Semiconductor Memory

Last Updated : 27 Feb, 2024

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The silent workhorse of modern electronics, semiconductor memory stores data and
instructions and makes it possible for smartphones, computers, medical equipment, and
industrial automation to function. This little wonder, worked with silicon and inventiveness,
utilizes electrical charges to address double data, the "1s" and "0s" that structure the language
of advanced innovation.
The widespread use of semiconductor memory is fueled by its remarkable properties:
• High Storage Density: Semiconductor memory can store a lot of information in a
little space.
• Fast Access Time: Information can be gotten rapidly from semiconductor memory,
making it appropriate for elite execution applications.
• Lower Power Consumption: reduces environmental impact, extends battery life, and
minimizes energy consumption.
• Scalability: Compared to other kinds of memory, like magnetic storage,
semiconductor memory uses less power.
Semiconductor memory is the invisible foundation of our digital world and can be found in
everything from smartphones and computers to complex systems. Its steady development
guarantees significantly quicker, denser, and more effective methods for putting away and
controlling the data that characterizes our lives.
In this article we will go through Semi-Conductor Memory, First, we will start with Basic by
defining What is Semi-Conductor, we will go into the brief on the Types of Sem-Conductor
Memory such as RAM and ROM, and Then we will look at its working and Some Examples
of it. At last, we will conclude our Article With its Advantages, Disadvantages, and Some
FAQs.
Table of Content
• Semiconductor Memory
• Types
• Working
• Examples
• Memory Controller and Interfaces
• Advantages
• Disadvantages
 • Applications
What is Semiconductor Memory?
A type of electronic memory known as semiconductor memory stores digital data by making
use of semiconductor materials, most commonly silicon. Data is stored in binary format in
this memory, with "1s" and "0s" representing electrical charges.
Semiconductor memory is a sort of computerized electronic memory that utilizes
semiconductor material, ordinarily silicon, to store and recover advanced information. It is
the essential sort of memory utilized in PCs, cell phones, and other electronic gadgets.
Types of Semiconductor Memory
There are two types of semi conductor memory
• Random Access Memory(RAM)
• Read-Only Memory(ROM)
Random Access Memory(RAM)
It permits information to be gotten to in any request, making it appropriate for brief capacity.
• Type: Unpredictable - information evaporates without power.
• Function: stores data for active applications on a temporary basis.
• Speed: lightning-fast access in a flash.
• Capacity: Normally more modest than ROM.
• Applications: Running projects, open documents, program tabs.

Random Access Memory(RAM)

Read Only Memory(ROM)
Information is for all time put away and can't be changed during typical activity. It is utilized
for putting away firmware and other basic information.
• Type: Non-unstable - information perseveres even without power.
• Function: provides permanent storage for essential functions.
• Speed: More slow than Smash, as information recovery isn't as incessant.
• Capacity: Variable based on device complexity.
• Applications: Firmware, the operating system, and device drivers.

Read-only memory

Working of Semiconductor Memory

Semiconductor memory stores information utilizing minuscule circuits called memory cells.
Every memory cell is comprised of semiconductors and capacitors. The semiconductors go
about as switches, controlling the progression of power to the capacitor. The capacitor stores
the electrical charge, addressing a paired "0" or "1".
 • DRAM: In DRAM, the capacitor stores the information bit as a charge. However, the
memory cell needs to be refreshed on a regular basis to prevent data loss as this
charge slowly leaks over time. Reviving includes perusing the information from the
cell, enhancing it, and afterward composing it back to the cell.
• SRAM: In SRAM, the information bit is put away as a lock circuit shaped by two
semiconductors. This circuit doesn't need to be refreshed and can keep the integrity of
the data as long as there is power.
• Flash Memory: Streak memory utilizes an alternate innovation called drifting
entryway semiconductors. The memory can be erased and reprogrammed electrically
thanks to these transistors' additional gate, which can be used to trap or release
electrons.
Examples of Semiconductor Memory
Dynamic Random Access Memory(DRAM):It is commonly used in computers for
temporary data storage.

Dynamic Random access memory(DRAM)

Static Random Access Memory(SRAM):Used for excessive-velocity information storage,

which include caches in processors.
Static Random acecss memory(SRAM)

Flash Memory: Used for permanent garage of statistics, which includes in USB drives and
strong-country drives (SSDs).
Flash memory

Memory Controller & Interfaces

Memory controller is answerable for dealing with the correspondence between the central
processor and the memory. It takes directions from the computer processor and sends them to
the fitting memory area. Additionally, the controller is in charge of DRAM refresh cycles as
well as flash memory erase and write operations.
Different points of interaction are utilized to interface the memory to the computer processor
and different parts. DDR (Double Data Rate), SDR (Single Data Rate), and PCIe (Peripheral
Component Interconnect Express) are examples of common interfaces.
Advantages of Semiconductor Memory
• High Speed: Fast data retrieval from semiconductor memory enables responsive
performance and smooth operation. Applications like gaming, real-time video, and
online transaction all depend on this.
• Low power consumption: Compared to other types of memory, such as magnetic
storage, semiconductor memory is very energy efficient. This is important for laptops
and mobile devices, as it extends battery life.
 • High storage density: Semiconductor memory can pack an enormous measure of
information into a minuscule space. Because of this, it is ideal for high-performance
computing systems and portable devices like smartphones and tablets where space is
at a premium.
• Scalability: Semiconductor memory innovation can be effortlessly scaled to satisfy
the rising needs of registering. This indicates that the capacity of semiconductor
memory chips will also increase in tandem with our demand for data storage.
• Non-volatile(except for RAM): Non-volatile semiconductor memory, such as read-
only memory (ROM) and flash memory, stores data even when the power is turned
off. Because of this, they are excellent for storing long-term data like operating
systems and firmware.
Disadvantages of Semiconductor Memory
• Volatile(for RAM): When the power is turned off, data stored in traditional RAM are
lost. This can be risky on the off chance that you are chipping away at something
significant and the power goes out of the blue.
• Can be much expensive: When compared to other types of storage, such as hard disk
drives, high-performance or large-capacity semiconductor memory can be expensive.
• Limited lifespan(for Flash memory): Flash memory has a set number of compose
cycles before it breaks down. As a result, flash memory devices will eventually
require replacement.
• Security issues: Semiconductor memory can be helpless against information breaks
and hacking. This is due to the fact that the data is stored electronically and can be
accessed in the event that the device is hacked.
• Effect on the Environment: The process of manufacturing semiconductor memory
chips can be resource-intensive and harmful to the environment. However, efforts are
being made to develop production methods that are more environmentally friendly.
Applications of Semiconductor Memory
Semiconductor memory is used in a wide variety of applications, including:
• Digital Cameras: Used for storing photographs and recordings.
• Smartphones: Used for storing applications, music, photos and other valuable
information.
• Computers: Used for storing program instruction and working data.
• USB drivers: Used for storing potable data storage.
• Solid state drive(SSD): Used for high-performance storage in computers.
• MP3 Player: Used to store music.
Conclusion
Semiconductor memory is a basic part of current hardware and assumes a crucial part in the
usefulness of PCs, cell phones, and different gadgets. It is constantly advancing, with new
innovations being created to work on its presentation, limit, and cost-viability. In this Article
we have gone through What is Semiconductor Memory? What are Types of Semiconductor
Memory, Working of Semiconductor Memory, Examples of Semiconductor Memory and at
last we have seen its Advantages, Disadvantages, Applications, Solved Examples and FAQs.
Solved Problem
Calculate the total storage capacity of a 8GB RAM chip with 8-bit memory cells.
Solution:
1. 8GB=8 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024bytes
2. 1 byte=8 bits.
3. So, the total storage capacity is 8 * 1024 * 1024 * 1024 * 8 bits =68719476736 bits.
Compare and contrast the performance of DRAM and SRAM.
Solution:

Feature DRAM SRAM

Speed Slower Faster

Programmable peripheral interface 8255

PPI 8255 is a general purpose programmable I/O device designed to interface the CPU with
its outside world such as ADC, DAC, keyboard etc. We can program it according to the given
condition. It can be used with almost any microprocessor. It consists of three 8-bit
bidirectional I/O ports i.e. PORT A, PORT B and PORT C. We can assign different ports as
input or output functions.
It consists of 40 pins and operates in +5V regulated power supply. Port C is further divided
into two 4-bit ports i.e. port C lower and port C upper and port C can work in either BSR (bit
set rest) mode or in mode 0 of input-output mode of 8255. Port B can work in either mode 0
or in mode 1 of input-output mode. Port A can work either in mode 0, mode 1 or mode 2 of
input-output mode. It has two control groups, control group A and control group B. Control
group A consist of port A and port C upper. Control group B consists of port C lower and port
B. Depending upon the value if CS’, A1 and A0 we can select different ports in different
modes as input-output function or BSR. This is done by writing a suitable word in control
register (control word D0-D7).

CS’ A1 A0 Selection Address

0 0 0 PORT A 80 H

0 0 1 PORT B 81 H

0 1 0 PORT C 82 H

0 1 1 Control Register 83 H
CS’ A1 A0 Selection Address

1 X X No Seletion X

Pin diagram –

8255 pin diagram :

• PA0 – PA7 – Pins of port A
• PB0 – PB7 – Pins of port B
• PC0 – PC7 – Pins of port C
• D0 – D7 – Data pins for the transfer of data
• RESET – Reset input
• RD’ – Read input
• WR’ – Write input
• CS’ – Chip select
• A1 and A0 – Address pins
Operating modes –
1. Bit set reset (BSR) mode – If MSB of control word (D7) is 0, PPI works in BSR
mode. In this mode only port C bits are used for set or reset.

2. Input-Output mode – If MSB of control word (D7) is 1, PPI works in input-output

mode. This is further divided into three modes:

• Mode 0 –In this mode all the three ports (port A, B, C) can work as simple
input function or simple output function. In this mode there is no interrupt
handling capacity.
• Mode 1 – Handshake I/O mode or strobed I/O mode. In this mode either port
A or port B can work as simple input port or simple output port, and port C
bits are used for handshake signals before actual data transmission. It has
interrupt handling capacity and input and output are latched. Example: A CPU
wants to transfer data to a printer. In this case since speed of processor is very
fast as compared to relatively slow printer, so before actual data transfer it will
send handshake signals to the printer for synchronization of the speed of the
 CPU and the peripherals.

• Mode 2 – Bi-directional data bus mode. In this mode only port A works, and
port B can work either in mode 0 or mode 1. 6 bits port C are used as
handshake signals. It also has interrupt handling capacity.
Advantages
• Versatility: The PPI 8255 can be programmed to operate in a variety of modes, which
makes it a versatile component in many different systems. It provides three 8-bit ports
that can be configured as input or output ports, and supports multiple modes of
operation for each port.
• Ease of use: The PPI 8255 is relatively easy to use and program, even for novice
programmers. The control register of the PPI can be programmed using simple
commands, which makes it easy to interface with other devices.
• Compatibility: The PPI 8255 is widely used and has been around for many years,
which means that it is compatible with a wide range of devices and software.
• Low cost: The PPI 8255 is a relatively low-cost component, which makes it an
affordable option for many different applications.
Disadvantages
• Limited functionality: While the PPI 8255 is versatile, it has limited functionality
compared to newer I/O interface components. It is not capable of high-speed data
transfer and has limited memory capacity.
• Limited number of ports: The PPI 8255 provides only three 8-bit ports, which may
not be sufficient for some applications that require more I/O ports.
• Limited resolution: The PPI 8255 provides only 8 bits of resolution for each port,
which may not be sufficient for some applications that require higher resolution.
• Obsolete technology: While the PPI 8255 is still used in some applications, it is
considered an older technology and is being replaced by newer, more advanced I/O
interface components.
Example of Interfacing Seven Segments LED
Display with 8085

Seven segments LED display :

A seven-segment LED is a kind of LED(Light Emitting Diode) consisting of 7 small LEDs it
usually comes with the microprocessor’s as we commonly need to interface them with
microprocessors like 8085.
Structure of Seven Segments LED :
• The LED in Seven Segment display are arranged as below

• It can be used to represent numbers from 0 to 8 with a decimal point.

• We have eight segments in a Seven Segment LED display consisting of 7 segments
which include ‘.’.
• The seven segments are denoted as “a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h” respectively, and ‘.’ is
represented by “h”
Interfacing Seven Segment Display with 8085 :
We will see a program to Interfacing Seven Segment Display with 8085 assuming address
decoders with an address of AE H.
Note logic needed for activation –
• Common Anode – 0 will make an LED glow.
• Common Cathode – 1 will make an LED glow.
Common Anode Method :
Here we are using a common anode display therefore 0 logic is needed to activate the
segment. Suppose to display number 9 at the seven-segment display, therefore the segments
F, G, B, A, C, and D have to be activated.
The instructions to execute it is given as,
MVI A,99
OUT AE
• First, we are storing the 99H in the accumulator i.e. 10010000 by using MVI
instruction.
• By OUT instruction we are sending the data stored in the accumulator to the port AFH
Common Cathode Method :
Here we are using common cathode 1 logic is needed to activate the signal. Suppose to
display number 9 at the seven-segment display, therefore the segments F, G, B, A, C, and D
have to be activated.
The instructions to execute it is given as,
MVI A,6F
OUT AE
• First, we are storing the 6FH in the accumulator i.e.01101111 by using MVI
instruction.
• By OUT instruction we are sending the data stored in the accumulator to the port AFH

Interrupts in Detail
Interrupts are mechanisms that allow a computer's CPU to temporarily pause its current task
to respond to an urgent event. They improve efficiency by enabling multitasking and real-
time response to hardware or software requests. Interrupts can be classified into hardware
interrupts and software interrupts based on their origin and purpose.

1. Hardware Interrupts
Definition:
Hardware interrupts are signals sent by external devices or peripherals to the CPU, requesting
immediate attention. These interrupts occur asynchronously, independent of the CPU's
current operation.
Examples:
• Input Devices: A keyboard generates an interrupt when a key is pressed, and a mouse
triggers an interrupt when clicked or moved.
• Output Devices: A printer sends an interrupt to indicate that it has finished printing or
requires paper.
 • Other Hardware: A network card might generate an interrupt when data is ready to
be received or sent.
Applications:
• Device Communication: Facilitates seamless interaction between hardware
components and the CPU.
• Real-Time Systems: Ensures timely response to critical hardware events, such as in
medical equipment or industrial control systems.
• Power Management: Devices can signal power state changes, like a laptop battery's
low charge.
Characteristics:
• Triggered by external hardware devices.
• Asynchronous in nature.
• Typically higher priority as they involve real-time events.

2. Software Interrupts
Definition:
Software interrupts are initiated by programs or instructions within the CPU. These occur
synchronously during program execution and are typically used to request operating system
services.
Examples:
• System Calls: Programs use software interrupts to access operating system functions,
such as file handling or process creation.
• Exceptions: Divide-by-zero errors or invalid memory access generate software
interrupts to handle these faults.
• Debugging: Debuggers use software interrupts to set breakpoints and analyze
program behavior.
Applications:
• Operating System Services: Programs use software interrupts to request resources
like memory, files, or devices.
• Error Handling: Detects and manages runtime errors through exception handling.
• Multitasking: Allows the OS to manage multiple processes effectively by switching
between user and kernel modes.
Characteristics:
• Triggered by software instructions.
• Synchronous with program execution.
 • Used for controlled interaction with the operating system.

Comparison: Hardware vs. Software Interrupts

Feature Hardware Interrupt Software Interrupt

Source External hardware devices Internal software instructions

Trigger Asynchronous Synchronous

Priority Often higher for real-time tasks Typically lower, depends on OS

Examples Keypress, mouse click, network signal System calls, errors, breakpoints

Applications Real-time systems, I/O operations OS services, exception handling

Conclusion
• Hardware interrupts are essential for handling real-time events and ensuring smooth
hardware interaction.
• Software interrupts provide a structured way for programs to access system
resources or handle exceptional conditions.
Together, they enable efficient multitasking, resource sharing, and responsive
computing.

Microprocessor | 8251 USART

Prerequisite – 8259 PIC Microprocessor 8251 universal synchronous asynchronous receiver
transmitter (USART) acts as a mediator between microprocessor and peripheral to transmit
serial data into parallel form and vice versa.
1. It takes data serially from peripheral (outside devices) and converts into parallel data.
2. After converting the data into parallel form, it transmits it to the CPU.
3. Similarly, it receives parallel data from microprocessor and converts it into serial
form.
4. After converting data into serial form, it transmits it to outside device (peripheral).
Block Diagram of 8251 USART –

It contains the following blocks:

1. Data bus buffer – This block helps in interfacing the internal data bus of 8251 to the
system data bus. The data transmission is possible between 8251 and CPU by the data
bus buffer block.
2. Read/Write control logic – It is a control block for overall device. It controls the
overall working by selecting the operation to be done. The operation selection
depends upon input signals as:
 In this way, this unit selects one of the three registers- data buffer register, control
register, status register.
3. Modem control (modulator/demodulator) – A device converts analog signals to
digital signals and vice-versa and helps the computers to communicate over telephone
lines or cable wires. The following are active-low pins of Modem.
• DSR: Data Set Ready signal is an input signal.
• DTR: Data terminal Ready is an output signal.
• CTS: It is an input signal which controls the data transmit circuit. RTS: It is
an output signal which is used to set the status RTS.
4. Transmit buffer – This block is used for parallel to serial converter that receives a
parallel byte for conversion into serial signal and further transmission onto the
common channel.
• TXD: It is an output signal, if its value is one, means transmitter will transmit
the data.
5. Transmit control – This block is used to control the data transmission with the help
of following pins:
• TXRDY: It means transmitter is ready to transmit data character.
• TXEMPTY: An output signal which indicates that TXEMPTY pin has
transmitted all the data characters and transmitter is empty now.
• TXC: An active-low input pin which controls the data transmission rate of
transmitted data.
6. Receive buffer – This block acts as a buffer for the received data.
• RXD: An input signal which receives the data.
 7. Receive control – This block controls the receiving data.
• RXRDY: An input signal indicates that it is ready to receive the data.
• RXC: An active-low input signal which controls the data transmission rate of
received data.
• SYNDET/BD: An input or output terminal. External synchronous mode-input
terminal and asynchronous mode-output terminal.
Advantages:
Versatility: The 8251 USART can be used for both synchronous and asynchronous
communication, making it a versatile peripheral.
Error detection: The USART includes built-in error detection features, such as parity
checking, which help to ensure the accuracy of transmitted data.
Flow control: The USART includes flow control features, which allow for the regulation of
data transmission and reception, preventing data loss and overloading.
Compatibility: The 8251 USART is compatible with a wide range of microprocessors,
making it a popular choice for serial communication in many different systems.
Ease of use: The USART includes simple interface pins and registers, making it relatively
easy to use and program.
Disadvantages:
Limited speed: The 8251 USART has a relatively low maximum data transfer rate of 115.2
kbps, which may be insufficient for some applications.
Limited buffer size: The USART has a small internal buffer size, which may result in data
loss if data is not read from the buffer in a timely manner.
Complex programming: Although the interface pins and registers of the USART are
relatively simple, programming the USART can be complex, requiring careful attention to
timing and other parameters.
Cost: While the 8251 USART is relatively affordable, it does add cost to a system,
particularly if multiple USARTs are required.
Limited functionality: While the 8251 USART is a useful peripheral for serial
communication, it does not include more advanced features, such as DMA (direct memory
access) or advanced error correction.
Direct memory access with DMA controller
8257/8237

Suppose any device which is connected to input-output port wants to transfer data to memory,
first of all it will send input-output port address and control signal, input-output read to input-
output port, then it will send memory address and memory write signal to memory where data
has to be transferred. In normal input-output technique the processor becomes busy in
checking whether any input-output operation is completed or not for next input-output
operation, therefore this technique is slow.
This problem of slow data transfer between input-output port and memory or between two
memory is avoided by implementing Direct Memory Access (DMA) technique. This is faster
as the microprocessor/computer is bypassed and the control of address bus and data bus is
given to the DMA controller.

• HOLD – hold signal

• HLDA – hold acknowledgment

• DREQ – DMA request

• DACK – DMA acknowledgment

Suppose a floppy drive that is connected at input-output port wants to transfer data to
memory, the following steps are performed:

• Step-1: First of all the floppy drive will send a DMA request (DREQ) to the DMAC,
it means the floppy drive wants its DMA service.

• Step-2: Now the DMAC will send a HOLD signal to the CPU.

• Step-3: After accepting the DMA service request from the DMAC, the CPU will send
hold acknowledgment (HLDA) to the DMAC, it means the microprocessor has
released control of the address bus the data bus to DMAC and the
microprocessor/computer is bypassed during DMA service.

• Step-4: Now the DMAC will send one acknowledgement (DACL) to the floppy drive
which is connected at the input-output port. It means the DMAC tells the floppy drive
be ready for its DMA service.

• Step-5: Now with the help of input-output read and memory write signal the data is
transferred from the floppy drive to the memory.

Modes of DMAC:
1. Single Mode – In this only one channel is used, means only a single DMAC is
connected to the bus system.

2. Cascade Mode – In this multiple channels are used, we can further cascade more
number of DMACs.
Advantages:
Improved performance: DMA improves system performance by freeing up the CPU to
perform other tasks while data is being transferred between memory and I/O devices. This
allows for faster and more efficient data transfer.
Reduced CPU overhead: With DMA, the CPU is not required to be involved in data
transfer, which reduces the CPU overhead and allows it to focus on other tasks. This is
particularly useful in real-time systems where low latency and fast response times are
important.
Support for high-bandwidth devices: DMA can support high-bandwidth devices such as
graphics cards and network interfaces that require fast data transfer rates.
Efficient use of system resources: DMA allows multiple devices to access memory
simultaneously, which makes more efficient use of system resources.

Disadvantages:
Complexity: DMA requires specialized hardware and software to function, which can add to
the complexity of a system. This can make it difficult to implement and troubleshoot.
Security risks: DMA can be a security risk if not properly configured or secured. Hackers
can exploit vulnerabilities in DMA to gain unauthorized access to a computer system or steal
data.
Limited control: Since the CPU is not involved in data transfer with DMA, it has limited
control over the transfer process. This can lead to data corruption or errors if the transfer
process is not properly managed.
Resource conflicts: DMA can lead to resource conflicts if multiple devices attempt to access
memory simultaneously. This can cause system instability and performance issues if not
properly managed.

Stepper Motor

When we talk about energy conversion, the first device we can think of is a motor that
efficiently converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. These motors can be of different
types, one of which is the stepper motor. In this article, we will discuss about the stepper
motor in detail. This discussion will include talking about the principle of operation of
stepper motor with its applications in real-life.
What is a Stepper Motor?
The stepper motor is used for converting electrical energy to mechanical
energy using Faraday's law of magnetic induction. A stepper motor exploits this property to
generate the output voltage of the desired form by controlling the number of wheels in the
motor. In other words we can define as Stepper motor which is also known as step motor is
an electrical motor that rotates by small steps that can be specified by the design of the motor.
Working Principle of Stepper Motor
Let us see how a stepper motor works

Stepper Motor
As we can see in the diagram, the stepper motor is made of a stationary part known as the
stator and a rotating part known as the rotor. These components work together let us see how.
The stator can have as many teeth as needed and these teeth are covered with coils that can be
magnetized. The stator phase is energized to create a magnetic field as needed. The excited
stator phase magnetizes the coils and exerts a force on the stator that makes it align according
to the magnetic field generated. Now, the next stator phase is energized which further rotates
the rotor to align corresponding to the magnetic fields being generated in the coils. This
process continues resulting in a consistent rotation of the rotor with some angular speed.
By adding more teeth, we can increase the speed control of the stator.
Applications of Stepper Motor
Let us study some advantages of the stepper motor.
Stepper Motor in Machinery
The ability of the stepper motor to establish accurate controls makes it a device of importance
in many industrial machines. In CNC machines, its controls are used to position the cutting
tools at an accurate position. In different printers, the motor is used for controlling the printer
pin and moving it in the desired direction for prints. This precise control is achieved due to
the unique design of the stepper motor corresponding to discrete angular rotation. some of the
design parameters are the number of steps, the direction of steps, and the speed of stepping.
Stepper Motor in Textiles
Textile industries are largely dependent on the accuracy of stitching and cutting. The textiles
produced using machines should be good enough in terms of designs and stitching. The
stepper motor finds its application in the textile industry mainly due to its ability to provide
precise control over the cutting of fabric and stitching of fabric. By positioning the needle at
an accurate position, it can achieve quality designs resulting in higher rewards. This also
reduces human labor due to the automation of tools.
Stepper Motor in Medical Devices
Many medical surgeries need automated devices in order to perform critical operations. By
using a stepper motor, we can ensure that the movement of automated syringe pumps, blood
analyzers, and medical imaging devices can be controlled with utmost precision. These
motors are even used for controlling the movement of the table that the patient lies on during
the imaging process for CT scanners and MRI machines. These operations are very important
and therefore, the accuracy of the stepper motor matters a lot.
Stepper Motor in Automotive
Automotive stepper motors are used inside instrument clusters where they can provide
accurate gauge readings. These readings are used to generate alerts for drivers to fuel levels,
rate of speed, mileage measurements, and more. These devices were originally mechanically
managed but are now being digitized. These controls involve adjusting headlights, controlling
air conditioning vents, and throttle control. Motors are also installed in devices like smart
blinds, automated curtain systems, and motorized window openers.
Stepper Motor in Scientific Equipment
Scientific research involves designing instruments and testing them to give precise and
accurate results. These devices are installed in many laboratories and Manufacturing units to
ensure high quality testing and efficient working devices. Some of the examples are the use
of stepper motors in precise control of instruments like spectrometers and microscopes. The
motor is used for setting precise and focused samples.
Stepper Motor in Camera Platforms
Certain domains like photography, videography, surveillance, and robotics make use of
camera platforms that involve stepper motors. The camera platform has a mechanism that
allows to precisely control the camera's orientation using the Pan tilt method. This adds
significant functionality by allowing you to capture photos and record videos at different
angles and positions. By attaching the stepper motor to the base, the camera can be rotated
left or right accordingly. The additional stepper motor can be added to control tilt movement
for moving up and down which ensures better performance.
Stepper motor in Vending Machines
You might have wondered how vending machines are able to know which product to
dispense and where, stepper motor plays a significant role in controlling the mechanism
through which items from the machine are dispensed once payment is done. Stepper motors
can mimic the motion programmed in it by moving the dispensing path like a sliding machine
or conveyor belt ensuring that only one item is made available to the person. This avoids
jams in the vending machine. The correctness of stepper motors is why they are installed in
the vending machines.
Stepper motor in Smart Devices
Many smart devices need proper controls for achieving automation. Devices like smart lights
use stepper motors to add special lighting effects and control the rotation or intensity of light
on stages and at homes. Apart from this, smart blinds are also devices that use stepper
motors and are used in households using remotes or switches. The automated shower system
and motor controlled window openers are some other devices that are automated devices that
reduce manual work by controlling the operation using some buttons.
Difference between Stepper Motor and Servo Motor

Parameter Stepper Motor Servo Motor

Loop type Operates in an open loop. Operates in a closed loop.

Error More prone to error due to no Less prone to error due to internal
generation feedback system. feedback system.

Cost Less expensive. More expensive.

Torque
Higher torque is generated. Lower torque is generated.
generated

Size Comparatively smaller. Comparatively larger.

Advantages of Stepper Motor

Let us study some advantages of stepper motor
 • The stepper motor has the ability to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy
using Faraday's principle makes it useful in many devices.
• The presence of magnets In the engine provides speed control over the motor. By
increasing or decreasing the number of magnets speed of the rotor can be controlled.
• Stepper motors are easier to install mainly due to their small size. These motors are
usually integrated into bigger heavier machines.
• Due to their rugged nature and simple construction, they can work in different
environments by providing efficient energy conversion.
• The absence of mechanical brushes in the stepper motor makes it highly reliable since
it eliminates failures due to sparks thereby increasing the lifecycle of the motor.
Disadvantages of Stepper Motor
• Stepper motors require a lot of maintenance due to the magnetic rotor present inside.
Regular wear and tear checks need to be done on the shaft. There are also chances of
windings getting damaged due to the heat generated.
• In case of overloading in the stepper motor, the synchronization between the
components of the stepper motor is broken which makes it difficult to achieve
resonance in the motor needed for efficient performance.
• The stepper motor can often experience cogging which can result in unnecessary
vibrations and noise in the engine which is mainly due to cogging torque.
• The stepper motor requires a dedicated control circuit to manage its controls at high
speeds. Poor control circuits can cause abnormal functioning of the stepper motor.
• The speed that it can achieve is very low compared to the speed achieved by the
servo-motor. This is also accompanied by low resolution in the stepper motor.

Analog to Digital Conversion

• Digital Signal: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of

discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.
• Analog Signal: An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying
feature of the signal is a representation of some other time-varying quantity i.e.,
analogous to another time varying signal.
• Importance of Analog to Digital Conversion
• The main role of ADC in modern technology development process is the transition of
voice communication systems from outdated analogue signal processing to the more
advanced voice over IP, or VoIP, systems of today is largely due to the contribution.
• The teletypewriters and other computer input devices needed to be connected to a
modem which was connected to a mainframe or other front end computer system to
 communicate with the required computer systems. In contrast to the ultrahigh-speed
networks of today, modem transmission speeds were modest to process.
• The systems for smaller office applications and the digital private branch exchange, or
PBX, were developed by using ADC technology as the foundation to process
properly.
• Techniques of Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• The following techniques can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion –
• a. PULSE CODE MODULATION
• The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
• Low pass filter : The low pass filter eliminates the high frequency components
present in the input analog signal to ensure that the input signal to sampler is free
from the unwanted frequency components. This is done to avoid aliasing of the
message signal.
• Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring
the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the
continuous signal into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods: (i) Ideal
Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses from the
analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily
implemented. (ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of
sampling in which pulse have finite width equal to T.The result is a sequence of
samples that retain the shape of the analog signal.
(iii) Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be
easily obtained. In this sampling technique, the top of the samples remains constant
by using a circuit. This is the most common sampling method used.

Nyquist Theorem: One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency.

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the
 highest frequency contained in the signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling
rate and given by: Fs =2*fh
• Quantization – The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values
between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes
can be infinite with non-integral values between two limits. The following are the
steps in Quantization:
• We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
• We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L

• The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
• The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the
formula amplitude/d.
• After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the middle
of each zone.
• The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and
normalised PAM value.
• The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the
graph.
• Encoding – The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each
sample is quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be
changed to an n bit code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used. Note that the
number of bits for each sample is determined from the number of quantization levels.
If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.
• b. DELTA MODULATION
• Since PCM is a very complex technique, other techniques have been developed to
reduce the complexity of PCM. The simplest is delta Modulation. Delta Modulation
finds the change from the previous value. Modulator – The modulator is used at the
sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal. The process records a
small positive change called delta. If the delta is positive, the process records a 1 else
the process records a 0. The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a
staircase. The input signal is then compared with this gradually made staircase signal.

We have the
following rules for output:
• If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the staircase signal, increase
delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 1.
• If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the staircase signal, decrease
delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 0.
• Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker
and the delay unit, creates the analog signal. The created analog signal, however,
needs to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.
• c. ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION
• The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the
step size of the modulator assume a time-varying form. A larger step-size is needed
where the message has a steep slope of modulating signal and a smaller step-size is
needed where the message has a small slope. The size is adapted according to the
 level of the input signal. This method is known as adaptive delta modulation (ADM).

• Applications
• Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for processing, storing, or
transporting almost any analogue signal into digital format require ADCs to perform
well. Let’s an example, in TV tuner cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital
converters.
• Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-based sound
recording and music reproduction technologies both are basically rely heavily on
analog-to-digital converters.
• Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems are normally use
analog-to-digital converters for digitizing the instruments and projects pixels.

Analog to Digital Conversion

• Digital Signal: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of

discrete values; at any given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.
• Analog Signal: An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying
feature of the signal is a representation of some other time-varying quantity i.e.,
analogous to another time varying signal.
• Importance of Analog to Digital Conversion
• The main role of ADC in modern technology development process is the transition of
voice communication systems from outdated analogue signal processing to the more
advanced voice over IP, or VoIP, systems of today is largely due to the contribution.
• The teletypewriters and other computer input devices needed to be connected to a
modem which was connected to a mainframe or other front end computer system to
communicate with the required computer systems. In contrast to the ultrahigh-speed
networks of today, modem transmission speeds were modest to process.
• The systems for smaller office applications and the digital private branch exchange, or
PBX, were developed by using ADC technology as the foundation to process
properly.
• Techniques of Analog-to-Digital Conversion
• The following techniques can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion –
• a. PULSE CODE MODULATION
• The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called pulse
code modulation (PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Encoding
• Low pass filter : The low pass filter eliminates the high frequency components
present in the input analog signal to ensure that the input signal to sampler is free
from the unwanted frequency components. This is done to avoid aliasing of the
message signal.
• Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring
the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the
continuous signal into a discrete signal. There are three sampling methods: (i) Ideal
Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as Instantaneous sampling pulses from the
analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling method and cannot be easily
implemented. (ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a practical method of
sampling in which pulse have finite width equal to T.The result is a sequence of
samples that retain the shape of the analog signal.
(iii) Flat top sampling: In comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be
easily obtained. In this sampling technique, the top of the samples remains constant
by using a circuit. This is the most common sampling method used.

Nyquist Theorem: One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency.

According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the
 highest frequency contained in the signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling
rate and given by: Fs =2*fh
• Quantization – The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values
between the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes
can be infinite with non-integral values between two limits. The following are the
steps in Quantization:
• We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
• We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L

• The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
• The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the
formula amplitude/d.
• After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the middle
of each zone.
• The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and
normalised PAM value.
• The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the
graph.
• Encoding – The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each
sample is quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be
changed to an n bit code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used. Note that the
number of bits for each sample is determined from the number of quantization levels.
If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.
• b. DELTA MODULATION
• Since PCM is a very complex technique, other techniques have been developed to
reduce the complexity of PCM. The simplest is delta Modulation. Delta Modulation
finds the change from the previous value. Modulator – The modulator is used at the
sender site to create a stream of bits from an analog signal. The process records a
small positive change called delta. If the delta is positive, the process records a 1 else
the process records a 0. The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a
staircase. The input signal is then compared with this gradually made staircase signal.

We have the
following rules for output:
• If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the staircase signal, increase
delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 1.
• If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the staircase signal, decrease
delta by 1, and the bit in the digital data is 0.
• Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker
and the delay unit, creates the analog signal. The created analog signal, however,
needs to pass through a low-pass filter for smoothing.
• c. ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION
• The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the
step size of the modulator assume a time-varying form. A larger step-size is needed
where the message has a steep slope of modulating signal and a smaller step-size is
needed where the message has a small slope. The size is adapted according to the
 level of the input signal. This method is known as adaptive delta modulation (ADM).

• Applications
• Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for processing, storing, or
transporting almost any analogue signal into digital format require ADCs to perform
well. Let’s an example, in TV tuner cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital
converters.
• Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-based sound
recording and music reproduction technologies both are basically rely heavily on
analog-to-digital converters.
• Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems are normally use
analog-to-digital converters for digitizing the instruments and projects pixels.

Need for 8251 programmable interrupt

controllers
The 8259 Programmable Interrupt Controller (PIC), often associated with devices
like the Intel 8259A, is an essential component for managing hardware interrupts in
microprocessor systems. While the 8251 is a Programmable Communication
Interface, its role differs from the 8259. However, here's the explanation tailored to
the 8259 PIC:

• Need for the 8259 Programmable Interrupt Controller

• Modern microprocessor systems handle multiple hardware devices, each capable of
generating interrupts. Without a mechanism to manage these interrupts efficiently, the
 CPU would struggle to prioritize and service them in an orderly manner. The 8259
PIC addresses this challenge by:
• Interrupt Prioritization:
• The 8259 can manage up to 8 hardware interrupt lines (expandable to 64 using
cascading).
• It assigns a priority level to each interrupt, ensuring high-priority interrupts are
serviced first.
• Interrupt Masking:
• The CPU can selectively mask or block certain interrupts using the PIC, allowing
only specific interrupts to be processed.
• Vectoring:
• The 8259 provides the Interrupt Vector Address, helping the CPU identify the
interrupt source and execute the corresponding service routine.
• Interrupt Expansion:
• Without a PIC, CPUs (like the Intel 8085 or 8086) can directly handle only a limited
number of interrupts. The 8259 extends this capability, enabling support for multiple
peripherals.
• Efficient CPU Utilization:
• The 8259 reduces the CPU's overhead by managing and prioritizing interrupts
independently, allowing the CPU to focus on execution.
• Cascading Capability:
• Multiple 8259 PICs can be cascaded to handle a larger number of interrupts in
complex systems.

• Applications of the 8259 PIC

• Embedded Systems:
Used in microcontroller-based systems to handle multiple interrupt-driven peripherals
efficiently.
• Computers:
In early PCs, the 8259 was used to manage interrupts from devices like keyboards,
mice, and storage controllers.
• Real-Time Systems:
Helps ensure timely response to critical hardware events in automation, robotics, and
medical devices.
• Communication Systems:
Integrates with programmable communication interfaces (like the 8251) to manage
interrupts from serial or parallel communication devices.

• Conclusion
• The 8259 PIC is vital in any system with multiple interrupt sources. By prioritizing,
masking, and vectoring interrupts, it ensures smooth and efficient operation, enabling
the CPU to handle real-time tasks and peripheral interactions effectively.