unit impulse sample at 𝑛 = 𝑘. 45
 Linear Convolution
Based on linear and time-invariance property an LTI discrete-time system can be
completely characterized by its impulse response
The response of the system to arbitrary input 𝑥(𝑛) is given by
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑇 𝑥 𝑛

  
= 𝑇   x (k ) ( n − k )  =  x (k ) 𝑇[𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘)]
 k =−  =−
k


y (n ) =  x (k )h ( n , k )
k=−

Where ℎ(𝑛, 𝑘) = 𝑇[𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘)] , 𝑛 is the time index and 𝑘 is a parameter showing the
location of the input impulse.
Note that the given equation considering only linearity property of the system
46
 Cont.…
If, In addition the system is time invariant, the formula simplifies considerably
Let ℎ(𝑛) be the impulse response of LTI system and it called impulse response.
ℎ(𝑛) = 𝑇 [𝛿(𝑛)]
Then by the time invariance property, the response of the system to the delayed
impulse sequence 𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘 ) is
ℎ(𝑛 − 𝑘) = 𝑇 [𝛿(𝑛 − 𝑘)]
Consequently the previous formula reduces to

y (n ) =  x (k )h ( n − k )
k=−

This equation states that, the response 𝑦(𝑛) of a signal 𝑥(𝑛) by LTI system, is the
convolution sum of input signal 𝑥(𝑛) & unit impulse response ℎ(𝑛).
We say that input 𝑥(𝑛) is convolved with the impulse response ℎ 𝑛 to yield the
output 𝑦 𝑛 .
47
 Cont.…
Symbol for convolution


𝑦 𝑛 =𝑥 𝑛 ∗ℎ 𝑛 =  x (k )h ( n − k )
k=−

“*” is used to denote the convolution operation.

Methods of computing convolution

✓ Graphical Method
✓ Tabulation method
✓ Directly using equation of convolution
Graphical Method
There are four basic steps to the calculation: (plot both sequence as a
function of k)
48
 Cont.…
1. Folding: folding ℎ(𝑘) about 𝑘 = 0 to obtain ℎ −𝑘
ℎ(𝑘) Time reverse ℎ(−𝑘)
2. Shifting: shift ℎ(−𝑘) by 𝑛𝑜 to the right or left if 𝑛𝑜 is positive or negative
respectively to obtain ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − 𝑘)
ℎ(−𝑘) Shift ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − 𝑘)
3. Multiplication: multiply 𝑥(𝑘) by ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − k) to obtain the product sequence
Multiply 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − 𝑘)
4. Summation: sum all the value of the product sequence to obtain the value
of the output at time 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜
∞
Sum
෍ 𝑥(𝑘)ℎ(𝑛𝑜 − k)
𝑘=−∞
The process is repeated for all possible shifts, n 49
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Tabulation Method
The simplest method of computing discrete convolution for short sequences

Steps: 1. Arrange x[n] in row and h[n] in column or vice versa

2. Multiply each corresponding element
3. Add product elements diagonally
Properties of convolution
a) Commutative:
𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ 𝑛 = ℎ 𝑛 ∗ 𝑥[𝑛] or σ∞ ∞
𝑘=−∞ 𝑥 𝑘 ℎ 𝑛 − 𝑘 = σ𝑘=−∞ ℎ 𝑘 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]

From a systems point of view, this property states that the system output is
the same when we interchange the role of 𝑥 𝑛 and ℎ 𝑛

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b) Associative:
𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ1 𝑛 ∗ ℎ2 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ [ℎ1 𝑛 ∗ ℎ2 (𝑛)]

This property states that “if two systems with unit sample responses ℎ1 𝑛
and ℎ2 𝑛 are connected in cascade, an equivalent system is one that has a
unit sample response equal to the convolution of ℎ1 𝑛 and ℎ2 𝑛 ”

ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑛 = ℎ1 𝑛 ∗ ℎ2 (𝑛)

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c) Distributive:
𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ1 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ ℎ2 (𝑛)
This property states that “if two systems with unit sample responses ℎ1 𝑛
and ℎ2 𝑛 are connected in parallel, an equivalent system is one that has a
unit sample response equal to the sum of ℎ1 𝑛 and ℎ2 𝑛 ”
ℎ𝑒𝑞 𝑛 = ℎ1 𝑛 + ℎ2 (𝑛)

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 Cont.…

Useful closed form expressions for some commonly encountered series

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Example
1. The impulse response of LTI system is
ℎ 𝑛 = 1, 2, 1, −1

Determine the response of the system to the input signal

𝑥 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, 1
(a) By graphical method
(b) By tabulation method Ans: {1, 4, 8, 8, 3, −2, −1}
2. Compute the convolution of the signals
1 1 −2≤𝑛 ≤2
𝑥𝑛 = ቊ 3𝑛 0≤𝑛<6 ℎ𝑛 = ቊ
0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

Ans: {0, 1/3, 1, 2, 20/3, 6, 5, 11/3, 2}

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3. Determine the impulse response for the cascade of the two LTI system
having impulse responses
1 𝑛 1 𝑛
ℎ1 𝑛 = ( ) 𝑢 𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ2 𝑛 = ( ) 𝑢 𝑛
2 4
1 1
Ans: 2(2)𝑛 − (4)𝑛 𝑢 𝑛

4. Consider an input 𝑥 𝑛 and a unit impulse response ℎ 𝑛 given by

𝑥 𝑛 = {1, 1,2} 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ 𝑛 = 𝑢(𝑛
Determine the response (the output) of the system
Ans: 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑢 𝑛 + 𝑢 𝑛 − 1 + 𝑢(𝑛 − 2)
Reading assignment
Correlation of discrete time signals and their applications - Auto correlation
- Cross correlation
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Thank You