Chap 2 Biological classification

Biological classification is defined as the process of grouping the organisms

according to certain similarities

Linnaeus proposed the two kingdoms of classification. He classified organism

into animal kingdom as Animalia and plant kingdom as Plantae. The two
kingdom classification had certain such as- it does not differentiate between
eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular organisms, and
photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms . only gross morphology was
used till now , a need was also felt for including other characteristics like cell
structure, nature of wall, mode of nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction,
evolutionary relationships, etc.

Five kingdom classifications

R.H. Whittaker proposed the five kingdoms of classification. The five kingdoms
classification is as follows-Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The
classification was based on thallus organization, cell structure, mode of nutrition,
phylogenetic relationship, and reproduction.

Cell wall in monera is non cellulosic

Kingdom Monera –
1. Prokaryotic unicellular organisms.
2. Most abundant.
3. Also live in extreme habitats viz. Hotsprings, Snow etc.
4. Some bacteria are autotrophic others are heterotrophic.
Bacteria as a group show the most extensive metabolic diversity.

Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the spherical
Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the comma-shaped
Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla)
Archaebacteria –
They live in some of the most harsh habitats as extreme salty areas (halophiles),
hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
- Methanogens are found in the gut of ruminants and produce methane (CH4)
gas. - Cell wall different from other bacteria. (Archaebacterial cell walls are
composed of different polysaccharides and proteins, with no peptidoglycan.
Many archaebacteria have cell walls made of the polysaccharide pseudomurein.)

Eubacteria –True bacteria.

- Rigid cell wall with or without flagellum.

- Cyanobacteria( Blue-green algae) are also included in this group.

- Cyanobacteria are Photosynthetic autotrophs, unicellular, colonial or

filamentous, with gelatinous sheath.

- Have Heterocyst for N2fixation eg. Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Rivularia,

Gloeotrichia etc.

- Most bacteria are Heterotrophs

They are both useful and harmful both to humans.

-Reproduction occurs by fission. Under unfavourable conditions, they produce
spores. Also by primitive type of sexual reproduction, by transferring DNA piece
from one bacterial cell(+ strain) to other (- strain) (called cell Transduction).

Mycoplasma –
- Smallest unicellular anaerobic organisms having no cell wall.
 - Pathogenic in plants and animals.

Kingdom Protista –
- Unicellular eukaryotes.

- Primarily aquatic.

- Some have cilia and flagella.

- Reproduction sexual and asexual both.

Chrysophytes –
- Fresh water or marine microscopic Planktons.

- Mostly photosynthetic and chief producers in ocean eg. Diatoms and Golden
algae (Desmids).

- Diatoms- the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, The walls are
embedded with silica and thus the walls are indestructible.

- Diatomaceous earth is formed by cell wall deposits of Diatoms and used in

polishing, filtration of oils and syrups, fire bricks and explosives.
Dinoflagellates –

- Marine.

- Photosynthetic yellow , green, blue, brown or red in colour.

The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface

- One longitudinal and other transverse two flagella.

- red Dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax) undergo such rapid multiplication

that they make the sea appear red (red tides).

Euglenoids –
- Fresh water forms.

- No cell wall, outer most layer pellicle made of protein .

- Two unequal flagella.

- Photosynthetic but also heterotrophic in absence of light ( Mixotroph).

eg. Euglena.
Slime moulds –
- Saprophytes.

- Body is an aggregation called Plasmodium‟ ( multinucleate, without cell wall,

irregular in shape and can spread over several feet ).

- Plasmodium produces fruiting body having spores with walls which are highly
resistant and spread through wind.( under unfavourable conditions)

Protozoans –
- Fresh water or marine unicellular heterotrophs. No cell wall
- Primitive relatives of animals.

There are four major groups of protozoan

(a) Amoeboid Protozoans –

- Free living or parasites.

Marine forms show silica shells

- Pseudopodia (false feet) formed eg. Amoeba ,Entamoeba.

Flagellated Protozoans –
- Free living or Parasitic with flagella eg.Trypanosoma ( causes sleeping sickness).

Ciliated Protozoans –
- These are aquatic With cilia eg. Paramecium.

Sporozoans –
- This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in their
life cycle eg. Plasmodium vivax.

Kingdom Fungi –

- Fungi are a group of achlorophyllous, heterotrophic organisms with cell wall

without cellulose. The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and
polysaccharides.

- Saprophyte or Parasite or Symbiotic.(lichen)

- Useful and Harmful both example rust-causing in wheat , Puccinia and are the
source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.

- Prefer to grow in warm and humid places.

- Unicellular (eg. Yeast) to multicellular filamentous body, Their bodies consist of

long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of hyphae is known
as mycelium

- One unit of mycelium called hypha .

- Mycelia maybe coenocytic (no septum) or septate.

- Lichens :– Symbiotic association of fungus and algae.

- Mycorrhiza ;– Symbiotic association of fungi with root of higher plants

eg. Pinus.
- Reproduction :– can be Vegetative : by fragmentation, fission and budding.
Asexual reproduction is by spores called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores,
and sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various
spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.

The sexual cycle involves the following three steps:

(i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-motile gametes called

plasmogamy.

(ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.(2n)

(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.(n)

In some fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage

(n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and
the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.

Phycomycetes –
- Grow on aquatic places or decaying wood or damp places or obligate parasite.
- Mycelium aseptate, coenocytic.

Reproduction - asexual by zoospores or aplanospores . These spores are

endogenously produced in sporangium. Sexual by zygospores which is formed by
fusion of two gametes. Examples Rhizopus and Mucor
Ascomycets (sac fungi)-
-Unicellular (eg. Yeast) or multicellular
-Saprophytic or parasitic. Maybe coprophillus (growing on dung).
-Mycelium septate and branched.

-Reproduction – asexual by exogenously produced spores called conidia on the

special mycelium called conidiophores.
-sexually by Ascospores produced in asci present in fruiting body called Ascocarp.

-eg Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora, Saccharomyces (yeast) etc.

Basidiomycetes (club fungi / puff balls) –

- Grow on soil , logs or parasites ( rusts and smuts).

- Mycelium septate and branched and of two types

- Uninucleate 2) Dikaryophase.

- Reproduction – vegetative by fragmentation , asexual spores are generally not

found, sexual by two somatic cells giving rise to Dikaryophase.
- Dikaryophase makes fruiting body Basidiocarp having Basidia.

- Inside basidia (singular basidium)

- Karyogamy and meiosis occurs.
- Meiosis results in formation of four basidiopores.

eg. Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut fungi), Puccinia (rust fungus).

Deuteromycetes (- imperfect Fungi) – because only the asexual or vegetative

phases of these fungi are known.
- It is formed class – Group of Fungi whose complete life cycle is not known. The
mycelium is septate and branched

The deuteromycetes reproduce only by asexual spores known as conidia.

-Saprophyte/parasite , mostly decomposers.- eg. Alternaria, colletotrichum,

Trichoderma.

Kingdom Plantae –
- Eukaryotic, chlorophyll bearing autotrophic organisms.

cell wall mainly made of cellulose

- Only few members partial heterotrophs eg. Insectivorus plants (Bladder wort
and Venus flytrap).

- Few parasites eg. Cuscuta

 - Reproduction – vegetative, asexual and sexual.

- Life cycle shows alternation of generation. Life cycle of plants has two distinct
phases – the diploid sporophytic and the haploid gametophytic – that alternate with
each other

- eg. Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophyte, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

Kingdom Animalia –
- Eukaryotic, Heterotrophic organisms.
- No chloroplast and no cell wall.

-Holozoic mode of nutrition They digest their food in an internal cavity and store
food reserves as glycogen or fat

- Definite shape and size and capable of locomotion.

They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite
shape and size

Reproduction- sexual in general

- eg. frog, cockroach, cow, man etc.

- Viruses, Viroids and Lichens

The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Dmitri
Ivanowsky (1892)
- Viruses Connecting link between living and non living.

- The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterised by having an inert
crystalline structure outside the living cell.
Non cellular structure consisting of protein coat and Nucleic acid
- Can reproduce within a host cell.

- Host cell may be killed.

A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.

In general, viruses that infect plants have single stranded RNA and viruses that
infect animals have either single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.

- Viruses which infect bacteria are called Bacteriophage.

- Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV)-

- Protein coat: - capsid consists of capsomers.

- Viruses can cause diseases viz. Mumps, Small pox, Herpes, Influenza, AIDS etc.

Viroids
- Free RNA without protein coat.

Smaller than viruses

Lichens

- Composite organisms.

-Symbiotic association between Algae (Phycobiont) and Fungi (Mycobiont).