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CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION:

• Earliest Classification was given by Aristotle. Divided plants into herbs,

shrubs and trees. Animals into those with red blood (RBC) and those who
do not have it.

Two kingdom classification:

• Given by Carolus Linnaeus − Plant kingdom and Animal kingdom.

Five kingdom classification:

• Given by R. H. Whittaker. Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia

are the five kingdoms.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIVE KINGDOMS

KINGDOM MONERA:

Archaebacteria:

• Differ from bacteria having different cell wall structure.

• They live in most harsh habitats
• Halophiles (salt-loving) live in extreme salty areas
• Thermoacidophiles live in hot springs and high acidic conditions
• Methanogens live in marshy areas. They are also found in the guts of
ruminant animals (cows, buffalo) and are used to produce biogas from the
dung of these animals.
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Eubacteria:

• It is called true bacteria and include Bacteria, Cyanobacteria and

Mycoplasma.

Bacteria:

• Bacteria have a rigid cell wall, and if motile a flagellum.

• Bacteria can have shapes like: Coccus (spherical), Bacillus (rod-shaped),
Vibrio (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral shaped).

SHAPES OF BACTERIA

• Bacteria are found almost everywhere and can be Photosynthetic

autotrophs, Chemosynthetic autotrophs or Heterotrophs in nutrition.
• Chemosynthetic autotrophs: Oxidize various inorganic substances
like nitrates, nitrites, ammonia and they use the energy released for their
ATP production.
• Heterotrophic bacteria are:
o Mostly decomposers
o Helpful in making curd from milk
o Produce antibiotics
o Symbiotically associated with leguminous plants and fix nitrogen
o Some are pathogens causing diseases like cholera, typhoid, and
tetanus.
• Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission, also produce spores in unfavorable
condition.

BINARY FISSION IN BACTERIA

• Reproduce sexually by transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another, by

the process called conjugation.
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Cyanobacteria:

• They are also known as blue green algae or Cyanobacteria.

• Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs.
• They have chlorophyll-a as photosynthetic pigment.
• They are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, marine and terrestrial algae.
• Colonies are surrounded by gelatinous sheaths.
• They form blooms in polluted waters.
• Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric nitrogen by specialized cells
called heterocyst, e.g. Nostoc and Anabaena.

Nostoc - A filamentous blue-green algae

Mycoplasma:

• They completely lack cell walls.

• They are the smallest living cells.
• Can survive without oxygen.
• They are pathogenic in animals and plants.

KINGDOM PROTISTA

• All are unicellular and eukaryotic organisms.

• Mostly aquatic, can live in moist places.
• Forms a link between plants, animals and fungi.
• The cell contains nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
• The Kingdom includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime
moulds and Protozoans.

Chrysophytes:

• Includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids)

• Found in freshwater or marine water.
• Mostly planktonic (passive swimmer)
• Photosynthetic in nature.
• Cell walls overlap to fit together like a soap box.
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• Cell wall contains silica hence indestructible.

• The accumulation of cell walls of diatoms over billions of years forms
‘Diatomaceous Earth’.
• Diatomaceous earth is used in polishing and filtration of oils and syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.

Dinoflagellates:

• Marine, photosynthetic forms.

• The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates.
• Appears yellow, green, brown, blue or red depending on the pigments.
• Have two flagella − one longitudinal and other transversely in a furrow
between wall plates.
• Red Dinoflagellates (Gonyaulax) form red tides. They undergo rapid
multiplication that make the sea appear red (red tides). Toxins released by
such large numbers kill other marine animals such as fishes.

Euglenoids:

• Mostly freshwater forms are found in stagnant water.

• Instead of cell walls they have protein rich layer ‘pellicle’ which makes body
flexible.
• They have two flagella one short and one long
• Photosynthetic in presence of sunlight but become heterotrophs if they do not get
sunlight by predating on other organisms.
• Euglenoids have pigments similar to higher plants. e.g. Euglena

Slime Moulds:

• Saprophytic Protists. Eg Stemonitis

• They form aggregates to form plasmodium and grow on decaying twigs and
leaves.
• Plasmodium forms fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips during unfavorable
conditions.
• Spores have true walls which are extremely resistant and survive for many years.
They are dispersed by air currents.

Protozoans:

• All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.

• They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.
• These are divided into four major groups based on locomotory organelles they
have.

Amoeboid protozoans:

• Move and catch prey using pseudopodia, e.g., Amoeba.

• Many forms have silica shells on their surface.
• Some of them are parasitic e.g. Entamoeba.
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Flagellated protozoans:

• Either free living or parasitic.

• They have flagella.
• Cause diseases like sleeping sickness e.g. Trypanosoma.

Ciliated protozoans:

• These are aquatic, actively moving organisms due to the presence of thousands
of cilia. e.g., Paramecium.
• They have a cavity called gullet that opens outside the cell.

Sporozoans:

• They lack any locomotory organelles.

• All members are parasitic.
• Have an infective spore like stage in life cycle, e.g., Plasmodium which causes
Malaria.

KINGDOM FUNGI

• Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants.
They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
• Except for yeasts which are unicellular all other members are multicellular and
filamentous.
• The plant body consists of long slender thread-like structures called hypha.
• The network of hyphae is called mycelium.
• The hyphae may be uninucleate or multinucleate (coenocytic), septate (with cross
walls) or aseptate (without cross walls).
• Cell walls are made up of complex polysaccharide called chitin.
• The fungi may be saprophytic, parasitic or symbiotic in nutrition.
• Symbiotic fungi are in association with algae as in lichens and with roots of
higher plants as mycorrhiza.
• Reproduce asexually by spores – conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores.
• Sexual reproduction is by oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
• Sexual cycle involves the following three steps:
• Plasmogamy: fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes.
• Karyogamy: fusion of two nuclei
• Meiosis: zygote undergoes meiosis resulting in haploid spores.
• When a fungus reproduces sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating
types come together and fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells
immediately results in diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes), an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n i.e. two nuclei per cell)
occurs; such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called
dikaryophase of fungus. Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become
diploid. The fungi form fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading
to formation of haploid spores.
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CLASSES OF FUNGI:

Based on the morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and fruiting
bodies formed Kingdom Fungi are divided into four classes. Their characteristic
features are given below.

Phycomycetes: (Lower fungi)

• Found in aquatic habitat, on decaying wood in moist and damp places.

• Some of them are obligate parasites on plants.
• Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic
• Asexual reproduction by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (nonmotile).
• Spores are produced endogenously in sporangium.
• Zygospore is produced by fusion of gametes.
• e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread mould) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on
mustard).

Ascomycetes:

• It is commonly known as ‘sac fungi’.

• Unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (e.g. Penicillium)
• Saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous.
• Mycelium branched and septate.
• Asexual spores are called conidia produced exogenously on the conidiophores.
Conidia on germination produces mycelium.
• Sexual spores are called ascospores produced endogenously in ascus produced
inside fruiting body called Ascocarp.
• Some examples are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora.
• Neurospora is used extensively in biochemical and genetic work.
• Many members like morels and truffles are edible and are considered delicacies.

Basidiomycetes:

• Commonly known forms are called mushrooms, bracket fungi or puffballs.

• Mycelium is septate and branched.
• Asexual spores are generally not found.
• Vegetative reproduction occurs by fragmentation.
• Sexual reproduction by fusion of vegetative or somatic cells of different strains to
form basidium produced in basidiocarp.
• Basidium produces four basidiospores after meiosis.
• Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia
(rust fungus).

Deuteromycetes:

• Called as ‘Fungi Imperfecti’ as sexual form (perfect stage) is not known for them.
• Once sexual form is discovered the member is moved to Ascomycetes or
Basidiomycetes.
• Only the asexual or vegetative phases of these fungi are known.
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• Mycelium is septate and branched.

• Members are saprophytic, parasitic or decomposers.
• Some examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.

Economic Importance of Fungi:

• Cause spoilage of food. e.g. spoilage of bread (Rhizopus), rotting of orange.

• Mushroom (Agaricus) and toadstools are fungi which are edible.
• White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus Albugo.
• Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer.
• Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust disease caused by
Puccinia.
• Some are the source of antibiotics. e.g., Penicillium.

KINGDOM PLANTAE

• Kingdom Plantae includes all eukaryotic chlorophyll-containing organisms

commonly called plants.
• A few members are partially heterotrophic such as insectivorous plants or
parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are examples of insectivorous plants
and Cuscuta is a parasite.
• The plant cells have a eukaryotic structure with prominent chloroplasts and cell
walls mainly made of cellulose.
• Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and
angiosperms.
• Life cycle of plants has two distinct phases – the diploid sporophytic and the
haploid gametophytic phase – that alternate with each other. The lengths of the
haploid and diploid phases, and whether these phases are free– living or
dependent on others, vary among different groups in plants. This phenomenon is
called alternation of generation.

KINGDOM ANIMALIA

• This kingdom is characterized by heterotrophic eukaryotic organisms that are

multicellular, and their cells lack cell walls.
• They directly or indirectly depend on plants for food.
• They digest their food in an internal cavity and store food reserves as glycogen or fat.
• Their mode of nutrition is holozoic – by ingestion of food.
• They follow a definite growth pattern and grow into adults that have a definite shape
and size.
• Higher forms show elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most of them are
capable of locomotion.
• The sexual reproduction is by copulation of male and female followed by
embryological development.

VIRUSES

• They did not find a place in classification. Virus takes over the machinery of host
cell on entering it to replicate themselves and kill the host They have inert
crystalline structures outside the living cell. So, it is difficult to call them living or
non-living.
• Pasteur gave the term ‘Virus’ i.e., poisonous fluid or venom.
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• D. J. Ivanowsky (1892) found out that certain microbes caused Tobacco Mosaic
Disease in tobacco plant.
• M. W. Beijerinek (1898) called fluid as ‘Contagium vivum fluidum’ as extracts of
infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants.
• W. M. Stanely (1935) showed viruses could be crystallized to form crystals of
protein which are inert outside their specific host.

Structure of Virus:

• Virus are nucleoproteins made up of protein called Capsid. Capsid is made up of

capsomeres arranged in helical or poly-geometric forms. They have either DNA
or RNA as genetic material which may be single or double stranded.
• Usually, plant viruses have single stranded RNA; bacteriophages have double
stranded DNA and animal viruses have single or double stranded RNA or double
stranded DNA.
• Diseases caused by Viruses: They cause diseases like mumps, smallpox,
herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans. In plants, the symptoms can be mosaic
formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and
stunted growth.

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS (TMV) BACTERIOPHAGE

VIROIDS

• They are infectious agents made up of free RNA (lack protein coat)
• The RNA has low molecular weight.
• Viroids cause potato spindle tuber disease.
• Discovered by T. O. Diener in 1971.

PRIONS

• They abnormally folded infectious proteins.

• The size of prions is similar to viruses.
• They cause neurological diseases like Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
or mad cow disease in cattle and Cr- Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.
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LICHENS

• These are symbiotic associations between algal components (Phycobiont) and

fungal component (Mycobiont).
• Algae provides food to the fungal component. Fungi provides shelter and absorbs
nutrients for the algae.
• Lichens are good pollution indicators as they do not grow in polluted areas.