CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that MERAJ ANSARI is studying in B. tech 4𝑡ℎ year during session 2024-25.
He has submitted his Industrial Training Report for the partial fulfilment of requirement for the
degree of Bachelor of Technology in INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,
DDU GORAKHPUR.

……………………………………….

Dr Rahul Kumar

Head Of Department

Institute of Engineering and Technology

i
ii
 DECLARATION
I, MERAJ ANSARI, Final year student of Mechanical Engineering hereby declare that the
Industrial Training Report prepared at Mechanical Workshop (NER, Gorakhpur) submitted to
DEEN DAYAL UPADHYAYA GORAKHPUR UNIVERSITY in partial fulfilment of degree
of Bachelor of Technology is the Original Work conducted by me. The information in data
given in report is authentic to the best of my knowledge.

Name:

Enrol No:

Branch:

(CANDIDATES SIGNATURE)

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very much grateful to the authority of the organization for taking initiative for the
industrial training to upgrade my knowledge by placing me at North Eastern Railway. I owe
many thanks to several people who helped and supported me during this training. I wish to
express my gratitude to the officials and other members of Northern Railway who rendered
their help during the period of my training. I express my sincere thanks to senior section
engineer, who through her expert guidance helped me throughout the course of this training. If
it was not her motivation and encouragement, I would not have seen through this training
course in an honest course to the splendour of success.

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Name Page No.
1.1 Machine Control Unit 02
1.2 Close loop system 03
1.3 The Working of a CNC Machine 04
2.1 Working principal of lathe machine 09
2.2 Principal components of a central lathe 11
2.3 Different parts of engine lathe or central lathe 13
3.1 Sensitive drilling machine 21
3.2 Upright drilling machine 22
3.3 Radial drilling machine 22
4.1 Shaper Machines 27
4.2 Crank Type Shaper Machine 27
4.3 Gear Type Shaper Machine 28
4.4 Hydraulic Type Shaper Machin 28
4.5 Horizontal Shaper Machine 29
4.6 Vertical Type Shaper Machine 29

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ........................................................................................................ i
DECLARATION .................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. v
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................... 1
CNC MACHINES.................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Parts of a typical CNC Machine ....................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Machine Control Unit (MCU): ................................................................... 2
1.3 The Working of a Typical CNC Machine ........................................................... 3
1.4 Detailed Overview of the CNC Process ............................................................. 4
1.4.1 Designing the CAD Model: ........................................................................ 4
1.4.2 Conversion of CAD File: ............................................................................ 4
1.4.3 Setting Up the Machine: ............................................................................ 4
1.4.4 Execution: ................................................................................................ 5
1.5 Types of CNC Machines................................................................................... 5
1.5.1 Conventional Machines: ............................................................................ 5
1.5.2 New Age CNC Machines: ........................................................................... 6
1.6 Applications of CNC Machines ......................................................................... 6
1.6.1Medical Industry: ...................................................................................... 7
1.6.2 Transportation Industry: ........................................................................... 7
1.6.3 Aerospace Industry: .................................................................................. 7
1.6.4 Oil and Gas Industry: ................................................................................ 7
1.6.5 Military Industry: ..................................................................................... 8
1.6.6 Electronics Industry: ................................................................................. 8
CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................... 9
LATHE MACHINE ................................................................................................. 9
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 9
2.2 Types of Lathes ............................................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Speed Lathe: ........................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Centre Lathe or Engine Lathe: ................................................................. 11

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 2.2.3 Bench Lathe: .......................................................................................... 11
2.2.4 Tool Room Lathe:.................................................................................... 11
2.2.5 Capstan and Turret Lathe: ...................................................................... 12
2.2.6 Special Purpose Lathes: ........................................................................... 12
2.2.7 Automatic Lathes: ................................................................................... 12
2.3 Construction of Lathe Machine ...................................................................... 12
2.3.1 Bed: ....................................................................................................... 13
2.3.2 Head Stock: ............................................................................................ 13
2.3.3 Tail Stock: .............................................................................................. 14
2.3.4 Carriage: ................................................................................................ 14
2.3.6 Thread Cutting Mechanism: .................................................................... 15
2.4 Lathe Operations .......................................................................................... 15
2.5 Tapers and Taper Turning .............................................................................. 16
2.5.1 Taper Turning by Swivelling the Compound Rest: ..................................... 17
2.5.2 Taper Turning Attachment Method: ......................................................... 17
2.5.3 Taper Turning with Tailstock set over Method: .......................................... 18
2.5.4 Form Tool Method: ................................................................................. 18
2.5.5 Taper Turning with Double Feeds: ............................................................ 18
2.6 Thread Cutting ............................................................................................. 19
2.7 Drilling on A Lathe ........................................................................................ 19
2.8 Cutting Speed ............................................................................................... 19
CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................... 20
DRILLING MACHINE ......................................................................................... 20
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Types of drilling machines.............................................................................. 20
3.2.1 Portable drilling machine ........................................................................ 20
3.2.2 Sensitive drilling machine ........................................................................ 21
3.2.3 Upright drilling machine ......................................................................... 21
3.2.4 Radial drilling machine ........................................................................... 22
3.2.5 Gang drilling machine ............................................................................. 23
3.2.6 Multiple spindle drilling machine ............................................................. 23
3.2.7 Deep hole drilling machine ....................................................................... 23

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 3.3 Size of a drilling machine (Specification) ......................................................... 23
3.4 Work holding devices .................................................................................... 24
3.5 Tools used in a drilling machine...................................................................... 24
3.6 Tool holding devices....................................................................................... 25
3.7 Drilling machine operations ........................................................................... 25
CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................... 26
SHAPER MACHINES ........................................................................................... 26
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 26
4.2 Shaper Machine Process ................................................................................ 26
4.3 Parts of Shaper Machine................................................................................ 26
4.4 Types of Shaper Machines.............................................................................. 27
4.4.1 Bases on the Type of Driving Mechanism: ................................................. 27
4.4.2 Based on Ram Travel: ............................................................................. 29
4.4.3 Based on The Table Design: ..................................................................... 30
4.4.4 Based on Cutting Stroke: ......................................................................... 30
CHAPTER 5 ......................................................................................................... 31
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 31
CAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................ 32
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................... 32

viii
 CHAPTER 1

CNC MACHINES
1.1 Introduction
CNC machining is a manufacturing process in which pre-programmed computer software
dictates the movement of factory tools and machinery. The process can be used to control a
range of complex machinery, from grinders and lathes to mills and routers. With CNC
machining, three-dimensional cutting tasks can be accomplished in a single set of prompts.
When a CNC system is activated, the desired cuts are programmed into the software and
dictated to corresponding tools and machinery, which carry out the dimensional tasks as
specified, much like a robot. CNC programming is retained in a computer’s memory. The code
itself is written and edited by programmers. Therefore, CNC systems offer far more expansive
computational capacity. Best of all, CNC systems are by no means static, since newer prompts
can be added to pre-existing programs through revised code. Abbreviated as CNC, the
Computer Number Control processes run in contrast to and much more efficiently than manual
control, where live operators are absolutely necessary to operate the machining tools via levers,
buttons and wheels. To the layman, a CNC system might not look very visually different from
a generic computer system, but the software programs and the state-of-the-art components
employed in CNC machining makes it stand out from all other forms of computation.

1.2 Parts of a typical CNC Machine

The CNC machine comprises the following parts: INPUT DEVICES: These are the devices
which are used to input the program in the CNC machine. There are three commonly used input
devices and these are the punch tape reader, the magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-
232-C communication.

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1.2.1 Machine Control Unit (MCU):

Fig: - 1.1 Machine Control Unit

The MCU is also responsible for the following tasks:

1. It reads the coded instructions fed into it and also decodes them.

2. It helps to send the proper instruction to every part of the machine.

3. It can recognize interpolations (circular, straight, and helical) to form axis transfer
commands.

4. It holds the reviewed signals of location and velocity for each drive axis.

5. It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool
change.

1.2.1.1 Machine Tool:

Machine tools are hands down an essential component of a CNC machine. They make the
manufacturing process possible, helping us craft perfect custom machined parts and products.
In layman terms, if the MCU unit is the brain of the CNC system then the machine tools are
the limbs converting the code to actual work.

1.2.1.2 Driving System:

The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits, drive motors and ball lead
screw. The MCU provides the signals of position and speed of each axis to the amplifier
circuits. The control signals are then amplified to run the drive motors.

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 Fig: - 1.2 Close loop system

1.2.1.3 Feedback System:

This feedback system consists of transducers that act as sensors. It contains position and speed
transducers that continuously monitor the position and speed of the cutting tool located at any
instant. The MCU receives the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference between
the reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals for correcting the
position and speed errors.

1.3 The Working of a Typical CNC Machine

In order to improve the functioning of a typical CNC machine, one must understand its overall
working. The working of a typical CNC machine is as follows:

1. First, the part program is inserted into the Machine Control Unit of the CNC machine.

2. In MCU, all the code is decoded and then the MCU dictates the driver system to run the
different processes.

3. The drive system works as the motion commands are sent by MCU. The drive system
controls the working of the machine tool.

4. The feedback system records the position and velocity measurement of the machine tool and
sends a feedback signal to the MCU where the MCU compares the received signals with the
standard signals to alter any processes if required.

5. A display unit displays all the commands, programs and other important data on the monitor.
It acts as the eye of the machine.

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 Fig: - 1.3 The Working of a CNC Machine

1.4 Detailed Overview of the CNC Process

The basic mechanism of a CNC Machining process is:

1.4.1 Designing the CAD Model:

The CNC machining process begins with the creation of a 3D solid part CAD design either by
the producer himself or by outsourcing it to a CAD/CAM design service company. The CAD
software allows designers and manufacturers to produce a model of their parts and products
along with essential specifications, such as dimensions and geometries, for producing the part
or product. This is an extremely essential step as the final product will depend heavily on the
CAD model. Hence, one must employ an extremely skilled professional for this role.

1.4.2 Conversion of CAD File:

The formatted CAD design file runs through a computer- aided manufacturing (CAM)
software, to extract the part geometry and generates the digital code which will control the
CNC machine and operate the available tools to produce the required part. There are two types
of these codes: G codes: A G code in CNC programming controls the movements of a machine
M codes: An M code in CNC programming controls miscellaneous machine functions,
including starting and stopping specific actions or programs.

1.4.3 Setting Up the Machine:

Before the CNC machine is put into action, it is essential to prepare it for operation. These
preparations mainly include inserting the workpiece directly into the machine, onto the
machinery spindles and attaching the required machine tools, such as drill bits and end mills,
to their respective components.

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1.4.4 Execution:

On initiating the CNC machine program, and the program guides the machine throughout the
process as it executes the necessary machine operations to produce a custom-designed part or
product. The vast majority of today’s CNC arsenals are completely electronic.

1.5 Types of CNC Machines

There are majorly two categories of CNC machines in modern day industries:

1.5.1 Conventional Machines:

1.5.1.1 Milling:
Milling is a process performed with a machine in which the cutters rotate to remove the material
from the workpiece present in the direction of the angle with the tool axis. It is a very universal
fabrication method with great accuracy and tolerances. Milling is suitable for a variety of
materials and is also very quick. The ability to manufacture a wide range of complex parts is a
great advantage. Basic mills consist of a three-axis system (X, Y and Z), though most newer
mills can accommodate three additional axes.

1.5.1.2 Turning:
Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational
parts by cutting away unwanted material. Turning is pretty much the opposite of milling. This
means that instead of the cutting tool, the workpiece is rotating.

1.5.1.3 Grinding:
Grinding, on the other hand, is a machining process that involves the use of a disc-shaped
grinding wheel to remove material from a workpiece. If a workpiece has a coarse surface,
grinding can make it smoother. The achievable surface quality is very high. Therefore, it is
used as a finishing operation rather than creating the final piece from raw materials.

1.5.1.4 Drilling:
While milling equipment can also produce holes, drills are meant for only that job. While
milling tools use cutting edges around the cutting head’s periphery, drills use the tip of the tool
to produce a hole. CNC drilling machines are commonly used to automate this job, provide
better accuracy and a more cost-effective solution.

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1.5.2 New Age CNC Machines:

1.5.2.1 Plasma Cutters:

A plasma cutter is a commonly used CNC tool for cutting metals for a wide variety of purposes.
It is an excellent tool for quickly cutting through sheet metal, metal plates, straps, bolts, pipes,
etc.

1.5.2.2 Electrical discharge machines:

Electrical discharge machining, or EDM, is a non- traditional method in which material is
removed from a workpiece using thermal energy. Much like processes such as laser cutting,
EDM does not need mechanical force in the removal process.

1.5.2.3 Laser Cutting Machines:

Laser cutting machines are a tool used in a wide range of industries for precision cutting and
designing projects. The laser cutting machine emits ahigh-powered laser beam to either cleanly
cut or etch a specific design on materials such as steel, plastic or wood.

1.5.2.4 Routing:
CNC routers are seemingly similar to CNC milling machines. Here also the rotating piece is
the cutting head. The main difference lies with the materials suitable for cutting. Routers are a
perfect fit for cutting softer materials (not metals) that do not require very high accuracy. The
reason for that is its lesser output power.

1.6 Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are used to create various complex parts for a large number of industries.
Although mass production can also be used in some fields, others require custom-made parts
for certain purposes. Industries tend to use CNC machines since it provides the ability to create
precise parts with the help of a computer. From medical to military fields, all rely on machining
parts. Since the technology has vastly improved over the years in both machines and computers,
using CNC machines makes it easier to produce complex and intricate parts as compared to the
conventional methods.

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1.6.1Medical Industry:
This is an industry involving life and death and hence precision is of utmost importance. High
precision and high rate of production are needed to meet the demands in this field. The CNC
machines are easily able to cope up with stipulations due to a variety of materials and
techniques. They can easily create intricate and custom parts in large volumes. The approval of
the Central Drugs Standard Control (CDSCO) is also required in this industry.

1.6.2 Transportation Industry:

The need and use of CNC Machines is very similar to the aerospace industry. The testing and
analysis during the prototyping stage requires parts and any changes needed can be quickly
implemented through the computer and new modified parts can be obtained. The properties
required in this field are slightly different to those in the aviation industry. There we require
highspeed strength and stability but here we need and durable parts. Since a CNC Machine can
work with a variety of materials, it can be used to create almost every part, from engine to
brakes.

1.6.3 Aerospace Industry:

This is another field where there should be minimum margin for error, sometimes as low as
0.00004 inches. This is because the devices in this industry have to face intense pressure and
great speeds and every instrument must be precise to prevent any possible harm. The smallest
of problems can cause major failure. The abilities of CNC Machines have allowed major
developments in the aerospace industry which could not have been possible without it. Various
parts for prototypes and testing stages are manufactured through CNC Machines and since the
3D image is available to the engineer through the computer, any changes that are required can
be easily made. This provides parts for testing the mass production of parts at a rapid rate is
made possible through CNC Machines.

1.6.4 Oil and Gas Industry:

The machinery required in this industry is built up of a large number of parts that need to be
accurate so that they can properly fit together. In case of a mismatch, there could occur a leak
or some functions may not work as intended. Hence, a CNC machine is needed for high
accuracy. Generally, oil and gas plants are set up at locations far away from major towns and
cities and hence the parts of the machinery should be robust and have high they should be able
resist various natural forces because if they fail, production will stop for a long time.

7
1.6.5 Military Industry:
Much like the oil and gas industry, the military requires parts that are tough and sturdy and
there can be no compromise in accuracy. The government sets strict regulations on military
products that need to be followed and these are conveniently complied with while using a CNC
Machine since it can easily make intricate parts with high precision. Although the working and
operation of all procedures related to the military are kept private, the CNC Machines are an
entity that cannot be ignored for manufacturing processes given its quick and accurate
production.

1.6.6 Electronics Industry:

This is an industry where at times a CNC Machine becomes a necessity because the level of
precision and accuracy that is required cannot be achieved by humans. Some require laser
precision a few micro meters. Tinier the parts, smaller becomes the room for error and
computer-controlled machining it. The machines can be used to create parts for heat sinks,
amplifier housings, radio frequency interface shielding and electrical insulation.

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 CHAPTER 2

LATHE MACHINE
2.1 Introduction
Lathe is one of the most versatile and widely used machine tools all over the world. It is
commonly known as the mother of all other machine tool. The main function of a lathe is to
remove metal from a job to give it the required shape and size. The job is secure1y and rigid1y
held in the chuck or in between centres on the lathe machine and then turn it against a single
point cutting tool which wi1l remove meta1 from the job in the form of chips. Fig. 21.1 shows
the working principle of lathe. An engine lathe is the most basic and simplest form of the lathe.
It derives its name from the early lathes, which obtained their power from engines. Besides the
simple turning operation as described above, lathe can be used to carry out other operations
also, such as drilling, reaming, boring, taper turning, knurling, screw thread cutting, grinding
etc.

Fig: - 2.1 Working principal of lathe machine

2.2 Types of Lathes

Lathes are manufactured in a variety of types and sizes used for precision work to huge lathes
used for turning large steel shafts. The different types of lathes are:

1. Speed lathe

(a) Wood working

(b) Spinning

(c) Cantering

(d) Po1ishing

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2. Centre or engine lathe

(a) Be1t drive

(b) Individual motor drive

(c) Gear head lathe

3. Bench lathe

4. Tool room Lathe

5. Capstan and Turret 1athe

6. Special purpose lathe

(a) Whee1 lathe

(b) Gap bed lathe

(c) Dup1icating lathe

(d) T-lathe

7. Automatic lathe

Some of common lathes are described as under.

2.2.1 Speed Lathe:

Speed lathe is simplest of all types of lathes in construction and operation. The important parts
of speed lathe are following-

(1) Bed

(2) Headstock

(3) Tailstock, and

(4) Tool post mounted on an adjustable slide

It has no feed box, 1eadscrew or conventional type of carriage. The tool is mounted on the
adjustable slide and is fed into the work by hand contro1. The speed lathe finds applications
where cutting force is least such as in wood working, spinning, cantering, polishing, winding,
buffing etc. This lathe has been so named because of the very high speed of the headstock
spindle.

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2.2.2 Centre Lathe or Engine Lathe:
The term “engine” is associated with this lathe due to the fact that in the very early days of its
development it was driven by steam engine. This lathe is the important member of the lathe
family and is the most widely used. Similar to the speed lathe, the engine lathe has all the basic
parts, e.g., bed, headstock, and tailstock. But its headstock is much more robust in construction
and contains additional mechanism for driving the lathe spindle at multiple speeds. Unlike the
speed lathe, the engine lathe can feed the cutting tool both in cross and longitudinal direction
with reference to the lathe axis with the help of a carriage, feed rod and lead screw. Centre
lathes or engine lathes are classified according to methods of transmitting power to the
machine. The power may be transmitted by means of belt, electric motor or through gears.

2.2.3 Bench Lathe:

This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an engine
lathe or speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations. This is used for small and
precision work.

Fig: - 2.2 Principal components of a central lathe

2.2.4 Tool Room Lathe:

This lathe has features similar to an engine lathe but it is much more accurately built. It has a
wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to 2500 rpm.
This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work
where accuracy is needed.

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2.2.5 Capstan and Turret Lathe:
The development of these 1athes results from the technological advancement of the engine
lathe and these are vastly used for mass production work. The distinguishing feature of this
type of lathe is that the tailstock of an engine lathe is replaced by a hexagonal turret, on the
face of which multiple tools may be fitted and fed into the work in proper sequence. Due to
this arrangement, several different types of operations can be done on a job without re-setting
of work or tools, and a number of identical parts can be produced in the minimum time.

2.2.6 Special Purpose Lathes:

These lathes are constructed for special purposes and for jobs, which cannot be accommodated
or conveniently machined on a standard lathe. The wheel lathe is made for finishing the journals
and turning the tread on railroad car and locomotive wheels. The gap bed lathe, in which a
section of the bed adjacent to the headstock is removable, is used to swing extra-large-diameter
pieces. The T-lathe is used for machining of rotors for jet engines. The bed of this lathe has T-
shape. Duplicating lathe is one for duplicating the shape of a flat or round template on to the
job.

2.2.7 Automatic Lathes:

These lathes are so designed that all the working and job handling movements of the complete
manufacturing process for a job are done automatically. These are high speed, heavy duty, mass
production lathes with complete automatic control.

2.3 Construction of Lathe Machine

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock, carriage
and other components of lathe are mounted. The major parts of lathe machine are given as
under:

1. Bed

2. Head stock

3. Tailstock

4. Carriage

5. Feed mechanism

6. Thread cutting mechanism

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 Fig: - 2.3 Different parts of engine lathe or central lathe

2.3.1 Bed:
The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are mounted. It is
massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active parts of lathe. On left end
of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side tailstock is located. The
carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it. On the top of the bed there are two
sets of guideways-inner ways and outer ways. Generally, cast iron alloyed with nickel and
chromium material is used for manufacturing of the lathe bed.

2.3.2 Head Stock:

The main function of headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It
comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train
arrangement. The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses live centre to which the work
can be attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle
of the headstock. The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get
various spindle speed through electric motor. The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining
a wide range of slower speeds. Some gears called change wheels are used to produce different
velocity ratio required for thread cutting.

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2.3.3 Tail Stock:
The tail stock of central lathe, which is commonly used for the objective of primarily giving an
outer bearing and support the circular job being turned on centres. Tail stock can be easily set
or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect to the spindle centre and carries a
centre called dead centre for supporting one end of the work. Both live and dead centres have
60° conical points to fit centre holes in the circular job, the other end tapering to allow for good
fitting into the spindles. The dead centre can be mounted in ball bearing so that it rotates with
the job avoiding friction of the job with dead centre as it important to hold heavy jobs.

2.3.4 Carriage:
Carriage is mounted on the outer guide ways of lathe bed and it can move in a direction parallel
to the spindle axis. It comprises of important parts such as apron, cross-slide, saddle, compound
rest, and tool post. The lower part of the carriage is termed the apron in which there are gears
to constitute apron mechanism for adjusting the direction of the feed using clutch mechanism
and the split half nut for automatic feed. The cross-slide is basically mounted on the carriage,
which generally travels at right angles to the spindle axis. On the cross-slide, a saddle is
mounted in which the compound rest is adjusted which can rotate and fix to any desired angle.
2.3.5 Feed Mechanism:

Feed mechanism is the combination of different units through which motion of headstock
spindle is transmitted to the carriage of lathe machine. Following units play role in feed
mechanism of a lathe machine

1. End of bed gearing

2. Feed gear box

3. Lead screw and feed rod

4. Apron mechanism

The gearing at the end of bed transmits the rotary motion of headstock spindle to the feed gear
box. Through the feed gear box, the motion is further transmitted either to the feed shaft or lead
screw, depending on whether the lathe machine is being used for plain turning or screw cutting.

14
2.3.6 Thread Cutting Mechanism:
The half nut or split nut is used for thread cutting in a lathe. It engages or disengages the
carriage with the lead screw so that the rotation of the leadscrew is used to traverse the tool
along the workpiece to cut screw threads. The direction in which the carriage moves depends
upon the position of the feed reverse lever on the headstock

2.4 Lathe Operations

For performing the various machining operations in a lathe, the job is being supported and
driven by anyone of the following methods.

1. Job is held and driven by chuck with the other end supported on the tail stock centre.

2. Job is held between centres and driven by carriers and catch plates.

3. Job is held on a mandrel, which is supported between centres and driven by carriers
and catch plates.

4. Job is held and driven by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle plate.

The above methods for holding the job can be classified under two headings namely job held
between centres and job held by a chuck or any other fixture. The various important lathe
operations are depicted through. The operations performed in a lathe can be understood by
three major categories

(a) Operations, which can be performed in a lathe either by holding the workpiece between
centres or by a chuck are:

1. Straight turning 2. Shoulder turning

3. Taper turning 4. Chamfering

5. Eccentric turning 6. Thread cutting

7. Facing 8. Forming

9. Filing 10. Polishing

11. Grooving 12. Knurling

13. Spinning 14. Spring winding

15
(b) Operations which are performed by holding the work by a chuck or a faceplate or an angle
plate are:

1. Undercutting 2. Parting-off

3. Internal thread cutting 4. Drilling

5. Reaming 6. Boring

7. Counter boring 8. Taper boring

9. Tapping

(c) Operations which are performed by using special lathe attachments are:

1. Milling 2. Grinding

2.5 Tapers and Taper Turning

A taper is defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameter of a piece of work measured
along its length. In a lathe machine, taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual
reduction in diameter from a cylindrical job. Taper in the British System is expressed in taper
per foot or taper per inch.

Taper per inch = (D – d) /l

Where,

D = is the diameter of the large end of cylindrical job,

d = is the diameter of the small end of cylindrical job, and

l = is the length of the taper of cylindrical job, all expressed in inches,

When the taper is expressed in taper per foot, the length of the taper l is expressed in foot, but
the diameters are expressed in inches.

A taper is generally turned in a lathe by feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of
the workpiece. The angle formed by the path of the tool with the axis of the workpiece should
correspond to the half taper angle. A taper can be turned by anyone of the following methods:

16
 1. By swivelling the compound rest,

2. By setting over the tailstock centre,

3. By a broad nose form tool,

4. By a taper turning attachment,

5. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe and

6. By using numerical control lathe Some of the important taper turning methods are
discussed as under.

2.5.1 Taper Turning by Swivelling the Compound Rest:

This method uses the principle of turning taper by rotating the workpiece on the lathe axis and
feeding the tool at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. The tool is mounted on the
compound rest which is attached to a circular base, graduated in degrees. Once the compound
rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of the compound slide screw will cause the
tool to be fed at that angle and generate a corresponding taper. This method is limited to turn a
short but steep taper because of the limited movement of the cross-slide. The compound rest
can be swivelled at 45° on either side of the lathe axis enabling it to turn a steep taper. The
movement of the single point cutting tool in this method is being purely controlled by hand.
Thus, it provides a low production capacity and poor surface finish. The positioning or setting
of the compound rest is accomplished by swivelling the rest at the half taper angle, if this is
already known. If the diameter of the small and large end and length of taper are known, the
half taper angle can be calculated.

2.5.2 Taper Turning Attachment Method:

This method is commonly employed for generating external tapers only. In this method, the
taper turning attachment is bolted back of the lathe machine. It has guide bar which may be set
at any desired angle or taper. As the carriage moves along the bed length aside over bar causes
the tool to move in and out according to setting of the bar. The taper setting on the bar is
duplicated on the job or work. The merit of this method is that the lathe centres are kept in
alignment.

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2.5.3 Taper Turning with Tailstock set over Method:
This method is basically employed for turning small tapers on longer jobs and is confined to
external tapers only. In this method, the tailstock is set over is calculated using by loosening
the nut from its centre line equal to the value obtained by formula given below.

Tail stock set over = Taper length × Sine of half of taper angle

(D – d) / 2 = l × sin (a/2)

Where,

D = is the diameter of the large end of cylindrical job,

d = is the diameter of the small end of cylindrical job, and

l = is the length of the taper of cylindrical job, all expressed in inches,

a = taper angle

When a part length of the job is to be given taper then tail stock set

= ((D – d)/2)) × (total length of the cylindrical job/length of taper)

= l × sin (a/2) × (total length of the cylindrical job/length of taper)

2.5.4 Form Tool Method:

This method in which a taper forum is used to obtain tapers. It is limited to short external
tapers. The edge tool must be exactly straight for accurate work.

2.5.5 Taper Turning with Double Feeds:

Taper turning can also be cut by combining the two feeds. This arrangement of taper turning,
which is good method of taper turning. In certain lathes both longitudinal and cross feeds may
be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal point which is the resultant of
the magnitude of the two feeds. The direction of resultant feed may be changed by varying the
rate of feeds by change gears provided inside the apron of the lathe.

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2.6 Thread Cutting
Thread of any pitch, shape and size can be cut on a lathe using single point cutting tool. Thread
cutting is operation of producing a helical groove on spindle shape such as V, square or power
threads on a cylindrical surface. The job is held in between centres or in a chuck and the cutting
tool is held on tool post. The cutting tool must travel a distance equal to the pitch (in mm) as
the work piece completes a revolution. To make or cut threads, the cutting tool is brought to
the start of job and a small depth of cut is given to cutting tool using cross slide.

2.7 Drilling on A Lathe

For producing holes in jobs on lathe, the job is held in a chuck or on a face plate. The drill is
held in the position of tailstock and which is brought nearer the job by moving the tailstock
along the guide ways, the thus drill is fed against the rotating job.

2.8 Cutting Speed

Cutting speed for lathe work may be defined as the rate in meters per minute at which the
surface of the job moves past the cutting tool. Machining at a correct cutting speed is highly
important for good tool life and efficient cutting. Too slow cutting speeds reduce productivity
and increase manufacturing costs whereas too high cutting speeds result in overheating of the
tool and premature failure of the cutting edge of the tool. The following factors affect the
cutting speed:

(i) Kind of material being cut,

(ii) Cutting tool material,

(iii) Shape of cutting tool,

(iv) Rigidity of machine tool and the job piece and

(v) Type of cutting fluid being used.

Calculation of cutting speed Cs, in meters per minute

Cs = ((22/7) × D × N)) /1000

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 CHAPTER 3

DRILLING MACHINE
3.1 Introduction
Drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. It was designed to
produce a cylindrical hole of required diameter and depth on metal workpieces. Though holes
can be made by different machine tools in a shop, drilling machine is designed specifically to
perform the operation of drilling and similar operations. Drilling can be done easily at a low
cost in a shorter period of time in a drilling machine.

3.2 Types of drilling machines

Drilling machines are manufactured in different types and sizes according to the type of
operation, amount of feed, depth of cut, spindle speeds, method of spindle movement and the
required accuracy.

The different types of drilling machines are:

1. Portable drilling machine (or) Hand drilling machine

2. Sensitive drilling machine (or) Bench drilling machine

3. Upright drilling machine

4. Radial drilling machine

5. Gang drilling machine

6. Multiple spindle drilling machine

7. Deep hole drilling machine

3.2.1 Portable drilling machine

Portable drilling machine can be carried and used anywhere in the workshop. It is used for
drilling holes on workpieces in any position, which is not possible in a standard drilling
machine. The entire drilling mechanism is compact and small in size and so can be carried
anywhere. This type of machine is widely adapted for automobile built-up work. The motor is
generally universal type. These machines can accommodate drills from 12mm to 18 mm
diameter. Portable drilling machines are operated at higher speeds.

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3.2.2 Sensitive drilling machine
It is designed for drilling small holes at high speeds in light jobs. High speed and hand feed are
necessary for drilling small holes. The base of the machine is mounted either on a bench or on
the floor by means of bolts and nuts. It can handle drills up to 15.5mm of diameter. The drill is
fed into the work purely by hand. The operator can sense the progress of the drill into the work
because of hand feed. The machine is named so because of this reason. A sensitive drilling
machine consists of a base, column, table, spindle, drill head and the driving mechanism.

Fig: - 3.1 Sensitive drilling machine

3.2.3 Upright drilling machine

The upright drilling machine is designed for handling medium sized workpieces. Though it
looks like a sensitive drilling machine, it is larger and heavier than a sensitive drilling machine.
Holes of diameter up to 50mm can be made with this type of machine. Besides, it is supplied
with power feed arrangement. For drilling different types of work, the machine is provided
with a number of spindle speeds and feed.

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 Fig: - 3.2 Upright drilling machine

3.2.4 Radial drilling machine

The radial drilling machine is intended for drilling on medium to large and heavy workpieces.
It has a heavy round column mounted on a large base. The column supports a radial arm, which
can be raised or lowered to enable the table to accommodate workpieces of different heights.
The arm, which has the drill head on it, can be swung around to any position. The drill head
can be made to slide on the radial arm. The machine is named so because of this reason. It
consists of parts like base, column, radial arm, drill head and driving mechanism.

Fig: - 3.3 Radial drilling machine

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3.2.5 Gang drilling machine
Gang drilling machine has a long common table and a base. Four to six drill heads are placed
side by side. The drill heads have separate driving motors. This machine is used for production
work. A series of operations like drilling, reaming, counter boring and tapping may be
performed on the work by simply shifting the work from one position to the other on the work
table. Each spindle is set with different tools for different operations.

3.2.6 Multiple spindle drilling machine

This machine is used for drilling a number of holes in a workpiece simultaneously and for
reproducing the same pattern of holes in a number of identical pieces. A multiple spindle
drilling machine also has several spindles. A single motor using a set of gears drives all the
spindles. All the spindles holding the drills are fed into the work at the same time. The distances
between the spindles can be altered according to the locations where holes are to be drilled.
Drill jigs are used to guide the drills.

3.2.7 Deep hole drilling machine

A special machine and drills are required to drill deeper holes in barrels of gun, spindles and
connecting rods. The machine designed for this purpose is known as deep hole drilling
machine. High cutting speeds and less feed is necessary to drill deep holes. A non-rotating drill
is fed slowly into the rotating work at high speeds. Coolant should be used while drilling in
this machine. There are two different types of deep hole drilling machines

3.3 Size of a drilling machine (Specification)

Drilling machines are specified according to their type.

To specify the machine completely the following factors are considered:

1. the maximum diameter of the drill that it can handle

2. the size of the largest workpiece that can be centred under the spindle

3. distance between the face of the column and the axis of the spindle

4. diameter of the table

5. maximum travel of the spindle

6. numbers and range of spindle speeds and feeds available

7. Morse taper number of the drill spindle

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3.4 Work holding devices
The work should be held firmly on the machine table before performing any operation on it.
As the drill exerts very high quantity of torque while rotating, the work should not be held by
hand. If the workpiece is not held by a proper holding device, it will start rotating along with
the tool causing injuries to the operator and damage to the machine.

The devices used for holding the work in a drilling machine are

1. Drill vies

2. ‘T’ - bolts and clamps

3. Step block

4. V - block

5. Angle plate

6. Drill jigs

3.5 Tools used in a drilling machine

Different tools are used for performing different types of operations. The most commonly used
tools in a drilling machine are

1. Drill

2. Reamer

3. Counter bore

4. Countersink

5. Tap

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3.6 Tool holding devices
Different tools are used for performing different operations. They are fitted into the drill
spindle by different methods. They are

1. By directly fitting in the spindle

2. By a sleeve

3. By a socket

4. By a chuck

5. Tapping attachment

3.7 Drilling machine operations

Though drilling is the primary operation performed in a drilling machine, a number of similar
operations are also performed on holes using different tools. The different operations that can
be performed in a drilling machine are:

1. Drilling

2. Reaming

3. Boring

4. Counter boring

5. Countersinking

6. Spot facing

7. Tapping

8. Trepanning

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 CHAPTER 4

SHAPER MACHINES
4.1 Introduction
The shaper machine is a reciprocating type of machine basically used for producing the
horizontal, vertical or flat surfaces. The shaper holds the single point cutting tool in ram and
workpiece is fixed in the table. During the forward stroke, the ram is holding the tool is
reciprocating over the workpiece to cut into the required shape. During the return stroke, no
metal is cutting. In the shaper machine, the rotary motion of the drive is converted into
reciprocating motion of ram holding the tool. Therefore, in order to reduce the total machine
time, it allows the ram holding the tool should move slower during forwarding cutting stroke
and it comes faster in return stroke. This can be achieved by a mechanism called a quick return
mechanism.

4.2 Shaper Machine Process

The shaper process can be defined as a process for removing metal from the surface in
horizontal, vertical and angular planes by the use of a single-point cutting tool held in a ram
that reciprocates the tool in a linear direction across the workpiece held on the table of the
machine. The work is fed at right angles to the direction of the ram in small increments, at the
end of the return stroke.

4.3 Parts of Shaper Machine

The following are the main parts of shaper machine:

1. Base

2. Column

3. Cross-rail

4. Table

5. Ram

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 Fig: - 4.1 Shaper Machines

4.4 Types of Shaper Machines

Following are the different types of shaper machines.

4.4.1 Bases on the Type of Driving Mechanism:

Following are the different types of shaper machines based on the type of driving mechanism
4.4.1.1 Crank Type Shaper Machine:

These are very common types of shaper machines, which is using to hold the workpiece on the
table. The tool is reciprocating in motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the
work is clamped in position on an adjustable table. In construction, the crank shaper employs
a crank mechanism to change the circular motion of a large gear called "bull gear" incorporated
in the machine to reciprocation motion of the ram. It uses a crank mechanism to convert the
circular motion of the bull gear into reciprocating motion of the ram. The ram carries a tool
head at its end & provides the cutting action.

Fig: - 4.2 Crank Type Shaper Machine

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4.4.1.2 Gear Type Shaper Machine:
In these types of shaper machines, the ram is reciprocating. The ram is affecting due to
reciprocating motion with the rack and pinion. The rack teeth are cut directly below the ram
mesh with the spur gear. The speed and the direction in which the machine will traverse depend
on the number of gears in the gear train. This type of shaper machines is not widely using in
any industry.

Fig: - 4.3 Gear Type Shaper Machine

4.4.1.3 Hydraulic Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the reciprocating motion of the ram is provided by the
hydraulic mechanism. The Hydraulic shaper uses the oil under high pressure. The end of the
piston rod is connected to the ram. The high-pressure oil first acts on one side of the piston and
then on the other causing the piston to reciprocating and the motion is transmitted to the ram.
The main advantages of this type of shaper machine are that the cutting speed and force of the
ram drive are constant. From start to end of the cut without making noise and operates quietly.

Fig: - 4.4 Hydraulic Type Shaper Machin

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4.4.2 Based on Ram Travel:
Following are the different types of shaper machine based on ram travel.

4.4.2.1 Horizontal Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the ram is reciprocating. The ram holding the tool in a
horizontal axis and reciprocate. This type of shaper is using for the production of flat surfaces,
external grooves, keyways etc.

Fig: - 4.5 Horizontal Shaper Machine

4.4.2.2 Vertical Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the ram reciprocating in vertical plane. In this, the table
holds the workpiece. Vertical shapers maybe crank driven, rack-driven, screw-driven or
hydraulic power driven. The vertical shaper is very convenient for machining internal surfaces,
keyways, slots or grooves. The workpiece can move in any given directions such as the cross,
longitudinal or rotary movements. This type of shaper is suitable for machining internal
surfaces, slots & keyways.

Fig: - 4.6 Vertical Type Shaper Machine

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4.4.3 Based on The Table Design:
Following are the different types of shaper machine based on the table design.

4.4.3.1 Standard Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the table has only two movements, vertical and horizontal,
to give the feed. That's why it known as standard shaper machine. Here the table is not
supporting at the outer end.

4.4.3.2 Universal Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, in addition to the two moments i.e. vertical and horizontal,
the table can be moving in an inclined axis and also it can swivel on its own axis. Since the
workpiece mounted on the can be adjusted in different planes, the shaper so suitable for a
different type of operations and is given the name "Universal". This type of shaper is commonly
using the tool room works.

4.4.4 Based on Cutting Stroke:

Following are the different types of shaper machine based on cutting stroke.

4.4.4.1 Push cut Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the metal is removed in the forward motion of the ram. This
is commonly used types of shaper machines.

4.4.4.2 Draw cut Shaper Machine:

In these types of shaper machines, the metal is removed in the backward motion of the ram. In
this shaper, the tool is fixed in the tool head in the reverse direction so that it provides the
cutting action in the reverse stroke of the ram.

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 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION
Understanding different types of machines such as CNC, lathe, drilling, and shaping machines
provides a comprehensive view of manufacturing processes and capabilities. Each machine
serves specific purposes, from precision cutting in CNC machines to shaping and forming in
shaping machines, contributing uniquely to industrial efficiency and product quality.
Knowledge of these machines empowers engineers and manufacturers to select the right tools
for specific tasks, optimize production processes, and innovate in manufacturing technologies.
As industries evolve, familiarity with these machines becomes increasingly valuable for
ensuring competitiveness and meeting diverse production demands effectively.

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 CAPTER 6

REFERENCES
[1] Kong J. L. (2017) The design of simple slant bed horizontal CNC lathe, Tianjin University
of Technology and Education.

[2] Kong Jiale, Cheng Xuejian (2017) Modal Analysis of CNC Lathe’s Spindle Based on Finite
Element, Shandong Hayu University of Technology.

[3] Jun Wang, Bo Wu, Youmans Hu, Erhu Wang and Yao Cheng (2016) Modelling and modal
analysis of tool holder-spindle assembly on CNC milling machine using FEA.

[4] Y. Lu, Y.X. Yao, W.Z. Xie (2008) Finite element analysis of dynamic characteristics of high-
speed motorized spindle, Applied Mechanics and Materials, Engineering and Digital Enterprise
Technology 10-12

[5] F.Z. Wu, CNC milling machine spindle characteristics analysis by FEM, 2010 International
Conference on Intelligent Computation Technology and Automation

[6] https://www.americanmicroinc.com

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